MODULE- I

Chapter1: Introduction to Computer Networks:

1.1 Data Communication: When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be
local or remote. Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while
remote communication takes place over distance. Data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using it. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable. The communicating devices must be a part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of data Communication:
The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on Four fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
1.1.1 Components: A data communications system has five components.
Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium
Protocol

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
 4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire,coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by aperson who speaks only Japanese.

1.1.2 Data Representation:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text:

• Represented as a bit pattern (sequence of 0s and 1s).

• Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called
a code.

• Coding: The process of assigning bit patterns to symbols.

• Common coding systems:

o Unicode: Uses 32 bits to represent characters from all languages.

o ASCII: Developed in the U.S., represents the first 127 characters in Unicode (Basic
Latin).

Numbers:

• Represented by bit patterns, but ASCII is not used.

• Numbers are converted directly to binary to simplify mathematical operations.

Images:

• Composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements).

• Black and white images: A 1-bit pattern represents a pixel (e.g., 0 for black, 1 for white).

• Gray scale: More bits can be used to represent different shades of gray (e.g., 2 bits for 4
shades.Ex: A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel
by 10, and a white pixel by 11).

• Color images:

o RGB method: Uses combinations of Red, Green, and Blue.

o YCM method: Uses combinations of Yellow, Cyan, and Magenta.

Audio:

• Represents the recording or broadcasting of sound.

 • Continuous in nature, not discrete.

Video:

• Represents the recording or broadcasting of moving pictures or movies.

• Can be a continuous stream or a combination of individual images.

1.1.3 Data Flow Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as
shown in Figure.

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices on a link
can transmit; the other can only receive. Ex. Keyboard and monitor

Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive. Ex. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizen
band radios)

Full-duplex: In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
Ex. Telephone network when two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can listen and
talk at the same time.

1.2 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

1.2.1: Network Criteria:

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
Performance: Performance can be measured in terms of
1. Transit Time:
o Time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
2. Response Time:
o The elapsed time between an inquiry and its response.
3. Factors Affecting Network Performance:
o Number of users.
o Type of transmission medium.
o Capabilities of connected hardware.
o Efficiency of software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
o Throughput: Amount of data transmitted over the network in a given time.
o Delay: Time taken for a data packet to travel from source to destination.
o Increasing data transmission (throughput) may lead to higher delay due to network
congestion.
Reliability: Means Accuracy of Delivery: Correct transmission of data.
1. Measures of Network Reliability based on :
o Frequency of failure.
o Time taken to recover from failures.
o Network’s robustness in catastrophic situations.
Security:
Network security issues include:
o Protecting data from unauthorized access.
o Preventing damage and data corruption.
o Implementing recovery policies after breaches or data losses.

1.2.2 Physical Structures:

Type of connection:
Two types of connections
a. Point-to-point
b. Multipoint
In point-to-point connection the two devices are connected by a dedicated link. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
A multipoint (also known as multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared either spatially or temporally.
 Basis Point_to_Point Multipoint
There is dedicated link The link is shared between
Link
between two devices. more than two devices.
The channel's entire capacity The channel's capacity is
Channel Capacity is reserved for the two shared temporarily among the
connected devices. devices connected to the link.
There is a single transmitter There is a single transmitter
Transmitter and Receiver
and a single receiver. and multiple receivers.
Point-to-point Multi-point communication
communication provides does not provide security and
Security security and privacy because privacy because
communication channel is not communication channel is
shared. shared.

Physical Topology
Physical Topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and the linking devices.
The physical or logical arrangement of a network is also topology.
The basic topologies are
Mesh
Star
Bus
Ring
Mesh:
• Every device has a dedicated link to every other device.
• Dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two connected devices.
• For a fully connected mesh with n nodes, each node needs to connect to n – 1 other nodes.
Hence, the total number of physical links needed is n(n – 1).
• In duplex mode (bidirectional communication), the number of links is halved to n(n – 1) / 2.
• Each device requires n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports.

Advantages:
• No traffic problems: Dedicated links ensure each connection can carry its own data load without
sharing bandwidth with other devices. Thus eliminates the traffic problems that occur when
links shared by multiple devices.
• Robustness: If one link fails, the network remains operational since other links are unaffected.
• Security/Privacy:Messages travel on dedicated lines, so only the intended recipient can see
the data, enhancing privacy and security.
• Fault Identification & Isolation:Point-to-point links make it easier to detect, locate, and
isolate faults.
Disadvantages
• More amount of cabling and the I/O ports required
• Installation and reconnection are difficult
• The hardware required to connect each link can be prohibitively expensive.

Star:

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central controller (hub).

• Devices are not directly connected to each other.
• The hub acts as an intermediary.
• Devices send data to the hub, which broadcast to all its connected nodes

Advantages:
 • Less expensive compared to a mesh topology, since each device only requires one link and one
I/O port.
• Easier to install and reconfigure because fewer cables are required.
• If a link fails, only that link is affected, and the rest of the network remains operational. Hence
robust.
• The hub can be used to monitor link problems, making fault identification and isolation easier.
Disadvantages:
• Single Point of Failure: The network's operation depends entirely on the hub. If the hub fails, the
entire system goes down.
• Cabling: While star topology requires less cabling than a mesh, it may require more cables
compared to other topologies (like ring or bus) because each device must be connected to the hub.

Bus:

• Nodes connect to the main bus cable using drop lines and taps.
• Drop line: Connects a device to the main cable.
• Tap: Creates a contact with the main cable by splicing or puncturing it.
• As signals travel along the bus, they lose energy and weaken due to heat.
• There are limits on the number of taps and the distance between them to maintain signal
strength.

Advantages
• Ease of installation.
• Uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
Disadvantages
• Difficult reconnection and isolation.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
• A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

Ring:
 • Each device is connected to only two neighboring devices, forming a closed loop.
• Signals travel in one direction around the ring until they reach the destination.
• Each device has a repeater that regenerates and passes along signals meant for other
devices.

Advantages:
• Ease of Installation & Reconfiguration:Simple to add or remove devices by changing only
two connections.Devices are connected only to their immediate neighbors.
• Fault Isolation:A signal continuously circulates around the ring.If a device fails to receive
a signal, it can trigger an alarm, making it easier to locate and address faults.
Disadvantages
A break in the ring breaks the entire network.
1.3 NETWORK TYPES:
Three primary categories of network
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
The category into which a network fall is determined by its size, ownership, the distance it
covers and its physical architecture.
Local Area Network (LAN):
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building.
• It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other
application.
• The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's
home or office.
• LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• Today LANs to have data rates of 100 Mbps to 10Gbps
 Past vs. Present LANs:
• Past LANs: All hosts were connected to a common cable, and packets were received by all
hosts. The intended recipient kept the packet while others dropped it.
• Modern LANs: Use a smart switch that recognizes destination addresses and sends packets
only to the intended host, reducing traffic and allowing multiple simultaneous
communications.

MAN: (Metropolitan Area Networks)

• A MAN is designed to cover an entire city.

• May be a single network such as cable TV network
• May be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a larger network
• MANs have data rates of 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps
• Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device
• A company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices throughout a city.
• A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a public
company ,such as local telephone company.
WAN: (Wide Area Networks)
• A WAN has a much broader geographical span than a LAN.
• Can span a town, state, country, or the world.
• LAN: Interconnects individual hosts (e.g., computers, printers).
• WAN: Interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
• LAN: Privately owned by the organization that uses it.
• WAN: Typically created, maintained, and operated by communication companies, and
leased by the organization.

Types of WANs:

• Point-to-Point WAN: Direct connection between two devices.

• Simple, direct connection between two devices.
• One-to-one communication.
• Often used to connect networks to one another.
 • Switched WAN: Devices are connected through a series of switching devices.
• A network with more than two ends, using switches to interconnect multiple devices.
• Used in large-scale networks for global communication.
• Combines several point-to-point WANs connected through switches.

Internetwork:

• When two or more networks (LANs or WANs) are connected, they form an internetwork or
internet.
• It allows communication between devices on different networks.

Example:

As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the other on
the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to communicate with
each other. To make the communication between employees at offices possible, the management
leases a point_to_point WAN from a service provider, such as Telephone Company. Now the
company has an internetwork, or a private internet. Communication between offices is now possible.

When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same office, the
router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the destination other hand, when a
host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the east coast, router R1 routes the packet to
router R2, and the packet reaches the destination.

1.3.3 Switching:

A switched network basically consists of a series of interlinked nodes. These interlinked nodes are
known as switches.

The two most common types of switched networks are

1. circuit-switched networks 2. Packet-switched networks
circuit-switched networks:
• In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available
• The switch can only make it active or inactive.
• figure shows a very simple switched network that connects four telephone.

• In Figure, the four telephones at each side are connected to a switch. The switch connects a
telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side.
• The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can handle
four voice communications at the same time. The capacity can be shared between all pairs of
telephone sets. The switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but no storing
capability
• Let us look at two cases.
o In the first case, all telephone sets are busy; four people at one site are talking with four
people at the other site; the capacity of the thick line is fully used.
o In the second case, only one telephone set at one side is connected to a telephone set at
other site, only one fourth of the capacity of the thick line is used.
o This means that a circuit-switched network is efficient only when it is working at its full
capacity.
Packet-switched networks:
 In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks of data called
packets. In other words, instead of the continuous communication we see between two telephone
sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data packets between the two
computers. This allows us to make the switches function for both storing and forwarding. The
following figure shows a small packet switched network that connects four computers at one site
to four computers at the other site.

• A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the packet.
• Now assume that the capacity of the thick line is only twice the capacity of the data line
connecting the computers to the routers. If only two computers (one at each site) need to
communicate with each other, there is no waiting for the packets.
• However, if packets arrive at one router when the thick line is already working at its full
capacity, the packets should be stored and forwarded in the order they arrived.
• The two simple examples show that a packet switched network is more efficient than
circuit switched network , but the packets may encounter some delays.
The Internet:

• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers
• (ISPs). The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks are
often referred to as national or regional ISPs.
 Accessing the Internet:
The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it. The user,
however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP. The physical connection is normally done
through a point-to-point WAN.
1. Using Telephone Networks
2. Using Cable Networks
3. Using Wireless Networks
4. Direct Connection to the Internet
Using Telephone Networks:
• Today most residences and small businesses have telephone service, which means they are
connected to a telephone network.
• Since most telephone networks have already connected themselves to the Internet,one option
for residences and small businesses to connect to the Internet is to change the voice line
between the residence or business and the telephone center to a point-to-point WAN. This can
be done in two ways.
1. Dial-up service
2. DSL Service
Using Cable Networks :
• More and more residents over the last two decades have begun using cable TV services
instead of antennas to receive TV broadcasting.The cable companies have been upgrading
their cable networks and connecting to the Internet. A residence or a small business can be
connected to the Internet by using this service. It provides a higher speed connection, but the
speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable.
Using Wireless Networks:
• Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly popular. A household or a small
business can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to access the Internet. With
the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a small business can be connected to the
Internet through a wireless WAN.
Direct Connection to the Internet :
• A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local ISP and be con nected to
the Internet. This can be done if the organization or the corporation leases a high-speed WAN
from a carrier provider and connects itself to a regional ISP. For example, a large university
with several campuses can create an internetwork and then connect the internetwork to the
Internet.
Chapter 2: Networks Models: Protocol Layering, TCP/IP Protocol suite, The OSI model
Two models have been devised to define computer network operations:
1. The TCP/IP protocol suite 2. The OSI model
PROTOCOL LAYERING (Scenarios - Principles of Protocol Layering - Logical Connections)
• In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender
and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in
which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
2.1.1 Scenarios
• Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.
First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria and
Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in
one layer, face to face, in the same language, as shown in Figure.

A Single Layer Protocol

Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be followed.
• First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet.
• Second, they know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their friendship.
• Third,each should know that when one is speaking,they should refrain from speaking.
• Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a monolog: both should
have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
• Fifth, they should exchange some nice words when they leave.
Second Scenario
• In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company,
but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria.
• The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange ideas because they
have come up with an innovative project to start a new business when they both retire.
• They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail through the post office.

A Three Layer Protocol

Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler tasks. For example,
in Figure 2.2, we could have used only one machine to do the job of all three machines. However, if Maria
and Ann decide that the encryption/decryption done by the machine is not enough to protect their secrecy,
they would have to change the whole machine. In the present situation, they need to change only the
second layer machine; the other two can remain the same. This is referred to as modularity. Modularity in
this case means independent layers. A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and
outputs, without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs. If two machines provide the same
outputs when given the same inputs, they can replace each other. For example, Ann and Maria can buy the
second layer machine from two different manufacturers. As long as the two machines create the same
ciphertext from the same plaintext and vice versa, they do the job.
Advantages:
1. It allows us to separate the services from the implementation. A layer needs to be able to receive a set of
ser- vices from the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we don’t care about how the
layer is implemented.
2. Protocol layering in the Internet, is that communication does not always use only two end systems; there
are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers. If we did not use protocol layering,
we would have to make each intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which makes the whole
system more expensive.
2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering:
First Principle
• If we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform
two opposite tasks, one in each direction. For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one
direction) and talk (in the other direction). The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and
decrypt. The first layer needs to send and receive mail.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under each
layer at both sites should be identical. For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should
be a plaintext letter. The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object
under layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.
2.1.3 Logical Connections
• After following the above two principles, we can think about logical connection
between each layer as shown in Figure below.
• This means that we have layer-to-layer communication.
• The concept of logical connection will help us better understand the task of layering
we encounter in data communication and networking.
 TCP/IP Protocol suite:
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a protocol suite (a set of
protocols organized in different layers) used in the Internet today. It is a hierarchical protocol made
up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by the services provided
by one or more lower level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon the hardware.
Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model.

Layered Architecture (Functions and responsibilities)

• To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in communication between two
hosts, we assume that we want to use the suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links),
each with a link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are connected by one router, as shown
in the below figure.
• Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B.
• As the figure shows, we have five communicating devices in this communication:
1. source host (computer A)
2. the link-layer switch in link 1
3. the router
4. the link-layer switch in link 2, and
5. the destination host (computer B).
• Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of the device in the internet.
• The two hosts are involved in all five layers; the source host needs to create a message in the
application layer and send it down the layers so that it is physically sent to the destination host.
• The destination host needs to receive the communication at the physical layer and then deliver it
through the other layers to the application layer.
• The router is involved in only three layers; there is no transport or application layer in a router as
long as the router is used only for routing. Although a router is always involved in one network
layer, it is involved in n combinations of link and physical layers in which “n” is the number of
links the router is connected to.
• The reason is that each link may use its own data-link or physical protocol. For example, in the
above figure, the router is involved in three links, but the message sent from source A to
destination B is involved in two links.
• Each link may be using different link-layer and physical-layer protocols; the router needs to
receive a packet from link 1 based on one pair of proto cols and deliver it to link 2 based on
another pair of protocols.
• A link-layer switch in a link, however, is involved only in two layers, data-link and physical.
Although each switch in the above figure has two different connections, the connections are in the
 same link, which uses only one set of protocols. This means that, unlike a router, a link-layer
switch is involved only in one data-link and one physical layer.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think about the logical connections
between layers. The following figure shows logical connections in our simple internet.

• Using logical connections makes it easier for us to think about the duty of each layer. As the figure
shows, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to-end.
• However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in which a hop is a host or router. In
other words, the domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and the domain of duty of the
two lower layers is the link.

• Another way of thinking of the logical connections is to think about the data unit created from each layer.

• In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be changed by any router or link- layer switch.

• In the bottom two layers, the packet created by the host is changed only by the routers, not by the
link-layer switches.

• The following figure shows the second principle discussed previously for protocol layering. We show the
identical objects below each layer related to each device.
 Description of Each Layer
1. Physical Layer
• Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.
• Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite, the communication
between two devices at the physical layer is still a logical communication because there is another,
hidden layer, the transmission media, under the physical layer.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical
signals. So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed and sent
through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical unit between two physical
layers in two devices is a bit.
• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
2. Data-link Layer
• An internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers. There may be
several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel from the host to the destination.
• The routers are responsible for choosing the best links. However, when the next link to travel is
determined by the router, the data-link layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it
across the link.
• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or a
wireless WAN.
• We can also have different protocols used with any link type. In each case, the data-link layer is
responsible for moving the packet through the link.
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It supports all the standard
and proprietary protocols.
 • Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it through the link suffices for the network
layer. The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.
• Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service. Some link-layer protocols provide
complete error detection and correction, some provide only error correction.
3. Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and the
destination computer. The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.
• The network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the packet through
possible routes.
• Why we need the network layer?
o One reason is the separation of different tasks between different layers.
o The second reason is that the routers do not need the application and transport layers.
Separating the tasks allows us to use fewer protocols on the routers.
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP), that defines the
format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer. IP also defines the format and the
structure of addresses used in this layer. IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source
to its destination, which is achieved by each router forwarding the datagram to the next router in its
path.
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and no congestion
control services. The net work layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast (one-to-
many) routing protocols.
• A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is the responsibility of IP), but it creates
forwarding tables for routers to help them in the routing process.
• The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols that help IP in its delivery and routing tasks.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report some problems when routing a
packet.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is another protocol that helps IP in
multitasking.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the network-layer address for a
host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol that helps IP to find the link-layer address of
a host or a router when its network-layer address is given.
4. Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end. The transport layer at the source
host gets the message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a transport layer packet
(called a segment or a user datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through the logical
(imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host.
 • In other words, the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application layer: to get
a message from an application program running on the source host and deliver it to the
corresponding application program on the destination host.
• The transport layer should be independent of the application layer. In addition, we will see that we
have more than one protocol in the transport layer, which means that each application program can
use the protocol that best matches its requirement.
• The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented protocol
that first establishes a logical connection between transport layers at two hosts before transferring
data. It creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes. TCP
provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of the source host with the receiving data
rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination), error control (to guarantee
that the segments arrive at the destination without error and resending the corrupted ones), and
congestion control to reduce the loss of segments due to congestion in the network.
• The other common protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a connectionless protocol that
transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical connection. In UDP, each user
datagram is an independent entity without being related to the previous or the next one (the
meaning of the term connectionless). UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow,
error, or congestion control. Its simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an
application program that needs to send short messages and cannot afford the retransmission of the
packets involved in TCP, when a packet is corrupted or lost.
• A new protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is designed to respond to new
applications that are emerging in the multimedia.
5. Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is end to-end. The two application
layers exchange messages between each other as though there were a bridge between the two
layers. However, we should know that the communication is done through all the layers.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two programs running at this
layer). To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a response.
Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer. The application layer in the
Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user can also create a pair of processes to be run
at the two hosts.
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the(WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail (e-
mail) service. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host
to another. The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for
accessing a site remotely.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to
manage the Internet at global and local levels.
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the network-layer
address of a computer.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect membership in a
group.
 Addressing on TCP/IP protocol suit:
• Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address
and destination address.
• Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we normally
have only four because the physical layer does not need addresses; the unit of data
exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot have an address.

• At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that provides services,
such as someorg.com, or the e-mail address, such as [email protected].
• At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define the
application- layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers are local
addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the same time.
• At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope. A
network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined addresses, each
of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or WAN).
Encapsulation and Decapsulation:
 Encapsulation at the Source Host

• At the source, we have only encapsulation.

1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a message. A
message normally does not contain any header or trailer, but if it does, we refer to the
whole as the message. The message is passed to the transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the transport layer
should take care of. It adds the transport layer header to the payload, which contains the
identifiers of the source and destination application programs that want to
communicate plus some more information that is needed for the end-to end
delivery of the message, such as information needed for flow, error control, or
congestion control. The result is the transport-layer packet, which is called the
segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then passes
the packet to the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header to the payload. The header contains the addresses of the source and
destination hosts and some more information used for error checking of the header,
fragmentation information, and so on. The result is the network-layer packet, called a
datagram. The network layer then passes the packet to the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and adds its own
header, which contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router).
The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed to the
physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
• At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because the router is
connected to two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates the
datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the
datagram header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to which the
datagram is to be delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed by the
network layer in the router unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too
big to be passed through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-link
layer of the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and
passes it to the physical layer for transmission.

Decapsulation at the Destination Host

• At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet received, removes the
payload,and delivers the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the message
reaches the application layer. It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host involves
error checking.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers, we can say that we
have multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the destination.
• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from
several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time); demultiplexing means that a
protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one at
 a time).
• The following Figure shows the concept of multiplexing and demultiplexing at 3 upper
layers.

• To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its

header to identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong.
• At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several
application-layer protocols.
• At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user datagram from
UDP. IP can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP, IGMP, and so on.
• At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or other protocols
such as ARP.
The OSI model
• Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP protocol suite,
this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined.
• Established in 1947, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost
three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO standard
that covers all aspects of
network communications is introduced in the late 1970s.
 • The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that robust, and interoperable, is flexible,
• The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in the OSI
stack. The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate
but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network (see Figure).

OSI versus TCP/IP

• When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are
missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP
protocol suite after the publication of the OSI model. The application layer in the
suite is usually considered to be the combination of three layers in the OSI model.

Lack of OSI Model’s Success:

• First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had
been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.

• Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For example, although the
services provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed in the document,
actual protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were they fully described.

• Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not
show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet authority to switch from the
TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.
Chapter 8: Switching: Packet Switching and its types
• In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is
no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for each
packet.
• Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done on a first-come, first-served
basis. When a switch receives a packet, no matter what the source or destination is, the
packet must wait if there are other packets being processed.
• As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of reservation may create delay. For
example, if we do not have a reservation at a restaurant, we might have to wait.
• We can have two types of packet-switched networks:
1. Datagram networks and
2. virtual circuit networks.

Datagram networks:
• In a datagram network, each packet is handled independently of all others.
• Even if a packet is part of a larger transmission, the network treats it as if it's a single,
standalone unit. These packets are called datagrams.
• Datagram switching typically happens at the network layer.
• The diagram below shows how datagrams are sent from station A to station X. The switches in
a datagram network are called routers.

• In this example, all four datagrams are part of the same message but may travel through
different paths to reach the destination. This happens because other packets from different
sources may be using some of the links, and there might not be enough bandwidth to send all
datagrams along the same path.
• Because of this, datagrams may arrive out of order or with different delays. Some packets
may even be lost or dropped due to a lack of resources.
• In most protocols, an upper-layer protocol is responsible for reordering the datagrams or
requesting lost datagrams before passing them to the application.
• Datagram networks are also known as connectionless networks.
• Connectionless means that the switch doesn’t store information about any connection state.
There’s no setup or teardown phase, and each packet is treated the same way, regardless of its
source or destination.
RoutingTable
If there are no setup or teardown phases, how are the packets routed to their destinations in a
datagram network?
 • In a datagram network, since there are no setup or teardown phases, packets are routed
differently.
• Each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table that helps determine the path based on
the destination address of the packet.
• These routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
• The destination addresses and their corresponding output ports (where the packet should be
sent) are stored in the table.
• This is different from circuit-switched networks, where a table entry is created during the
setup phase and deleted after the teardown phase.
• The figure shows an example of a routing table for a switch.

Destination Address
• Every packet in a datagram network contains a header with the destination address.
• When a switch receives the packet, it checks the destination address and consults the routing
table to find the correct output port to forward the packet.
Efficiency
• Datagram networks are more efficient than circuit-switched networks because resources are
only used when packets are actively being transferred.
• If there's a gap between packets being sent, the resources can be reallocated to other packets
from different sources during that time.
Delay
• Delays in datagram networks can be greater than in virtual-circuit networks.
• While there are no setup or teardown phases, each packet may still wait at a switch before
being forwarded.
• Since packets don't necessarily follow the same path, delays are not uniform and may vary
for each packet in a message.
 • The packet travels through two switches. There are three transmission times (3T), three
propagation delays (slopes 3τ of the lines), and two waiting times (w1 + w2). We ignore the
processing time in each switch.

Virtual-Circuit Networks
• A virtual-circuit network is a mix between a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has features of both.
1. Like in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases along with the data
transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase (like in a circuit-switched network) or on
demand (like in a datagram network).
3. Data is packetized, and each packet has an address in its header. However, this address only
specifies the next switch and channel (local jurisdiction), not the full end-to-end destination.
o Intermediate switches know where to send packets using virtual-circuit identifiers,
not the final destination address.
4. All packets follow the same path established during the connection, similar to a circuit-
switched network.
5. A virtual-circuit network is usually implemented in the data-link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is at the physical layer and a datagram network is at the network layer.
• The figure illustrates an example of a virtual-circuit network, where switches connect sources
to destinations. These sources or destinations can be computers, packet switches, bridges, or
other network devices.

Addressing in Virtual-Circuit Networks

• Two types of addressing are involved:
 1. Global Addressing
2. Local Addressing (Virtual-Circuit Identifier)
1. Global Addressing
• A global address is used to uniquely identify a source or destination in the network. This can
be within the network or internationally if it's part of a larger network.
• The global address is only used to create a virtual-circuit identifier (VCI).
2. Local Addressing (Virtual-Circuit Identifier)
• The address used for actual data transfer is called the Virtual-Circuit Identifier (VCI) or
label.
• Unlike a global address, a VCI is a small number that only matters between two switches
(local scope).
• When a data frame reaches a switch, it has a VCI. After passing through, the switch assigns a
different VCI to the frame.
• The figure shows how the VCI changes as the data frame moves from one switch to another.
Since each switch uses its own unique set of VCIs, the VCI doesn’t need to be a large number.

Three Phases in a Virtual-Circuit Network

The communication process between a source and destination in a virtual-circuit network involves
three phases:
1. Setup Phase
2. Data Transfer Phase
3. Teardown Phase
1. Setup Phase
• The source and destination use their global addresses to help the switches create table entries
for the virtual circuit.
• Two steps are involved: Setup Request and Acknowledgment.
Setup Request:
• The source sends a setup request to the destination through multiple switches.
a) Source A sends a setup frame to Switch 1.
 b) Switch 1 receives the setup request. It knows that frames going from A to B should be
forwarded through port 3. During the setup phase, the switch uses a routing table (different from
the switching table). It creates a table entry for this virtual circuit, filling in three of the four
columns: incoming port (port 1), an available incoming VCI (VCI 14), and outgoing port (port
3). The outgoing VCI will be determined later during the acknowledgment phase. Switch 1
forwards the frame to Switch 2 via port 3.
c) Switch 2 receives the setup request and fills in three columns of its table: incoming port (port
1), incoming VCI (VCI 66), and outgoing port (port 2). Then, it forwards the frame to Switch 3.
d) Switch 3 receives the setup request and completes three columns as well: incoming port (port
2), incoming VCI (VCI 22), and outgoing port (port 3).
e) The setup frame reaches Destination B, which, if ready to receive frames from A, assigns a
VCI (VCI 77) to the incoming frames. This VCI helps Destination B recognize that the frames
are from Source A and not from any other source.

Acknowledgment:
• Destination B sends an acknowledgment back through the switches to complete the setup
process.
a) The destination sends an acknowledgment to Switch 3, including the global source and
destination addresses so the switch knows which entry to update. The acknowledgment also
includes VCI 77, chosen by the destination as the incoming VCI for frames from A. Switch 3
uses this VCI to fill the outgoing VCI column. Note that VCI 77 is the incoming VCI for the
destination but the outgoing VCI for Switch 3.
b) Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to Switch 2, including the incoming VCI from the
previous step. Switch 2 uses this VCI as the outgoing VCI in its table.
c) Switch 2 sends an acknowledgment to Switch 1, which also includes the incoming VCI
from the previous step. Switch 1 updates its table by using this VCI as the outgoing VCI.
d) Finally, Switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to Source A, including the incoming VCI from
the previous step.
.
2. Data Transfer Phase
• Data transfer starts after the setup is complete.
• All switches have table entries for the virtual circuit, with information on how to forward the
frames.
• Each switch changes the VCI as the frames move from the source to the destination.
• This phase continues until all frames are sent.
3. Teardown Phase
• After all data is sent, the source sends a teardown request.
• The destination responds with a teardown confirmation.
• All switches then delete the table entries for the virtual circuit, completing the connection.

Efficiency in Virtual-Circuit Networks

• Resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can happen:
o During the setup phase, or
o On demand during the data-transfer phase.
• If resources are reserved during setup, all packets will have the same delay. If done on demand,
packets may have different delays.
• Even with on-demand allocation, there’s an advantage: the source can check if resources are
available without reserving them.
• Example: Think of a family wanting to eat at a restaurant. Even if the restaurant doesn't accept
reservations (like on-demand allocation), they can call ahead to check the wait time, saving effort
and time.
Delay in Virtual-Circuit Networks
• In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time setup delay and a one-time teardown delay.
• If resources are reserved during setup, there is no waiting time for individual packets.
• A packet traveling through two switches experiences:
o Three transmission times (3T)
 o Three propagation times (3τ)
o Setup delay (includes transmission and propagation in both directions)
o Teardown delay (includes transmission and propagation in one direction)

• Processing time at each switch is ignored, so the total delay time includes transmission, propagation,
setup, and teardown.
Example in WANs
• Virtual-circuit networks are used in switched wide-area networks (WANs) like ATM networks. The
data-link layer in these networks is well-suited to virtual-circuit technology.
Differences between Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Networks
Virtual-Circuit Networks Datagram Networks
Feature

Connection Establishment Requires a setup phase to No setup phase; packets are sent
establish a connection before independently.
data transfer.

Resource Reservation Resources can be reserved during No resource reservation; each

the setup phase or on demand packet is treated independently.
during data transfer.

Packet Transmission All packets follow the same path Packets may take different paths
once the connection is to the destination.
established.

Delay One-time delay for setup and Variable delays for packets, as
teardown; consistent delays for they may encounter different
all packets if resources are delays based on the network
 allocated during setup. conditions.

Header Information Packets carry a virtual circuit Packets carry a destination

identifier (VCI) for routing at address in the header for
each switch. routing.

State Information Switches maintain state Switches do not keep information

information about the about previous packets; they are
connection for routing. treated independently.

Handling of Lost Packets Typically requires upper-layer No inherent handling for lost
protocols to handle reordering or packets; each packet is treated as
retransmission of lost packets. a standalone unit.

Network Layer Implementation Usually implemented in the data- Typically operates at the network
link layer. layer.

Example Use Cases Used in applications requiring Commonly used in applications

reliable connections like ATM where speed is more critical than
networks. reliability, like streaming.

Chapter7: Introduction to Physical Layer: Transmission media, Guided Media, Unguided Media:
Wireless
INTRODUCTION
• Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to layer
zero. Figure shows the position of transmission media in relation to the physical layer.

• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination.
• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The
information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another form.
• The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started with the invention of
the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century. Communication by telegraph was slow and
dependent on a metallic medium.
• Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the telephone was invented
 in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also needed a metallic medium to carry
the electric signals that were the result of a conversion from the human voice. The
communication was, however, unreliable due to the poor quality of the wires. The lines
were often noisy and the technology was unsophisticated.
• Wireless communication started in 1895 when Hertz was able to send high frequency
signals. Later, Marconi devised a method to send telegraph-type messages over the Atlantic
Ocean. We have come a long way.
• Better metallic media have been invented (twisted-pair and coaxial cables, for
example).
The use of optical fibers has increased the data rate incredibly. Free space (air, vacuum,
and water) is used more efficiently, in part due to the technologies (such multiplexing as
modulation a n d M u l t i p l e x i n g ).
• Computers and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data.
• Signals are transmitted between devices as electromagnetic energy, which travels through
different transmission media.
• Electromagnetic energy is a combination of electric and magnetic fields that vibrate together.
It includes various types like power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light,
X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. These all make up the electromagnetic spectrum.
• However, not all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum can be used for telecommunications,
and the types of media that can handle the usable parts are limited.
• In telecommunications, transmission media are classified into two main types: guided and
unguided.
• Guided media include cables like twisted-pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic cables.
• Unguided media refers to free space (such as air or vacuum) through which signals travel
wirelessly.
 • These signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic
energy, which is propagated through transmission media.
• Electromagnetic energy, a combination of electric and magnetic fields vibrating in relation to
each other, includes power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X,
gamma, and cosmic rays. Each of these constitutes a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Not all portions of the spectrum are currently usable for telecommunications, however. The
media to harness those that are usable are also limited to a few types.
• In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided
and unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Unguided medium is free space. Figure shows this taxonomy.

Guided Media

• Guided media are physical pathways that direct signals from one device to another. They
include:
o Twisted-pair cable
o Coaxial cable
o Fiber-optic cable
• Signals transmitted through these media are contained and directed by the physical
boundaries of the medium.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cables use metallic (usually copper) conductors, which carry
signals in the form of electrical current.
• Fiber-optic cables transport signals as light, rather than electricity.

Twisted-Pair Cable
• Structure: A twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper conductors twisted together. One
wire carries the signal, while the other serves as a ground reference. The receiver reads the
difference between the two wires.

• Noise and Crosstalk: External interference, like noise and crosstalk, can affect both wires. If the
wires are parallel, the interference impacts them differently due to their varying positions relative to
the source of noise.
 • Twisting for Balance: Twisting the wires ensures that both are equally exposed to interference. In
one twist, one wire may be closer to the noise source, and in the next twist, the other wire is closer.
This helps balance the interference, and since the receiver measures the difference between the
wires, most unwanted signals are canceled out. The number of twists per unit length affects the
cable's quality.
Unshielded vs. Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP): This is the most commonly used twisted-pair cable in
communication systems. It does not have additional shielding.
• Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP): IBM developed STP, which includes a metal foil or braided mesh
covering around the insulated conductors. This shielding reduces noise and crosstalk but makes the
cable bulkier and more expensive. STP is rarely used outside of IBM systems, and UTP remains the
primary focus.

Cable Categories
• The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) classifies unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables into
seven categories based on quality. Category 1 is the lowest, and Category 7 is the highest. Each
category is designed for specific uses, with higher categories offering better performance.
 Connectors
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as
shown in the following figure. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the
connector can be inserted in only one way.

Performance
• A key method for evaluating the performance of twisted-pair cables is by analyzing the
relationship between attenuation, frequency, and distance.
• Twisted-pair cables can support a broad range of frequencies, but as the figure below
illustrates, attenuation (measured in decibels per kilometer, dB/km) rises significantly
when frequencies exceed 100 kHz.
• It’s important to note that the gauge refers to the thickness of the wire.

Applications
•
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The
local loop—the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office— commonly
consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
Coaxial Cable
• Higher frequency range: Coaxial cables carry signals at higher frequency ranges than
twisted-pair cables due to their different construction.
• Construction: Coax has a central core conductor (usually copper) surrounded by an insulating
sheath, with an outer conductor made of metal foil or braid. This outer conductor acts as both a
 shield against noise and the second conductor for completing the circuit.

Coaxial Cable Standards:

• RG ratings: Coaxial cables are categorized by Radio (RG) ratings. Each RG number specifies
physical characteristics such as inner conductor gauge, type of insulation, shield construction,
and outer casing size.

Coaxial Cable Connectors:

• BNC connectors: The most common connectors are BNC connectors, including:
o BNC connector: Connects the cable to a device, like a TV.
o BNC T connector: Used in Ethernet networks to connect multiple devices.
o BNC terminator: Prevents signal reflection at the end of the cable.

Performance:
• Attenuation: Coaxial cables have higher attenuation compared to twisted-pair cables, meaning
signals weaken faster and require more repeaters despite higher bandwidth.
Applications:
• Analog/digital telephone networks: Coaxial cables were used to carry large volumes of voice
and data, but have been mostly replaced by fiber-optic cables in telephone networks.
• Cable TV networks: Coaxial cables are still used, especially RG-59, in hybrid cable TV
systems near consumer premises.
• Ethernet LANs: Early Ethernet LANs used coaxial cables, such as:
o 10Base-2 (Thin Ethernet): Uses RG-58 for 10 Mbps data transmission over 185
meters.
o 10Base-5 (Thick Ethernet): Uses RG-11 for 10 Mbps over 5000 meters with
specialized connectors.

Fiber-Optic Cable

• Composition: Made of glass or plastic, fiber-optic cables transmit signals in the form of light.
• Nature of Light: Light travels in a straight line through a uniform substance but changes
direction (refracts) when moving between substances of different densities.
• Critical Angle:
o If the angle of incidence (I) is less than the critical angle, light refracts.
o If equal to the critical angle, light bends along the interface.
o If greater than the critical angle, light reflects back into the denser medium.
• Reflection in Optical Fibers: Optical fibers use reflection to guide light. The core (glass or
plastic) is surrounded by a cladding with lower density to keep the light inside through
reflection.

Propagation Modes

1. Multimode:
o Multiple beams: Multiple light beams travel through the core in different paths.
o Step-index fiber: The core has constant density, causing light to travel in straight lines
until hitting the cladding, leading to signal distortion due to abrupt density change.
o Graded-index fiber: The core density gradually decreases from center to edge,
reducing signal distortion as beams bend less abruptly.
 2. Single-Mode:
o Focused light source: Single-mode fiber uses a small core diameter and a highly
focused light source, limiting beams to near-horizontal paths.
o Low distortion: The smaller core and lower density (index of refraction) cause beams
to propagate almost horizontally, arriving together with minimal signal distortion.

Fiber Sizes

• Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their
cladding, both expressed in micrometers. The common sizes are shown in Table. Note that the
last size listed is for single-mode only.

Cable Composition
• The outer jacket of a typical fiber-optic cable is made of either PVC or Teflon.
• Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands, which strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material
also used in bulletproof vests.
• Below the Kevlar, there is another plastic coating that cushions the fiber.
• The fiber is located at the center of the cable, consisting of the core and cladding.
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors
• Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector: Used for cable TV, with a push/pull locking system.
• Straight-Tip (ST) Connector: Used for connecting cables to networking devices, featuring a
bayonet locking system, making it more reliable than SC.
• MT-RJ Connector: Same size as RJ45, used in certain applications.

Performance
• Fiber-optic cables exhibit less attenuation compared to twisted-pair and coaxial cables, as
shown in the plot of attenuation versus wavelength.
• Fewer repeaters (about one-tenth as many) are required when using fiber-optic cables due to its
superior performance.
Applications
• Fiber-optic cables are commonly used in backbone networks due to their wide bandwidth and
cost-effectiveness.
• With Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM), data transfer rates can reach 1600 Gbps,
enabling robust backbone networks such as SONET.
• Some cable TV companies use a hybrid network of optical fiber and coaxial cable, with optical
fiber providing backbone infrastructure and coaxial cable connecting to user premises.
• Fiber-optic cables are also used in Local Area Networks (LANs) such as 100Base-FX (Fast
Ethernet) and 1000Base-X.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages - Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial))
1. Higher bandwidth - Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and
hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth
utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation
and reception technology available.
2. Less signal attenuation - Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that
of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference - Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-
optic cables.
4. Resistance to corrosive materials - Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper.
5. Light weight - Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
6. Greater immunity to tapping - Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper
cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages
1. Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
2. Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3. Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be
justified.
Unguided Media: Wireless
• Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without a physical conductor, commonly
known as wireless communication.
• Signals are broadcast through free space and can be received by any device capable of
detecting them.
• The part of the electromagnetic spectrum used for wireless communication ranges from 3
kHz to 900 THz.
Methods of Signal Propagation
• Ground Propagation:
o Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
o These low-frequency signals spread in all directions from the transmitting antenna and
follow the curvature of the planet.
o The transmission distance depends on signal power—the greater the power, the
greater the distance.
• Sky Propagation:
o Higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere, where they are
reflected back to earth.
o This method allows signals to travel long distances with lower output power.
• Line-of-Sight Propagation:
o Very high-frequency signals are transmitted directly from one antenna to another.
o Antennas must face each other and be positioned high or close enough to avoid
interference from the curvature of the earth.
o Line-of-sight propagation is challenging because radio transmissions cannot be
completely focused.

Electromagnetic Spectrum and Frequency Bands

• The electromagnetic spectrum for radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges,
called bands, regulated by government authorities.
• These bands range from Very Low Frequency (VLF) to Extremely High Frequency (EHF),
each with its specific propagation methods and applications.