Logic

When we engage in logical thinking, we judge the truth value of a statement. In mathematics, this is the same as
judging statements or more properly, equations whether they are true or false; there are no semi-truths or semi-falsities.
Not all strings of words or expressions can be judge by their truth value. First, we have to know if the string of
words, also called an expression, is a complete thought or a sentence, or simply an equation. When a sentence's truth value
can be either true or false, we can call the sentence a "proposition." The table below demonstrates how each expression
and equation can be seen as a proposition or not (Meleen, n.d.).

Propositional Logic
Now from determining whether it’s a proposition or not, how do we now demonstrate the truth value of an
identified proposition? Using the example propositions above, we show below how their truth value is known:

(Unicode, Inc., 2020)

As you may have observed, we use additional information or evidence to find the truth value of propositions. If we
do not have enough information about a proposition's falsity, we mark it as true. The legal tenet "innocent until proven
guilty" holds in logic (Blecksmith, n.d.).
Logical Operators
In the real world, we put together two or more propositions to come to a conclusion. Citing the examples above,
we’ve had to use additional information or evidence before we could judge the truth value of propositions. By doing such,
we’ve accepted all the additional information as truths. However, what if the additional information were false?
Let’s take the example we use the first proposition in the preceding table, “5z is less than 3.” Let’s assume that the
proposition is true. If the additional information is false, the proposition may be false. This condition is evident in
mathematics, especially if we have to deal with more than one proposition to come to a conclusion to a problem, that is to
judge whether it is true or false.
To create mathematical solutions to a complex problem, we put together two or more propositions to create a new
(simplified) proposition that incorporates all information provided. To do this, we use logical operators. Again, we should
note that if we lack evidence that something is false, it is marked as true (Dictionary.com, n.d.).
To explain mathematical logic, we use the symbols below:

Let’s explain logical operators by using first some real-world problems:

1. Suppose your friend calls you up and tells you, “My dog Stacy gave birth to puppies!” You wonder if your friend
is joking. She says the litter from the birth is 6 puppies, and 2 of the puppies are males. If you can guess how
many are females, you can get some of the puppies.
2. If x=2, does it follow that x2=4?
A. Negation ¬
The logical operator of negation (read as “not”) (¬) negates statements such as conjunctions, disjunctions,
conditional, and bicnditional. Negation of a true statement is false, and the negation of a false statement is true.
 At this point, let’s discuss how the “and” (∧) and “or” (⋁) logical operator can prove the truth value of combined
propositions. We’ll be using the same problems here:

B. Conjunction ∧

D. Disjunction ⋁

For the following three logical operators, we will be assessing a more complex relationship between the
propositions. From here on, we will be assessing the truth values of propositions if p causes q and vice versa.
D. Implication →
The logical operator of implication (“if, then” or “implies”) (→) tests whether the new proposition is true
if p presupposes q. The logical operator also helps us assess if the concluding proposition (q) or a negated premise
proposition (¬p) is true (Edgington, 1995).
In logic rules for implication follows that the new proposition only becomes false when the premise proposition (p)
is true, and the concluding proposition (q) is false. The same rule applies if we switch the pair of propositions.

E. Bi-Conditional ↔
The rules for the bi-conditional logical operator tell us that if both p→q and q→p are true, then p↔q is true. The ↔
is used to assume that only if both components have the same truth value, then it will make the new proposition true as
well. However, if one is true and the other is false, or if one is false and the other is true, then the bi-conditional
proposition is false (Blecksmith, nd; Edgington, 1995).
Since the bi-conditional is related to the implication rule, the table below continues from the previous table (refer to
the last table for the narration of the truth values).

F. Exclusive Or ⨁

Lastly, the exclusive or operator (⨁) is used for assessing situations in which only one proposition should be true.
Meaning, when one proposition is true regardless of the other component, the exclusive or statement is always true.

Negation of a Statement
Let us discuss first the negation (¬). If we negate a True statement, it becomes False, and oppositely, if we negate a
False statement, it becomes True.
Look at the example negation for each statement.
Translation of Compound Statements into Symbolic Form
As stated above, we can integrate symbolic forms and letters such as p and q by looking into the English
connectives to make the above mentioned statement simple, precise, and clear, just as with mathematics.
To begin, consider the following simple statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is too sunny.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am going to the soccer game.

Consider the following compound sentences (combination of the simple statements) and their symbolic forms:

Translation of Symbolic Form into Compound Statements

Oppositely, using the given symbolic forms and letters, we can reverse the process and turn a mathematical
statement into an English one.

Using the following simple statements, let’s develop compound statements using symbolic forms.
p: The game will be played in the Tacloban Astrodome.
q: The game will be shown on GMA-7.
r: The game will not be shown on ABS-CBN.
s: The UP Maroons are favored to win.

Polya’s Problem Solving Technique

You may have heard or read of Polya’s problem-solving technique, or you may have been using some of Polya’s
strategies without knowing it and where they came from. Here is a concise discussion of Polya’s problem-solving
technique.
In his book “How to Solve It,” George Polya enumerates the four basic principles of problem-solving:
 1. Understand the problem;
2. Devise a plan;
3. Carry out the plan; and
4. Look back.
Principle 1: Understand the Problem
Understanding the problem entails;
1. knowing the meaning of every keyword, expression, and symbol in the problem;
2. determining the given data and whether they are sufficient;
3. distinguishing which of these data are necessary to solve the problem and which are superfluous;
4. identifying what is not known and what is being required to be found; and
5. establishing the limitations or conditions to which the given data are subjected.
It is often helpful to restate the problem in your own words, list down the given data, and draw a diagram or figure
to better grasp the problem. Introducing your own notations or representations, such as when you let x be equal to an
unknown number or when you consider a shaded region of a figure to represent a fraction of the area to be found, will
give you a better appreciation of the problem. Your ability to represent mathematical information symbolically and
visually and restate it verbally is a sure sign that you have understood the problem.
Principle 2: Devise a Plan
Devising a plan is strategizing. There are many ways to approach or “attack” a problem based on its general nature.
1. Make a guess and check if it does solve the problem.
2. Represent the unknown and write an equation.
3. Look for a pattern either within the problem or from previous problems solved.
4. Make an orderly list.
5. Draw a figure or picture.
6. Use a formula, model, or symmetry.
7. Go through the process of elimination.
8. Consider various cases.
9. Work backwards.
Establishing the connection between the known data and the unknown will help you decide which strategy is most
appropriate to use at that time. You may also have to determine the questions you will have to answer before answering
the main question. The circumstances surrounding the problem are also important. You may have encountered similar or
the same circumstances before.
The ability to discern which strategy is most appropriate is obtained by solving many problems. The more problems
you are able to tackle, the easier it will be for you to determine an effective strategy readily.
Principle 3: Carry out the Plan
Implement your chosen plan or combination of strategies. Proceed with care, orderliness, patience, and persistence.
Thoroughly check each step of your solution. Use assumptions sparingly. If your plan does not lead you to a believably
correct answer, recheck your work. If your plan still fails, choose another strategy. This is how Thomas Edison worked
until he was able to produce the “perfect” bulb. It is always helpful to start with a clean sheet of paper every time you
recheck your work or change your strategy. You might not see the glitch in your solution if you go over a messy work with
many erasures or numbers superimposed on other numbers.
Principle 4: Look Back
In any problem solving, looking back is as important as understanding the problem itself. Reflecting on your work
will give you insights into why your initial plan did not work or why your adopted strategy worked in your favor. Going
over your work will enable you to appreciate the strategy and use it in future problem-solving activities. Checking your
work ensures that your answer is reasonably correct and whether you have truly answered the questions in the problem or
not.
Process Flow:
Understand the Problem
 What are the given data?
 What details are not known?
 What is required to be found?
Devise a Plan
 What is the nature of the problem? (arithmetic, algebraic, geometric, probability, etc.)
 What are the possible strategies to adopt?
 Why have you chosen a particular strategy?
Carry out the Plan
 What steps were taken?
 Were there problems encountered?
 What materials did you need?
Look Back
 How effective was the plan?
 Could you have gotten the answer faster?
 How did you go about rechecking your work?
In your course of study in Mathematics, you may have used several problem-solving techniques, such as guessing
and checking, assuming simpler values, looking for a pattern, drawing a diagram, making a list, writing an equation,
working backwards, etc.
Let us see how each of the following problems can be solved using a particular strategy.
Illustrative Example 1

Problem: If a woman is randomly chosen from a group of mothers with exactly three children, what are the chances
that all her three children are male?
There seem to be four possibilities. A woman can have three, two, one, or no male children. So, you may conclude
that there is one out of four chances or 25% chance that a randomly chosen woman would have three male children.
However, that is a wrong conclusion.
Solution:
Drawing a diagram (tree) and/or making a list of all possible outcomes will help obtain the correct answer. Let us
designate B for boys and G for girls.

Illustrative Example 2

Problem: In a five story-condominium building, there are only 58 out of 75 units occupied. There are twice as many
units occupied on the fifth floor than on the third floor; three more units occupied in the fourth floor than in the third floor;
two fewer units occupied in the second floor than in the fifth floor; and one more unit occupied in the first floor than in
the fifth floor. How many units are occupied on each floor?
This problem can be solved by representing each quantity and writing an equation.
Solution:

Therefore, there are 7 occupied units on the third floor. Solve and fill in the rest.
_______ occupied units on the first floor,
_______ occupied units on the second floor,
_______ occupied units on the fourth floor, and
_______ occupied units on the fifth floor.
Real-Life Problem Solving for the Quick-Witted
Unlike the ones above, some problems require quick thinking and immediate action to resolve them. In real life, we
may encounter such problems or find ourselves in a situation where our loved ones or we are put in imminent danger or
physical harm. So as not to be frozen by fear and by a pretentious hope of someone else lending a hand, we need to
develop mental alertness.
We all know what to do in case of a sudden power failure at night in our home. We need to get our portable
emergency light on, be it a candle and lighter or matchsticks, flashlight, or rechargeable lamp. To be prepared for such, we
keep these things in a place which we can easily grope our way in the darkness. We then turn them on, check the
windows, lock the doors, and make sure everyone in the house is accounted for and safe.
We also get prepared for fires and earthquakes by knowing what to do during these emergencies and even going
through a fire/earthquake drill. Below are two columns you need to fill out with the things you need to do in case of fire or
earthquake.
Illustrative Example 3
While most accidents happen due to carelessness, many accidents are preventable only if we have been drilled on
what to do, much like in a fire and earthquake drill. Studying particular critical situations and dangerous scenarios
beforehand can help us be more prepared on how to behave and what to do. Now, let us examine together two situations
where quick-wittedness and fast action are indispensable.

1. You are awakened in the middle of the night by a buzzing sound and discover that an insect had crawled inside your ear.
That night you are alone in the house.
If your first instinct is to get a pair of tweezers, maybe you should think twice before using it. It is difficult enough
to pluck out an insect that had gone deep inside your ear, even with the help of someone. It would be doubtfully hard to do
that all by yourself. Even if the tweezers can get a good grip on the bug, either the bug goes even deeper into your ear to
avoid being yanked out, or you will be able to pull out only a limb or some body parts of the insect. Certainly, you do not
want the insect dying inside your ear. You think of bringing yourself to a hospital and have the doctor/nurse there pluck it
out. But the drive to the hospital will take quite a while amidst moderate traffic. Besides, the constant buzzing of the pesky
insect is driving you crazy. You have to get it out now. Then you remember a lesson in Science class that bugs and insects
are attracted to bright light. So instead of getting a pair of tweezers or your car keys, you fetch a flashlight or a goose-
necked lamp. You put its beam of light close to your ear and wait for the insect to fly towards the light.
Other than that, this situation implies two lessons: (1) clean your ears regularly so that insects will not be attracted
to whatever is in there and (2) when one goes towards the light, s/he can never come back.
2. You are enjoying a late afternoon swim 200 meters away from shore when all of a sudden, the sky becomes dark and a
thunderstorm ensues. You simultaneously hear thunder rolling and see lightning flashing. Your rowboat is anchored about
200 meters from the shore too.
Your first thought might be to get onto the rowboat, lift its anchor, and row it to shore. But then you remember two
lessons in Earth Science. First, when thunder and lightning occur almost simultaneously, the thunderstorm is very near
your location. Second, lightning strikes the highest projection at sea; if you get onto the boat, the chances of lightning
hitting you is highest. Your best option, therefore, is to simply swim to shore and find shelter there. Never mind the
rowboat in the meantime as you can always come back for it after the thunderstorm.
Other Supplementary Readings: Cariño et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Problem Solving and
Reasoning (pp. 43-45).

There are various approaches to determine the sample size. This includes: (1) using a census for small populations, (2)
using the sample size of similar studies, (3) using published tables by well-established authors, say, the sample size table
using Cochran’s formulas which is available online, (4) using sample size calculator, and (5) applying other formulas.
There is no recommended standard sample size since it can vary in different types of research and settings. However, all
else being equal, a large sample size leads to a more increased precision of the various attributes of the population. Thus,
in research, the bigger the sample size, the more accurate you can be that the results truly reflect that of the entire
population. Let us explore the two relevant terms which are usually taken for granted by researchers.
1. Confidence Interval or the Margin of Error (e)
It is the plus/minus number usually reported in the newspaper or television when reporting the result of an
opinion poll. It tells us how much ± percentage points the results deviate from the real population value.

2. Confidence Level (in %)

It tells the researcher how sure s/he can be that the responses of the sample represent that of the population.
This answers the question of how confident we are in the given margin of error.

For example: A 95% confidence interval with a 3 percent margin of error (e = ± 3%) means that our statistic
will be within ± 3 percentage points of the real population most (95%) of the time.
Illustrative Example
Let us use the results of the Jobstreet.com survey which says that Filipinos are the happiest employees in the
Southeast Asia.

(Rodiriguez, 2016)
Let us assume that the researcher used a 5% margin of error, thus, the results are interpreted in the following
manner.

Job Happiness Index Using Assuming e = ± 5%

Country
Samples This implies that in the population…

1. Philippines 73% 68% to 78% of Filipinos are happy with their jobs.

2. Indonesia 71% 66% to76% of Indonesians arehappy with their jobs.

3. Thailand 61% ?

4. Vietnam 60% ?

The Misuse of Slovin’s Formula

The use of Slovin's Formula is quite popular in determining the sample size of a survey research, especially in
undergraduate thesis in many areas because of its simplicity. The computation is solely based on the size of the population
and the margin of error. The Slovin's Formula is given as follows:
where “n” is the sample size, “N” is the population size, and “e” is the margin of error which is decided by the researcher.
However, according to Punzalan and Tejada (2012), Slovin’s formula is applicable only when estimating a
population proportion and when the confidence level is 95%. Moreover, it is optimal only when the population proportion
is suspected to be close to 50%. Hence, it only advisable to use Slovin’s formula if all the abovementioned assumptions
are met, otherwise it is not.

Sampling Techniques

The methods of selecting samples from a given population

1. Simple Random Sampling
It is the most basic sampling technique where samples are selected from a population entirely by chance,
and each member of the population has an equal or known chance of being included in the sample.
Example: Lottery sampling, or the use of random numbers.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a sampling method that subdivides the population into smaller groups known
as strata. The strata are formed based on members' common attributes or characteristics. A sample from each
stratum proportional to its size when compared to the population is pooled to form a random sample.
Example: A government official questions the veracity of a survey: A government official on Tuesday
(April 26) said the public should not merely rely on presidential surveys despite the latest results showing one
candidate leading the presidential race at 33 percent. The Presidential spokesperson said on his Facebook page
that “based on the estimates, the weights did not seem to tally with the actual percentage of voters.” (continue
answering on Activity C)

Data Gathering Techniques

1. Qualitative Research
This technique of data gathering seeks to give an in-depth picture of why and how people behave, or why a
phenomenon occurred in words. By collecting data from interviews, observations, focus group discussions, open-
ended questions, etc., researchers draw conclusions and make inferences.
2. Quantitative Research
This technique seeks to describe a phenomenon or behavior by collecting numerical data or data in words,
which are translated into numbers in order to describe, generalize, and infer.

For easier reference:

Qualitative = Quality (Attributes/Characteristics/In words)
Quantitative = Quantity (Numbers/Ranks/Words translated to numerical values)
The type of research you choose will depend on your research questions, your underlying philosophy of research,
and your preferences and skills.
Data Gathering Technique

Quantitative Data Collection Qualitative Data

(numerical) (attributes)

Direct or interview In-depth interview

Indirect or questionnaire (paper/pencil or web-based: close- Indirect or questionnaire (paper/pencil or web-based: close-
ended) ended)

Registration Document review

Experimental/clinical trials Focus group discussion

Observation Observation

Regardless of the types of data involved, gathering of data in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time. The
researcher needs to comprehensively record any possible useful data truthfully and methodically using notes, graphs,
audiotapes, photographs, and any other suitable and available means. In addition, for both type of research, the data
collection methods must also observe the ethical principles of research.
Other Supplementary Readings: Cariño et al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Problem Solving and
Reasoning (pp. 71-75).
Managing and Understanding Data Using Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the attributes of a particular group of people, places, or things without
trying to infer about the population. They apply only to that sample of a population from which the data have been
collected. The generalization of a population is beyond the scope of descriptive statistics. In this section, the descriptive
statistics to be discussed will include means, standard deviations, proportions, ranks, and correlation.
After gathering data, you need to present them in tables and/or graphs for more accessible analysis and
interpretation. With the responses logically and visually presented in tables and graphs, you can now easily analyze and
interpret results. After that, you will give findings, draw conclusions, and make inferences. However, let us differentiate
the three overarching terms before you go on, which we will use in this section.
Findings – are the results of any investigation; they may include proportions, percentages, ranks, and values taken
from the tables and graphs.
Conclusions – are one’s opinions based on findings; it may not include numerical values found in the findings; it
can start with the phrase, “I, therefore, conclude that…”
Inferences – are predictions/assumptions based on findings and conclusions; may start with the phrase, “If this
trend will continue, then…”

Proportions and Percentages

The basic statistics that one should know are the proportions and percentages. These are the most popular but also
the most abused statistics because of their relevance and importance. A proportion is the fraction of the whole
population/sample, which possesses the attribute under investigation. A percentage is just a different way of stating a
proportion. It is equal to the proportion times 100.
Illustrative Example 1
Example: What proportion of the sample (120) is bothered (90) by the “Proliferation of Fake News Online?”
Analysis: Since there are 120 samples and 90 said they are bothered, then the proportion is 9012090120. You can
further simplify this given proportion into other terms like 3 out of 4, or 0.75. From the proportion 0.75, you can just
move the decimal point 2 places to the right and then add the % symbol to get the percentage. Thus, the percentage is
equal to 75%.

Assigning of Ranks
When data are arranged in order of magnitudes, whether descending or ascending, the ranks determine an ordering.
With an example statement below, we can say that the author’s findings which are seen in a table arranged in certain
magnitude provides that the girls are performing better in almost all of the academic qualities. What do you think are these
attributes that help or that the author used in his/her table to identify that girls are better in terms of boys in academic
terms?

The example below, however, will introduce us to the common issues of ranking elements. What if two elements
have the same scores? What will their ranks be? What rank that comes next?
Illustrative Example 2
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit's (EIU) Global Livability Ranking, which scores 140 cities on five
lifestyle categories: stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education, and infrastructure (cost of living was not
taken into account). Six of the top 10 livable cities in the world are in Australia and Canada

In reference to the table above, you can assign ranks manually following the steps below:
1. Arrange the scores or the overall ratings, from highest to lowest;
2. Melbourne is assigned Rank 1 because it has the highest score; Rank 2 is Vienna, and so on;
3. Adelaide & Calgary have the same score (96.6). Thus they have the same rank (5.5); that is

4. Perth is assigned Rank 7, not 6, because there are six countries above it.

Using Microsoft Excel to Assign Ranks

Certain tools also help us in making ranks easier. For example, Microsoft Excel RANK function can be used to
generate the ranks automatically. The figure below shows how it is used to assign ranks without trying to break the ties.
Make sure to follow the steps with your own device.