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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING II

MODULE 2

PREPARED BY
ENGR. SOMEFUN T.E
 Lecture 2
Steady-state dc circuit
analysis
Ex. 3.1
Use source transformation to find v0in the circuit of
Fig. 3.3

Fig. 3.3

3
Solution
• The following circuits result when the sources are
transformed

4
,

5
Ex. 3.2
Find io in the circuit of Fig. 3.4 using source
transformation.

Fig. 3.4

6
Ex. 3.3
Find vxin Fig. 3.5 using source transformation

Fig. 3.5

7
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path
(or loop) is zero.
• Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

v
m =1
m =0

8
where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the
number of branches in the loop) and vm is the mth voltage.

• To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. below. The

sign on each voltage is the polarity of the terminal
encountered first as we travel around the loop.
• We can start with any branch and go around the loop
either clockwise or counterclockwise.
• Suppose we start with the voltage source and go
clockwise around the loop as shown; then voltages would
be -v + v + v - v + v = 0
1 2 3 4 5

9
Application of KVL
• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL
can be applied to obtain the total voltage.
• The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the
voltages of the individual sources.
• For example, for the voltage sources shown in Fig.
(3.10a) below, the combined or equivalent voltage
source in Fig. (3.10b) is obtained by applying KVL

10
 Vs =V1+ V2 - V3

Fig. 3.10a

Fig. 3.10b

11
Ex. 3.6
• For the circuit in Fig. (A1) and (A2) below, find
voltages v1 and v2

Fig. A1 Fig. A2

12
Ex. 3.7
• Determine vo and i in
the circuit shown in Fig.
(B1).

Fig. B1
• Find vx and vo in the
circuit of Fig. (B2)

Fig. B2
 Ex. 3.8
Find currents
and voltages Fig. C1

in the circuits
shown in
Figures (C1)
and (C2)
Fig. C2
Ex. 3.9
• Find current io and
voltage vo in the circuits
shown in Figures (D1)
and (D2)
Fig. D1

Fig. D2
Solution to Fig. (A1)
• To find v1 and v2 in Fig.
(A1) we apply Ohm’s
law and Kirchhoff’s
voltage law.
• Assume that current i
flows through the loop
as shown in Fig. (A1’).
• From Ohm’s law, Fig. (A1’)

v = Ri
Applying KVL around the
loop gives
-20 + 2i +3i = 0
5i = 20
i = 4A
Finally,
v1 = 2i,
v1 = 2 x 4 = 8V,
v2 = -3i
v2 = -3 x 4 = -12V
 Solution to Fig. (B1)
We apply KVL around the loop
as shown in Fig. (b). The result
is
-12 + 4i + 2vo - 4 + 6i = 0
Applying Ohm’s law to the 6-Ω
resistor gives
vo = -6i
Substituting for vo yields,
-16 + 10i - 12i = 0
i = -8A
and vo = -6 x -8 = 48V
3.8 Star-Delta Transformations
• Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the
resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. For
example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig. 2.3.2.1.
How do we combine resistors through when the
resistors are neither in series nor in parallel? Many
circuits of the type shown in Fig. 2.3.2.1 can be
simplified by using three-terminal equivalent
networks.

19
20
21
• Delta to Star Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye
network in a place where the circuit contains a delta
configuration. We superimpose a wye network on
the existing delta network and find the equivalent
resistances in the wye network.

22
 Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rc Ra
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
23
Star to Delta Conversion
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a
wye network to an equivalent delta network, we
have: RR +R R +R R
Ra = 1 2 2 3 3 1

R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3

24
Ex. 3.22
Convert the Δ network in Figure 2.3.2.5 to an
equivalent Y network

25
Solution
The equivalent Y network of the given circuit is

Rb Rc 10  25 250
R1 = = = = 5
Ra + Rb + Rc 15 + 10 + 25 50
Rc Ra 25 15 375
R2 = = = = 7.5
Ra + Rb + Rc 15 + 10 + 25 50
Ra Rb 15 10 150
R3 = = = = 3
Ra + Rb + Rc 15 + 10 + 25 50

26
Methods of Analysis
• Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit
theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws)
• We are now prepared to apply these laws to develop
two powerful techniques for circuit analysis which
are;

27
• Nodal analysis,
• which is based on a systematic
application of Kirchhoff’s current law
(KCL), and

• Mesh analysis,
• which is based on a systematic
application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL).

28
• These techniques can be used to analyze any linear
circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous
equations that are then solved to obtain the required
values of current or voltage.

29
3.6 Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
• Choosing node voltages reduces the number of
equations to be solved simultaneously

30
Steps to Determine Node Voltages
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign
voltages v1, v2, … vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes.
The voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages.

31
EX. 3.10
Calculate the node
voltages in the circuits
shown in Figures (a)
and (b)
Fig. E1
Solution to Fig. E1
At node 1, applying
KCL and Ohm’s law
gives;

Fig. E2
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives;
i1 = i2 + i3
Which implies
v1 − v2 v1 − 0
5= +
4 2
Upon simplification, we have,

20 = v1 − v2 + 2v1
3v1 − v2 = 20 ………….(i)

At node 2, applying KCL again, we have

i2 + i4 = i1 + i5
Which implies
v1 − v2 v2 − 0
+ 10 = 5 +
4 6
Upon simplification, we have

3v1 − 3v2 + 120 = 60 + 2v2

−3v1 + 5v2 = 60 ……………….(ii)

Using elimination technique by adding

equations (i) and (ii), we have
4v2 = 80
v2 = 20V
Substitute v2 = 20 in equation (ii), we have

−3v1 + 5(20) = 60
−3v1 + 100 = 60
−3v1 = 40
40
v1 = = −13.333V
−3
EX. 3.11
• Determine the voltages at
the non-reference nodes in
Figure (F1) and (F2)

Fig. F2

Fig. F1
Solution:
It is necessary to indicate the chosen current
direction and nodes on the circuit as shown below.

At node 1, we have
3 = i1 + ix
Which implies
v1 − v3 v1 − v2
3= +
4 2
Fig. F1
Upon simplification we have

3v1 − 2v2 − v3 = 12 ………………(i)

 At node 2, we have
ix = i2 + i3
v1 − v2 v2 − v3 v2 − 0
= + Upon simplification we have
2 8 4

−4v1 + 7v2 − v3 = 0 ……………………(ii)

At node 3, we have
i1 + i2 = 2ix Which implies
v1 − v3 v2 − v3 2(v1 − v2 )
+ = Upon simplification we have
4 8 2

2v1 − 3v2 + v3 = 0 ……………………(iii)

In order to find node voltages v1 , v2 and v3, we solve the
three equations simultaneously. Upon solving these
equations, we have

v1 = 4.8V
v2 = 2.4V
v3 = −2.4V
Nodal Analysis with Voltage
Sources
• We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal
analysis. We use the circuit in Fig. below for
illustration. Consider the following two
possibilities.

40
CASE 1

If a voltage source is connected between the reference

node and a non-reference node, we simply set the
voltage at the non-reference node equal to the voltage
of the voltage source.

41
In Fig. (6) for example,
• V1 = 10;

• Thus, our analysis is

somewhat simplified by
this knowledge of the
voltage at this node.

Fig. 6
CASE 2
If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is
connected between two non-reference nodes, the two
non-reference nodes form a generalized node or
super-node
• We apply both KCL and KVL to determine the
node voltages.

43
Super-node
• A super-node is formed by enclosing a (dependent
or independent) voltage source connected between
two non-reference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.

44
• In Fig. (6’) below, nodes 2 and 3 form a super-node.
• We analyze a circuit with super-nodes using the same three
steps mentioned in the previously except that the super-
nodes are treated differently.
• This is because an essential component of nodal analysis is
applying KCL, which requires knowing the current
through each element.
• There is no way of knowing the current through a voltage
source in advance.
• However, KCL must be satisfied at a super-node like any
other node. Hence, at the super-node in Fig. (6’) below

45
 i1 + i4 = +i2 + i3

v1 − v2 v1 − v3 v2 − 0 v3 − 0
+ = +
2 4 8 6

Fig. 6’
• To apply Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the super
node in Fig. 6’ above,
• We redraw the circuit as
shown in Fig. 6’’.
• Going around the loop in
the clockwise direction
gives Fig. 6’’

−v2 + 5 + v3 = 0
 v2 − v3 = 5
Ex. 3.11
For the circuit shown in
Fig. G, find the node
voltages.
Solution:
The super-node contains
the 2-V source, nodes 1
and 2, and the 10Ω
resistor. Fig. G
• Applying KCL to the
super-node as shown
in Fig. (G’) gives

Fig. G’

2 = i1 + i2 + 7
Expressing i1 and i2 in terms of the node voltages
v1 − 0 v2 − 0
2= + +7
2 4
8 = 2v1 + v2 + 28
v2 = −20 − 2v1 ( i)
• To get the relationship
between v1 and v2 we
apply KVL to the circuit
• in Fig.(G’’). Going
around the loop, we
obtain
−v1 − 2 + v2 = 0 Fig. G’’

v2 = v1 + 2 (ii )
Equating equations (i) and (ii), we have
v1 + 2 = −20 − 2v1
3v1 = −22
−22
v1 = = −7.333V
3
and
v2 = v1 + 2 = −7.333 + 2 = −5.333V
Ex. 3.12
• Find v and i in the circuit of Fig. H below

Fig. H
• Answer: 0.6V, and 4.2A.

51
3.5 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis is also a procedure for analyzing
circuits.

• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other

loops within it.

52
• In mesh analyses, we use mesh currents as the
circuit variables.
• With mesh current, number of simultaneous
equations to be solved are reduced.
• In order to obtain the values of the variables (mesh
currents) KVL is applied.

53
 • paths abefa and bcdeb
are meshes,

• But path abcdefa is not

a mesh.

Fig. 7
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …in to the n

meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of
the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous
equations to get the mesh currents.

55
 For the given circuit, find the branch currents
i1, i2 and i3 and using mesh analysis.
• We first obtain the mesh currents using
KVL.
• For mesh 1,
-15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 - i2) + 10 = 0
3i1 - 2i2 = 1
• For mesh 2,
6i2 + 4i2 + 10(i2 - i1) - 10 = 0
i1 = 2i2 – 1
• Solving these two equations,
we have; Fig. 8

I1 = i1 = 1A, I2 = i2 = 1A,
I 3 = i1 - i2 = 0
Ex. 3.13
• Calculate the mesh current in Fig. I below

Answer: i1 = 2A, i2 = 0A.

57
 Use mesh analysis to find the current Io in Fig. 9
given below We apply KVL to the three meshes in turn.
For mesh 1,
-24 + 10(i1 - i2 ) + 12(i1 - i3) =0
11i1 - 5i2 - 6i3 =12
From mesh 2,
24i2 + 4(i2 - i3) + 10(i2 - i1) = 0
-5i1 + 19i2 - 2i3 = 0
For mesh 3,
4Io + 12(i3 - i1) + 4(i3 - i2) = 0
Fig. 9
Solving these three equations we have;
But at node A, Io= I1-I2 so that
i1 = 2.25A, i2 = 0.75A, 4(i1-i2)+12(i3-i1) + 4(i3 - i2) = 0
i3 = 1.5A Io = i1 – i 2 -i1 - i2 + 2i3 = 0
Io = 2.25 – 0.75 = 1.5A

58
Ex. 3.14
• Using mesh analysis,
find current Io in the
circuit shown

• Answer: 5A.

Fig. J
Mesh Analysis with Current
Sources
• Let’s now consider how current sources affect
mesh analysis. We are going to look at two cases.

60
 CASE 1: When a current source
exists only in one mesh
• Consider Fig. 10, for
example.
We set
i2 = -5A
And write a mesh
equation for the other
mesh in the usual way;
that is,
Fig. 10
-10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 - i2) = 0
i1 = 2A
CASE 2: Super-mesh
• When a current source
exists between two
meshes, a super-mesh
is formed as shown in
Fig. (a)

• A super-mesh results
when two meshes
have a (dependent or
independent) current
source in common.
Consider the circuit shown in
fig. (a) in the previous slide,
We create a super-mesh by
excluding the current source
and any elements connected
in series with it, as shown in
fig. (b)
Since we do not know the
voltage across a current
source in advance.
We therefore, apply KVL to -20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 =
the super-mesh which gives; 0

6i1 + 14i2 = 20
• Still on the same circuit
above i.e Fig. (a)
• Applying KCL to a
node in the branch
where the two meshes
intersect gives
• i2 = i1 + 6 • 6i 1 + 14i2 = 20
• Hence, solving the • i2 = i1 + 6
resulting two equations We have;
i1 = 3.2A, i2 = 2.8A
Ex. 3.15
• For the circuit given,
find i1 to i4 using mesh
analysis.
• Note that meshes 1 and 2
form a super-mesh since
they have an independent
current source in
common.
• Also, meshes 2 and 3
form another super-mesh
because they have a
dependent current source
in common.
• The two super-meshes
intersect and form a
larger super-mesh as
shown.
• Applying KVL to the larger
super-mesh gives
2i1 + 4i3 + 8(i3 - i4) + 6i2 = 0
i1 + 3i2 + 6i3 - 4i4 = 0
• For the independent current
source, we apply KCL to
node P:
i2 = i 1 + 5
• For the dependent current
source, we apply KCL to
node Q:
i2 = i3 + 3Io
But Io = -i4
Hence,
i2 = i3 - 3i4
Applying KVL in mesh 4,
2i4 + 8(i4 - i3) + 10 = 0
5i4 - 4i3 = -5
Solving these equations,
i1 + 3i2 + 6i3 - 4i4 = 0
i2 = i1 + 5
i2 = i3 - 3i4
5i4 - 4i3 = -5
We have;
i1 = -7.5A, i2 = -2.5A,
i3 = 3.93A, i4 = 2.143A

69
Ex. 3.16
Use mesh analysis to
determine i1, i2 and i3
in the given circuit

Answer:
• i1 = 3.474A,
• i2 = 0.4737A,
• i3 = 1.1052A
Nodal and Mesh Analyses by
Inspection
• This section presents a generalized procedure for
nodal or mesh analysis. It is a shortcut approach
based on mere inspection of a circuit. When all
sources in a circuit are independent current sources,
we do not need to apply KCL to each node to obtain
the node-voltage equations as we did in Sections
2.5.1 and 2.5.2. We can obtain the equations by
mere inspection of the circuit using matrix
expression.

71
 i = Gv
 i1   G11 G12 . . . G1N   v1 
 i  G G  
. . . G2 N   v2 
  
2 21 22

 . = . . . . . .  . 
    
.  . . . . . .  . 
iN   G11 GN 2 . . . GNN  vN 

72
• Similarly, we can obtain mesh-current equations by
inspection when a linear resistive circuit has only
independent voltage sources as:

v =  Ri 

73
 v1   R11 R12 . . . R1N   i1 
 v  R R22  
. . . R2 N   i2 
 2   21
 . = . . . . . .  . 
    
 .   . . . . . .  . 
vN   R11 RN 2 . . . RNN  iN 

74
Ex. 3.17

• Write the node-voltage matrix equations for the

circuit in Fig. 2.5.7 by inspection.

75
Solution
The circuit in Fig. 2.5.7 has four nonreference nodes,
so we need four node equations. This implies that
the size of the conductance matrix G, is 4 by 4. The
diagonal terms of G, in siemens, are

76
 1 1
G11 = + = 0.3,
5 10
1 1 1
G22 = + + = 1.325,
5 8 1
1 1 1
G33 = + + = 0.5,
8 8 4
1 1 1
G44 = + + = 1.625,
8 2 1

77
 The off-diagonal terms are
1 1
G12 = - = -0.2, G13 = G14 = 0, G21 = - = -0.2,
5 5
1 1
G23 = - = -0.125, G24 = - = -1, G31 = 0,
8 1
1
G32 = -0.125, G34 = - = -0.125, G41 = 0,
8
G42 = -1, G43 = -0.125

78
The input current vector i has the
following terms, in amperes:

i1 = 3, i2 = −1 − 2 = −3, i3 = 0, i4 = 2 + 4 = 6

79
 Thus, the node-voltage equations
are
i  = G v 

 3   0.3 −0.2 0 0   v1 
 −3  −0.2 1.325 −0.125 −1   v 
 =  2
 0   0 −0.125 0.5 −0.125  v3 
    
6  0 −1 −0.125 1.625  v4 

80
Circuit Theorems
• From the previous section, we have discovered that
Kirchhoff's law is a powerful technique in analysing
circuit without changing its configuration.
• However, this will be very tedious for a large,
complex circuit.

81
• In order to handle this complexity, engineers over
the years have developed some theorems to
simplify circuit analysis.
• Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems.

82
3.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
• It often occurs in practice that a particular element
in a circuit is variable (usually called the load) while
other elements are fixed.
• As a typical example, a household outlet terminal
may be connected to different appliances
constituting a variable load.
• Each time the variable element is changed, the
entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again.

83
• To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s theorem provides
a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is
replaced by an equivalent circuit.

84
• According to Thevenin’s
theorem, the linear
circuit in Fig. (a) can be
replaced by that in Fig.
(b).
• The load in Figure above may be a single resistor or
another circuit.
• The circuit to the left of the terminals a-b in Fig. (b)
is known as the Thevenin equivalent circuit;

86
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a
resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off

87
• Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit
analysis.
• It helps simplify a circuit.
• A large circuit may be replaced by a single
independent voltage source and a single resistor.
• This replacement technique is a powerful tool in
circuit design

88
 Ex. 3.19
• Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown in Fig. below, to the left of the terminals a-b.
Then find the current through RL = 6, 16 and 36Ω

89
Solution:
We find RTh by turning off the 32-V voltage source
(replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A current
source (replacing it with an open circuit).

90
The circuit becomes what
is shown in Fig. (a).
Thus,

Fig. (a)
To find VTh consider the
circuit in Fig. (b).
Applying mesh analysis
to the two loops, we
obtain

Fig. (b)
Alternatively, it is even
easier to use nodal
analysis. We ignore the
1Ω resistor since no
current flows through it.
At the top node, KCL
gives
• The Thevenin equivalent
circuit is shown in Fig. (c).
• The current through RL is

When RL = 6 Ω

Fig. (c)

When RL = 16 Ω When RL = 36 Ω
 Ex. 3.20
• Using Thevenin’s
theorem, find the
equivalent circuit to the
left of the terminals in
the given circuit. Then
find I.
3.7 Norton’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

96
• The circuit in Fig. (a)
can be replaced by the
one in Fig. (b).
• From the knowledge of
source transformation,
the Thevenin and
Norton resistances are
equal; that is,
• RN = RTh
Relationship between Thevenin’s
and Norton’s theorem

𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝑁 =
𝐼𝑁

98
Ex. 3.21
Find the Norton
equivalent circuit of the
circuit given at terminals
a-b.
• We find RN in the same
way we find RTh in the
Thevenin equivalent
circuit.
• Set the independent
sources equal to zero.
• This leads to the circuit
in Fig. (a), from which
we find RN. Thus
• To find IN, we short-circuit terminals a and b, as
shown in Fig. (b).
• We ignore the 5Ω resistor because it has been
short-circuited.
• Applying mesh analysis, we obtain

101
i1 = 2 A,
20i2 - 4i1 - 12 = 0
• From these equations,
we obtain
i2 = 1 A = isc = IN
• Find the Norton
equivalent circuit for
the circuit given, at
terminals a-b.
3.7 Superposition Theorem
• The superposition principle states that the voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone

10
• The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a
linear circuit with more than one independent
source by calculating the contribution of each
independent source separately.
• However, to apply the superposition principle, we
must keep two things in mind:

10
1. We consider one independent source at a time
while all other independent sources are turned off.
This implies that we replace every voltage source by
0 V (or a short circuit), and every current source by
0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a
simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are
controlled by circuit variables. With these in mind,
we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

10
Steps to Apply Superposition
Principle
1. Turn off all independent sources except one
source. Find the output (voltage or current) due
to that active source using the techniques
covered in previous sections.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically
all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

10
• Keep in mind that superposition is based on
linearity.
• For this reason, it is not applicable to the effect on
power due to each source, because the power
absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of
the voltage or current.
• If the power value is needed, the current through
(or voltage across) the element must be calculated
first using superposition.

10
 Ex. 3.18
• Use the superposition theorem to find the value of
variables specified in the following circuits.

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

10
Fig. (c)
Fig. (d)

Fig. (e) Fig. (f)

3.9 Maximum power transfer
theorem
• The maximum power transfer theorem states that
‘The power transferred from a supply source to a
load is at its maximum when the resistance of the
load is equal to the internal resistance of the
source.’
• Hence, in Figure A1, when R = r, the power
transferred from the source to the load is a
maximum.

111
Fig. A1

112
Ex. 3.23
The circuit diagram of Figure A2 shows dry cells of
source e.m.f. 6 V, and internal resistance 2.5Ω. If the
load resistance RL is varied from 0 to 5 in 0.5 steps,
calculate the power dissipated by the load in each
case. Plot a graph of RL (horizontally) against power
(vertically) and determine the maximum power
dissipated.

Fig. A2

113
Solution
. E 6
When RL = 0, Current I = = = 2.4 A
r + RL 2.5
Power dissipated P = I RL = ( 2.4 ) ( 0 ) = 0W
2 2

E 6
When RL = 0.5, Current I = = = 2A
r + RL 2.5 + 0.5
Power dissipated P = I RL = ( 2 ) ( 0.5 ) = 2W
2 2

114
.When R = 1, Current I = E 6
= = 1.714 A
r + RL 2.5 + 1
L

Power dissipated P = I RL = (1.714 ) (1) = 2.94W

2 2

115
• A graph of RL against P is shown in Figure A3. The
maximum value of power is 3.60 W which occurs
when RL is 2.5 , i.e. maximum power occurs when
RL = r, which is what the maximum power transfer
theorem states.

Figure A3

116
Ex. 3.24
A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of 30V and
an internal resistance of 1.5Ω. State the value of load
resistance that gives maximum power dissipation
and determine the value of this power.

Ans:
RL = 1.5Ω
P = 150W

117
Ex. 3.25
Find the value of the load resistor RL shown in Fig. A4
that gives maximum power dissipation and
determine the value of this power.

Ans:
RL=2.4Ω
P = 15W
Fig. A4

118
Any Question?