74 A Walk Through Combinatorics No Matter How You Slice It.

The Binomial Theorem and Related Identities 75

Notes (6) A heap consists of n stones. We split the heap into two smaller heaps,
neither of which are empty. Denote p\ the product of the number of
Exercises 19 and 20 concern two interesting areas of Combinatorics. One of stones in each of these two heaps. Now take any of the two small heaps,
them is unimodality and log-concavity, and the other is the combinatorics and do likewise. Let P2 be the product of the number of stones in each
of lattice paths. Interested readers can consult Chapter 8 of [6] for an
of the two smaller heaps just obtained. Continue this procedure until
introductory text on the topic. Another good starting point is [32], where
each heap consists of one stone only. This will clearly take n — 1
lattice paths are used to prove unimodality results in a very accessible way.
steps. For what sequence of splits will the sum p\ + pi + • • • + pn-i
After that, we recommend [12] for unimodality and log-concavity results,
be maximal? When is that sum minimal?
and [21] for lattice path enumeration.
(7) Prove that any positive integer n has at least as many divisors of the
form 4k + 1 as divisors of the form 4k — 1.
Exercises (8) Prove that for all positive integers n, the inequality (2^) < 4n holds.
(9) How many subsets of [n] are larger than their complements?
(l)(a) Is it possible to write a real number into each square of a 5 x 5 grid (10) Which term of (x\ + xi H 1- Xk)k has the largest coefficient? What
so that the sum of the numbers in the entire grid is negative, but the is that coefficient?
sum of the numbers in any 2 x 2 square (formed by 4 neighboring (11) Let n < k. What is the largest coefficient in {x\ + xi + • • • + ifc) n ?
boxes) is positive? (12) Let n = rk, where r > 1 is an integer. What is the largest coefficient
(b) What about a 6 x 6 grid? in (xi +x2 H h2/0 n ?
(2) + (13) Let k and m be non-negative integers, and let n = 2 m — 1. Prove that
(a) We plant 13 trees at various points in the interior of a garden (I) ^ odd.
whose shape is a convex octogon. Then we create some non- (14) Let k and m be positive integers, and let n = 2 m . Prove that (£) is
intersecting paths joining some of these trees and the eight corners even.
of the garden so that these paths partition the garden into trian- (15) Let p > 3 be a prime number, and let m and k < pm be positive
gles. How many triangles will be created? integers. Show that (pfc ) is divisible by p.
(b) What if we also add five trees to the boundary of the garden? (16) Let p be a prime number, and let x > 1 be any positive integer.
(These five trees are not in corners.) Consider a wheel with p spokes shown in Figure 4.2.

(3) Prove that for all integers n > 2,

2"-2-n.(n-l) = f > ( * - l ) Q .
fc=2

How can we generalize this identity?

(4) Let k, m, n be positive integers such that k + m < n. Prove that
n\ (n — m\ _ / n \ (n — k^
\.m) V k ) \k) \ m
(5) Prove that for integers 0 < k < n — 1,
Fig. 4.2 A wheel with five spokes.

w /
j=0 j=0 (a) We have paints of x different colors. How many ways are there to
76 A Walk Through Combinatorics
No Matter How You Slice It. The Binomial Theorem and Related Identities 77

color the spokes if we want to use at least two colors?

(25) Find a closed form for X}°1„ nxn 1.
(b) How many ways are there to do the same if we do not consider
(26) Prove that ^ = £„>o ( 2 > " .
two paint jobs different if one can be obtained from the other by
rotation? (27) Find the power series form of f(x) =
(c) What theorem of number theory does this prove?
(17) Prove that
Supplementary Exercises
£ \ai,a,2,a3
= 3".
ai+a2+a3=n N *' " (28) A computer programmer claims that he generated six real numbers
(18) Prove that oi,02, • • • ,a6 so that the sum of any four consecutive a* is positive,

£ j ( - i r = i.
but the sum of any 3 consecutive a; is negative. Prove that his claim
is false.
(29) A school has 105 students, and seven classes. If each student takes
(19) + A walk on the grid of points with integer coordinates that uses the
three classes, and each class is taken by the same number of students,
steps (0,1) and (1,0) only is called a northeastern lattice path.
how many students are taking each class?
Let k and n be positive integers so that k < n/2. Define an injection
from the set of northeastern lattice paths from (0,0) to (k, n — k) into (30) The sum of each row of a 10 x 6 matrix (that means ten rows, six
the set of northeastern lattice paths from (0,0) to (k + l,n — k — 1). columns) is 36. If each column of the matrix has the same sum r,
(Recall that the function / is called an injection if f(x) — f(y) implies what is that sum?
x = y; in other words, different elements have different images.) Why (31) How many ways northeastern lattice paths are there from (0,0) to
does this prove that the sequence (JJ), ("), • • • , (™) is unimodal? (n,k)7
(20) Prove that if k and n are positive integers, and k < n — 1, then we (32) How many northeastern lattice paths are there from (0,0) to (10,10)
have that do not touch the point (5,5), but do touch the point (3,3)?
(33) Prove that for all positive integers n,
'*:.)(*;.) ^ 0 0 - <«»> 2n\
= £' Y^

k=0
n

We note that the sequence 00,0,1,0,2,-•• ,an of positive real num- fc=0

bers is called log-concave if for 1 < i < n — 1, the inequality (34) Prove that for all positive integers n,
n
Oi-iOi+i < a? holds. So the exercise asks us to prove that the se-
quence (0) »(?).••• . (") is log-concave.
3" = J2 2*
fc=0
(21) + Give a non-computational proof of the previous exercise, using (35) Prove that for all positive integers k <n, the equality
northeastern lattice paths.
(22) Prove that if the sequence ao, 01,02, • • • , an of positive real numbers
is log-concave, then it is unimodal.
(23) + Let Cn be the number of northeastern lattice paths from (0,0) to holds.
(n,n) that never go above the diagonal x = y. Prove that Cn = (36) Take the integral of both sides of the equation
(?)-(„a-"i) = (»")/(»+!)•
(24) + Let a > b be two positive integers. Prove that the number of
a+.r-i:(:>-. fc=0
northeastern lattice paths from (0,0) to (a, b) that never go above the Explain what constant C you will need to take on the right-hand side
main diagonal is ( a ^ 6 ) - (£^f) • to keep the equation valid.
78 A Walk Through Combinatorics
No Matter How You Slice It. The Binomial Theorem and Related Identities 79

(37) Prove that for all positive integers n > 1,

(45) Consider the expression
(xi + x2 + --- + xk)n.

(a) Let us assume that when we expand this power, there will be an
(38) Find a closed formula for the expression integer that occurs as a coefficient only once. What relation does
that imply between k and n?
tk+\ (b) Can it happen that there will be more than one coefficient that
^ k + 1 \k
fc=0 occurs only once in the expansion?
where t ^ — 1 is any fixed real number.
(46) + What digit is immediately on the right of the decimal point in
(39) Prove that for all positive integers n, the equality
{V3 + V2)2002?
(47) + What digits are immediately on the left and right of the decimal
E n' \ .*, =3"+ (-!)"
k n ^ 2 point in (vTl + vTO) 2002 ?
fc=0
fc even (48) We want to select as many subsets of [n] as possible, without selecting
holds. two subsets so that neither one of them contains the other.
(40) Prove that for all positive integers n, the equality
(a) Prove that we can always select at least 2™/n subsets.
(b) Can we improve the result of part (a)?
E .fc K-
k odd
(49) + A company specializing in international trade has 70 employees.
For any two employees A and B, there is a language that A speaks
holds. but B does not, and also a language that B speaks but A does not.
(41) + Let n = 4k, with k being a non-negative integer. Prove that At least how many different languages are spoken by the employees of
this company?
+ J (
S(»)<-"'=(C)-0 Q-- " -"'- (50) Find the number of pairs of non-intersecting northeastern lattice paths
(p, q) so that p goes from (0,0) to (k,n — k) and q goes from (—1,1)
(42) + + to (k- l , n - k + l).
(51) Let / „ be the number of all sequences consisting of n copies of 1 and
(a) Let n = 3fc. Prove that
n + 1 copies of —1 in which all proper initial segments have a non-
lim E
' = ° &) 1 negative sum. Prove that / „ = ( 2 n n h l ) / ( n + 1) as follows.
=
n->oo 2n 3 Form blocks consisting of 2n + 1 sequences each so that sequences
In other words, the sum of every third element of the nth row of in any given block are circular translates of each other. So if
the Pascal triangle is roughly one third of the sum of all elements oi02 • • • a2n+\ is a sequence in the block B, then the other sequences
of that row. in X are a2a3 • • • a2n+iai, 0304 • • • a\a2, and so on. Then prove that
(b) Generalize the result of part (a). each block contains exactly one sequence satisfying the requirement
of the previous paragraph.
(43) What is the coefficient of xn in the power series form of \/T^2x?
(52) Explain the connection between the previous exercise and Exercise 23.
(44) If we expand the expression (53) Let p > 2 be a prime number. For what values of n will each binomial
coefficient (™), with 0 < k < n, be divisible by p?
(Xi + X2 + X3 + Z 4 ) 6 ,
(54) Exercise 20 showed that for any fixed n, the sequence (JJ) , ( " ) , • • • , (£)
what will be the largest coefficient that occurs? was log-concave. Now let us prove that for any fixed k, the infinite