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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

ELECTRICAL
MACHINES I

MODULE 2

PREPARED BY
DR. SOMEFUN T.E
EIE315 – ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

❖Lecturer: Engr. Somefun T.E.

❖ Office Address: EIE, ground floor (G102)
❖ Office phone: 7162
❖Mobile line: 08037632337
❖ Consulting Days: Mondays and Tuesdays
❖ Time: 3 – 5 P.M.

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LEARNING STRATEGIES :
The under-listed methods will be adopted to enable
students learn the content and skills inherent in
this course :
▪ Lecture via power point presentations,
▪ Class Tutorials
▪ Group discussions
▪ Assignments.

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 RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS
1. Electric Machines by I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, Tata
Mc Graw – Hill Publishers, 3rd Edition, 2004.
2. Electrical Machines – P.S. Bimbhra., Khanna
Publishers, 2011.
3. P S Bimbra, “Electrical Machines”, Khanna
publications, 2nd edition, 2008.
4. J B Gupta, “Theory and Performance of Electrical
Machines”, S K Kataria & Sons publications, 14th
edition, 2010.
5. I J Nagrath, D P Kothari, “Electrical Machines”, Tata
Mc Graw Hill publications, 3rd Edition, 2010.
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 Lecture 2
Determination of D.C.
Machine Efficiency
Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Losses in D.C. machines
2.3 Direct loading method, Swinburnes method
and Hopkins test
2.4 Conditions for maximum efficiency of D.C.
machines

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2.1 Introduction
• In the previous lectures, we have learnt about the
principle of operation of d.c. generators and
motors, (starting and speed control of d.c motor).
• Motors convert electrical power (input power) into
mechanical power (output power) while generators
convert mechanical power (input power) into
electrical power (output power).
• Whole of the input power can not be converted
into the output power in a practical machine due to
various losses that take place within the machine.

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Introduction Cont’d
• This causes the efficiency of the machine to be
reduced.
• Efficiency η being the ratio of output power to
input power, is always less than 1 (or 100 %).
• Designer of course will try to make η as large as
possible.
• Order of efficiency of rotating d.c machine is about
80% to 85%.
• It is therefore important to identify the losses
which make efficiency poor.

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Introduction Cont’d
• There are three methods of determining the
efficiency of a machine.
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Regenerative method
• Equations 1, 2 and 3 are expression for determining
efficiency

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Introduction Cont’d
.
output
Efficiency ( ) = (1)
input
input − losses
Efficiency ( ) = (2)
input
output
Efficiency ( ) = (3)
output + losses
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Introduction Cont’d
• The 1st equation is giving an idea about the direct
estimation of the efficiency.
• In this method the machine is fully loaded and the
output is directly measured.
• This method of measurement is only applied for
the small machines.

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Introduction Cont’d
• The 2nd and 3rd equations give an idea about the
indirect estimation of the efficiency.
• Indirect method is helpful of determining the
efficiency of shunt wound generator and
compound wound generators.
• In this method it is required to determine to
determine the losses only.

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Introduction Cont’d
• So, power supply is required to supply the losses
only without loading the machine.

• In this lesson we shall first identify the losses and

then try to estimate them to get an idea of
efficiency of a given d.c machine.

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2.2 Losses in D.C. machine
1. Copper losses
i. Armature Cu loss
ii. Field Cu loss
iii. Loss due to brush contact resistance
2. Iron Losses
i. Hysteresis loss
ii. Eddy current loss
3. Mechanical losses
i. Friction loss
ii. Windage loss
• The above three, categorizes various types of losses
that occur in a dc generator or a dc motor. Each of
these is explained in details below.

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Copper Losses
• These losses occur in armature and field copper
windings.
• Copper losses consist of Armature copper loss, Field
copper loss and loss due to brush contact resistance.
i. Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
where,
Ia = Armature current and
Ra= Armature resistance

This loss contributes about 30 to 40% to full load losses.

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• The armature copper loss is variable and depends upon
the amount of loading of the machine.
ii. Field copper loss = If2Rf
where,
If = field current and
Rf = field resistance

In the case of a shunt wounded field, field copper loss is

practically constant.
It contributes about 20 to 30% to full load losses.

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iii. Brush contact resistance also contributes to the
copper losses.
Generally, this loss is included into armature copper
loss.

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Iron Losses (Core Losses)
• As the armature core is made of iron and it rotates
in a magnetic field, a small current gets induced in
the core itself too.
• Due to this current, eddy current
loss and hysteresis loss occur in the armature iron
core.
• Iron losses are also called as Core losses or
magnetic losses.

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i. Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of
magnetization of the armature core.
When the core passes under one pair of poles, it
undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal.
The frequency of magnetic reversal is given by,
f=P.N/120
where,
P = no. of poles and
N = Speed in rpm

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The loss depends upon the volume and grade of the
iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of
flux density.
Hysteresis loss is given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh=ηB1.6maxfV (watts)

where,
η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

V = volume of the core in m3

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ii. Eddy current loss: When the armature core
rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced
in the core (just like it induces in armature
conductors), according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.
Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large
current to flow in the body due to the low resistance
of the core.
This current is known as eddy current.
The power loss due to this current is known as eddy
current loss.

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Mechanical Losses
• Mechanical loss is the sum of bearing friction loss
and the windage loss (friction loss due to armature
rotation in air).
• For practically constant speed operation, this loss
too, may be assumed to be constant.
• These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.

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Stray Losses
• In addition to the losses stated above, there may be
small losses present which are known as stray
losses or miscellaneous losses.
• These losses are difficult to account.
• They are usually due to inaccuracies in the
designing and modeling of the machine.
• Most of the times, stray losses are assumed to be
1% of the full load.

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Power Flow Diagram
• The most convenient method to understand these
losses in a dc generator or a dc motor is using
the power flow diagram.
• The diagram visualizes the amount of power that
has been lost in various types of losses and the
amount of power which has been actually
converted into the output.
• The following diagrams are typical power flow
diagrams for a dc generator and a dc motor.

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.

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• Similar power flow diagram of a d.c generator can
be drawn to show various losses and input, output
power

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Efficiency of dc machine
Direct loading method, Swinburnes method and
Hopkins test
2.2 Direct loading method
• Direct loading method is also known as brake test.
• For the direct method of testing, the generator or
motor is put on full load and whole of the power
developed by it is wasted.
• The direct tests can be used only on small
machines.

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• Though this method is simple, it involves
complication in the measurement of mechanical
power input in the case of generator and output in
case of a motor.
• If brake is to be applied to a series motor, the brake
must be tight before the motor is started,
otherwise the armature may get damaged and
break into pieces.
• The efficiency is:
• Efficiency = Output / In put

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Advantages of Brake Test on DC
Motor
1. Actual efficiency of the motor under working
conditions can be found out.
2. Brake test is simple and easy to perform.
3. It is not only for dc shunt motor, also can be
performed on any type of D.C. motor

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Disadvantage
1. Accuracy in determining the mechanical power
output of the motor is limited.
2. It is difficult to provide full load for the large
capacity motor.
3. Convenient only for small rated machines due to
limitations regarding heat dissipation
arrangements.
4. Power developed gets wasted hence brake test
method is little expensive.
5. The efficiency observed is on lower side

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Swinburne’s method (No load test)
• Swinburne’s method is an indirect method of
testing of DC machines.
• In this method, the losses are measured separately
and efficiency at any desired load is pre-
determined.
• The iron and friction losses are determined by
measuring the input to the machine on no-load,
the machine being run as a motor at normal
voltage and speed.

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• The copper losses are calculated from measured
values of the various resistances.
• The method may be applied to compound
generators and to shunt motors.
• The connection diagram for DC shunt machine is
shown in the figure below.

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Fig.: Swinburne’s method

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Let
V = the supply voltage
I0 = the no-load current
Ish = the shunt field current
Therefore, no load armature current is given by the
equation shown below.
Ia0 = I0 - Ish
No-load input = VI0

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The no-load power input to the machine supplies the
following;
• Iron loss in the core
• Friction losses in the bearings and commutators.
• Windage loss
• Armature copper loss at no load.

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• If the constant losses of the machine are known, its
efficiency at any other load can be determined as
follows.
Let I be the load current at which efficiency is
required.
Efficiency when the machine is running as a Motor.

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• Therefore, total losses is given as

• The efficiency of the motor is given as

input − losses
m =
input
VI − ( I a2 Ra ) − Pc
m =
VI
VI − ( I − I sh ) 2 Ra − Pc
m =
VI
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• Efficiency when the machine is running as a
Generator

• Therefore, total losses is given as

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• The efficiency of the generator is given as

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Advantages of Swinburne’s Test
1. Power required for this test is small.
2. The efficiency can be predetermined at any load
because constant losses are known.
3. It is a convenient and economical method of
testing D.C. machines since power required to
test a large machine is small

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Disadvantage of Swinburne’s test
1. This test cannot be applied to series motors because
the speed of a series motor being very high at no-
load, it is not possible to run a series motor on no-
load.
2. Iron loss in some cases is as high as 50%.
3. No account is taken of the change in iron loss from
no-load to full load. At full load, due to armature
reaction, flux is distorted which increases the iron
losses.
4. As the test is on no load, it does not indicate whether
the commutation on full load is satisfactory and
whether the temperature rise would be within
specified limits.

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Limitations
1. Swinburne‟s test is applicable to those machines
in which the flux is practically constant, that is
shunt machines and compound generators.
2. Series machines cannot be tested by this method
as they cannot be run on light loads and secondly
speed and flux vary greatly.

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Hopkinson’s Test
• Hopkinson’s Test is also known as Regenerative
Test, Back to Back test and Heat Run Test.
• In Hopkinson Test, two identical shunt machines
are required which are coupled both mechanically
and electrically in parallel.
• One is acting as a motor and another one as a
generator.
• The input to the motor is given by the supply
mains.

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• The mechanical output of motor drives the
generator, and the electrical output of the
generator is used in supplying the input to the
motor.
• Thus, the output of each machine acts as an input
to the other machine.
• When both the machines are running on the full
load, the supply input is equal to the total losses of
the machines.
• Hence, the power input from the supply is very
small.

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The Circuit Diagram of the Hopkinson’s Test is shown
in the figure below

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• Supply is given and with the help of a starter, the
machine M starts and work as a motor.
• The switch S is kept open. The field current of M is
adjusted with the help of rheostat field RM, which
enables the motor to run at rated speed.
• Machine G acts as a generator.
• Since the generator is mechanically coupled to the
motor, it runs at the rated speed of the motor.

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• The excitation of the generator G is so adjusted
with the help of its field rheostat RG that the
voltage across the armature of the generator is
slightly higher than the supply voltage.
• In actual the terminal voltage of the generator is
kept 1 or 2 volts higher than the supply voltage.

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• When the voltage of the generator is equal and of
the same polarity as the busbar supply voltage, the
main switch S is closed, and the generator is
connected to the busbars.
• Thus, both the machines are now in parallel across
the supply.

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• Under this condition, when the machines are
running parallel, the generator are said to float.
This means that the generator is neither taking any
current nor giving any current to the supply.
• Now with the help of a field rheostat, any required
load can be thrown on the machines by adjusting
the excitation of the machines with the help of field
rheostats.

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• Let,
• V = the supply voltage
• IL = the line current
• Im = the input current to the motor
• Ig = the input current to the generator
• Iam = the motor armature current
• Ishm = the motor shunt field current
• Ishg = the generator shunt field current

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• Ra = the armature resistance of each machine
• Rshm = the motor shunt field resistance
• Rshg = the generator shunt field resistance
• Eg = the generator induced voltage
• Em = the motor induced voltage or back emf

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• Therefore,

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• Since the field flux is directly proportional to the
field current.

• Thus, the excitation of the generator is always

greater than that of the motor.

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Calculation of the Efficiency of the
Machine by Hopkinson’s Test
• Power input from the supply = VIL = total losses of
both the machines
• Armature copper loss of the motor = I2am Ra
• Field copper loss of the motor = I2shm Rshm
• Armature copper loss of the generator = I2ag Ra
• Field copper loss of the generator = = I2shg Rshg

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• The constant losses Pc like iron, friction and
windage losses are assumed to be equal and is
written as given below.
• Constant losses of both the machines = Power
drawn from the supply – Armature and shunt
copper losses of both the machines.

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• Assuming that the constant losses known as stray
losses are divided equally between the two
machines.
• Total stray loss per machine = ½ PC

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Efficiency of the Generator
• Output = VIag
• Constant losses for generator is given as PC/2
• Armature copper loss = I2ag Ra
• Field copper loss = I2shg Rshg
• The Efficiency of the generator is given by the
equation shown below

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Efficiency of the Motor
• Constant losses of the motor is given as PC/2
• Armature copper loss = I2am Ra
• Field copper loss = I2shm Rshm
• The Efficiency of the motor is given by the equation
shown below

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Advantages of Hopkinson’s Test
1. This method is very economical.
2. The temperature rise and the commutation
conditions can be checked under rated load
conditions.
3. Stray losses are considered, as both the machines
are operated under rated load conditions.
4. Large machines can be tested at rated load
without consuming much power from the supply.
5. Efficiency at different loads can be determined.

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Disadvantage of Hopkinson’s Test
• The main disadvantage of this method is the
necessity of two practically identical machines for
performing the Hopkinson’s test. Hence, this test is
suitable for large DC machines

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2.3 Conditions for maximum
efficiency of D.C. machines
Maximum efficiency for motor mode
• Let us consider a loaded shunt motor as shown in
the figure below. The various currents along with
their directions are indicated.

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. Output Input − losses
Efficiency  = =
Input Input
Input − armature copper loss - field copper loss - cons tan t loss
=
Input

VI − I a2 Ra − VI f − Pc
=
VI
Assuming that Ia = I, hence If = 0
The efficiency equation can be written as

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. VI a − I Ra − Pc
2
= a

VI a
I a Ra Pc
 = 1− −
V VI a
d Ra Pc
= 0− + 2
=0
dI a V VI
Pc
2
= Ra
I
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.
I Ra = Pc
2

Maximum efficiency for generator mode

Output Output
Efficiency  = =
Input Output + losses

Output
=
Output + armature copper loss + field copper loss + cons tan t loss

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. VI
=
VI + I a2 Ra + VI f + Pc
VI a
=
VI a + I a2 Ra + Pc

1
= 2
I a Ra Pc
1+ +
VI a VI a

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. d  I a Ra Pc 
2

1 + + =0
dI a  VI a VI a 

d  I a Ra Pc 
1 + + =0
dI a  V VI a 
Ra Pc
0+ − 2 =0
V VI a
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. Pc
Ra = 2
I
I Ra = Pc
2

It is clear that condition for maximum efficiency for

both motor and generator is the same.
And the condition is that variable loss must be equal
to constant loss.

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• Load current corresponding to Maximum Efficiency
Let,
Ifl be the full load current
IM is the current
at maximum efficiency

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For maximum efficiency, Therefore, the
current at maximum efficiency is given by
the equation shown below.

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• Considering a simple series motor with power
equation express as

• For maximum gross mechanical power

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Thus maximum efficiency of a dc motor
occurs when back EMF is equal to half the
applied voltage.

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Important Points
• The gross mechanical power developed by a motor is
maximum when back EMF is equal to half the applied
voltage.
This condition is, however, not a realistic one in
practice, this is because current would be much beyond
the normal current of the motor.
Moreover, half of the input power would be wasted in
the form of heat and taking other losses (mechanical
and magnetic) into consideration, the motor efficiency
will be well below 50 percent.

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Ex. 1
• The armature winding of a 200-V, 4-pole, series
motor is lap-connected. There are 280 slots and
each slot has 4 conductors. The current is 45A and
the flux per pole is 18mWb. The field resistance is
0.3 Ω; the armature resistance 0.5 Ω and the iron
and friction losses total 800W. The pully diameter is
0.41m. Find the pull in Newton at the rim of the
pulley.

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Solution
Eb = V - I aR a
Eb = ɸZNP/60A
Note: P = A = 4 (Lap wound)
Total input power = VIa
Cu loss = I2aRa
Iron loss + friction losses = 800W
Output power = input power - losses
Tsh = 9.55 x output/N
F x R = Tsh

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THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING

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