1.

1 - Ethics
The meaning of PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is deduced from the Greek words “philein” meaning “love” and
“sophia” meaning “wisdom”. Etymologically, philosophy means “love of wisdom”.
Philosophy is the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles,
acquired by the aid of human reason alone.
Branches of Philosophy

1. Logic
2. Ethics – is the study of the nature and morality of human acts.
3. Epistemology
4. Metaphysics
5. Aesthetics
6. Social/Political philosophy

UNDERSTANDING ETHICS
Etymologically, the word ethics is coined from the Greek word “ethicos”, or that which
pertains to “ethos”, the English translation of which is “custom” or “character”. From this
etymological meaning, ethics is taken to mean as a philosophical science that deals
with the morality of human conduct or human acts.
Ethics is a philosophical science. This means that ethics is one of the many
disciplines in philosophy.
Four Disciplines / Divisions in Philosophy:

1. Descriptive or Speculative – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question:

what is the nature of reality? (Metaphysics)

1. Normative – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: What is good and
what is bad? Or what is right action and wrong action? (Moral philosophy)
2. Practical philosophy – a discipline in philosophy which reflects upon truth in relation
to action. (Logic)
3. Critical philosophy – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: What is
truth? (Epistemology)

What do we mean by “morality of human acts?” Morality of human acts refers to the
goodness of the badness, the rightness or the wrongness of human acts.
Other definitions of Ethics:
 Ethics refers to the philosophy of morals or the standard character set up by any
race or nation. It also refers to the study and philosophy of human conduct,
emphasizing the determination of right and wrong or the basic principles of right
action.
 Ethicsare external standards, provided by the institutions, groups or culture to which
an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen and doctors all have to
follow an ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless of their own feelings
or preferences.
 Ethics can also be considered as a social system or a framework for acceptable
behavior.

CHARACTER VS. PERSONALITY

CHARACTER PERSONALITY

It is objective in nature. It is within It is subjective. It changes at point

a person. in time.

A particular system of trait that is A set of characteristics that each

permanent to each person. person possesses.

It is molded depending on his It influences how one behaves as

environment. well as one’s motivation.

One’s character shows on how the

person acts and reacts to his or her
The image that one presents in
peers and how she or he deals
front of other.
with everything that happens
around him or her.

UNDERSTANDING MORALITY
Difference between Ethics and Morality
Ethics outlines theories of right or wrong. It provides the principles on the
morality of human acts; it equips man with a (theoretical) knowledge of the morality of
human acts. We know, however that knowing is different from doing. It does not
necessarily follow that man does what he knows. This means that ethics does not
actually guarantee that man will be moral or good. One can only become moral (or good
human person) when one applies ethics. In other words, when one does the theories of
ethics one actually performs the theory, meaning one is actually doing ethics. This is
morality: the praxis of the theory.
NOTA BENE:
 Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to be. The most
successful professional, is nothing unless he too is morally upright. Thus, the
philosophers speak of Ethics as the “only necessary knowledge”.
Morality is the foundation of every human society. Without civic morality,
communities perish; without personal morality their survival has no value. Every culture
admits the importance of morality as a standard of behavior. When the moral foundation
of a nation is threatened, society itself is threatened.
Morality is the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad
or indifferent.
ETHICS VS. MORALITY

ETHICS MORALS / MORALITY

The rules of conduct

Principles or habits with
recognized in respect to
respect to right or wrong
a particular class of
conduct. It defines how
human actions or a
What is it? things should work
particular group, culture,
according to an
etc. It defines how thing
individual’s ideals and
are according to the
principles.
rules.

Source Social system / External Individual / Internal

Because we believe in
Because society says it is
Why we do it? something being right or
the right thing to do.
wrong.

Ethics are dependent on

others for definition. They Usually consistent,
tend to be consistent although can change if an
Flexibility
within a certain context, individual’s beliefs
but can vary between change.
contexts.

MORALITY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

 There is morality because there is man.

1. Man is the only Moral Being by virtue of the following reasons.

2. Man is a being of action.
3. Man has intellect.
4. Man has will.
5. Man as an Animal
6. Man as a Rational Animal
7. Intellect compared with will
8. Concrete Basis of Morality

UNDERSTANDING VALUES
Undeniably, there is a metaphysical dependence of values in ethics, for values
have ethics as one of their indispensable carriers. True enough, ethics and values
support each other. An ethics without values is hollow and shallow and, therefore, weak.
Values without ethics are paralytic. Needless to say, values are values even if they are
not put into practice because primarily – not absolutely - values are objective. If values
are construed this way, it can be inferred that they have nothing to do with ethics. The
contention can be justified in view of the fact that not everything which is good is moral
or ethical. In other words, not all values (good) are necessarily moral. The good in a
glass of water – because it satisfies our thirst – does not quality water as moral. The
good in food – because it satisfies our hunger – does not make food moral as well.
In principle, actions presuppose values. The radix of actions is the values of a
person. The kind or quality of an act which a person performs is a manifestation of his
values. Values are implicitly related to a degree of behavioural freedom or autonomy by
human beings; values steer or guide the person, on the basis of internally chosen
options. Thus, values imply the (conscious) prioritising the different behavioural
alternatives which are perceived to be possible for the individual. Values can apply to
groups or individuals, and can be both processes and a goal.
Values should necessarily have carriers. In the interplay of values and ethics, it
is the latter that serves as the carrier of values. This is why values are rooted in ethics.
Ethics or moral philosophy is not the only carrier of values, however. Values are also
carried by culture, religion, beliefs and the like.
Axiology – a branch of philosophy that studies values and value judgments.
General definition of Values

 Values are the object of human desire and striving; they are also the subjective
assessment of a particular object insofar as it is good.
 Values are our beliefs, those beliefs which we hold to be true. Thus values inspire us
to struggle towards our proximate and ultimate ends.
 Values refer to things, person, ideas or goals which are important to life; they enable
us to direct, understand, and evaluate our lives. Thus, they refer to our ideals and
our principles by which we live. Further, values are those which we like, approve,
esteem, enjoy and prize.

Properties of Values
1. Values are subjective – when we say values are subjective, we mean that the
existence and the validity of values are dependent upon on the feelings or attitudes
of the subject.
2. Values are objective – when we say values are objective, we mean that the
existence and the nature of values are independent of a subject.
3. Values are relative – this means that values have intrinsic limitation and
imperfection.
4. Values are bipolar – this mean that values do not exist alone; they always exist with
their counter values. Thus, values are either positive or negative.
5. Values are hierarchical – when we say values are hierarchical, we do not classify
values but rather we rank them. When we rank values, we establish order of
importance among them. The closest meaning of ranking values is prioritizing
values.

Classification of values

1. Intrinsic and Instrumental values – Intrinsic values are those which are considered
values in themselves. Instrumental values are those construed as desired good
because of their good to us and to others. In comparing the two, the former is called
primary while the latter, secondary values.
2. Accidental and Natural Values – The former is subject to variability, temporality and
impermanence while the latter are those that are permanent in human nature.
3. Primary and Secondary values – The former refers to values that are chosen, acted
upon, cherished, and are necessary for human development while the latter refers to
those values that are obligatory in nature.
4. Religious values – They are those that enable us to encounter the Absolute: God.
5. Cultural Values – They are those values that embrace poetry, painting, architecture,
music, literature, etc.
6. Social Values – These are understood as perfect, attributed to an object or attitude
from the standpoint of relationship between means and ends in society.

UNDERSTANDING HUMAN ACTS

Human acts are actions that proceed from the deliberate free will of man. In a
broader perspective, the term human acts refer to any activity performed by man. This
activity could either be physical, spiritual, internal, or external. Moral philosophy,
however, treats the term human acts not in its broader but in its stricter meaning. Moral
Philosophy, therefore, understands human acts as actions that are proper only to man.
These actions are those which man does not share with the brutes for human acts are
rational and willed acts.
HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN

HUMAN ACTS ACTS OF MAN

It does not require man’s

It requires man’s rationality.
rationality.

It requires knowledge, freedom and These are man’s action which man
voluntariness shares with the brutes.

It does not need man’s freedom

and will.

It does not make man responsible

for his action.

Three-fold Elements of Human Acts

1. Knowledge

- A human act is an act done with knowledge.

- Doing an act with knowledge makes the act deliberate.
- Agent has intellect knowledge of the act.
- Agent has awareness about the mean to employ as he performs an act.
- Agent has also the awareness of the end to achieve in his actions.

2. Freedom

- An act done with freedom means that the agent does an act under the control
of his will.
- This suggests that when the agent performs an act with his freedom, his will is
not affected or influenced by any constraint either within himself or outside himself.

3. Voluntariness

- These require the presence of the two other constituents.

- This means that the voluntary act is synonymous with human act.
- It must always be remembered that an action can only be qualified a human
act if it has the three constituents.
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
• This course deals with the professional conduct and ethical standards of
Professionals, and as Criminologists in the practice of their profession and field
of specialization; Governing Ethical codes both in Government and Private
sectors and their relevance to Human Relations.
• Philosophy of Ethics, Morality, Standard Behavior, Values, and Social Norms.
• Professional Regulation Commission Oath, Professional Conduct and Ethical
Standards.
• Philippine Registered Criminologists Professional Conduct and Ethical
Standards.
• Oath of Office for Public Officers and Employees, and Code of Conduct and
Ethical Standards among Government Officials and Employees.
• Law Enforcement Code of Ethics.
• Academic Ethics and Integrity.
• Proper Decorum or Polite Behavior, and Etiquette or Polite Conduct in
Government and Private sector.
• Etiquette in Private and Professional dealings.
• Human Relations.

INTRODUCTION
• Ethics
Word ethics is coined from the Greek word “ethicos”, or that which pertains to
“ethos”, the English translation of which is “custom” or “character”. From this
etymological meaning, ethics is taken to mean as a philosophical science that deals
with the morality of human conduct or human acts.
• Philosophy – concerned with the nature and validity of each major aspect of
human existence.
• Morality – concerned with standards of right or wrong behavior.
• Morals – what is considered right or wrong behavior based on social custom.
• Ethics – concerned with the moral dimension of human life/evaluating human
action
- What is right or wrong based on reason
- Reflective and critical
Four Disciplines / Divisions in Philosophy:
1. Descriptive or Speculative – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: What
is the nature of reality? (Metaphysics)
2. Normative – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: What is good and
what is bad? Or what is right action and wrong action? (Moral philosophy)
3. Practical philosophy – a discipline in philosophy which reflects upon truth in relation
to action. (Logic)
4. Critical philosophy – a discipline in philosophy that posits the question: What is truth?
(Epistemology)

Types of Ethics
• Branch 1: Normative ethics
 The word ‘normative’ is an adjective which comes from the word ‘norm’,
which means a ‘standard’, or a ‘rule’, so moral norms are standards or
principles with which people are expected to comply (Normative ethical
theories Introduction, nd).

1. Axiology: the study of goodness and badness. Some theories:

a) hedonism: the theory that pleasure and the absence of pain are the only things
that are good in and of themselves
b) desire satisfactionism: the theory that the satisfaction of someone’s desire is the
only sort of thing that is good in and of itself
c) non-naturalism: the theory that being good is a simple property that is irreducible
or indefinable in terms of anything else
2. Normative ethics of behavior: the study of right and wrong. Some theories:
a) egoism: the theory that an action is right if an only if it has the best
consequences for the person doing it
b) utilitarianism: the theory that an action is right if and only if its consequences are
optimal, i.e., it produces the best balance of goodness over badness for
everyone involved
c) Kantian deontology: the theory that an action is right if and only if the person
performing the act could consistently will that the act become a universal law d)
there are many other theories in addition to these
3. Virtue theory, the study of what makes a person’s character morally
praiseworthy
• Branch 2: Meta-ethics
 Meta-ethics is the attempt to understand the metaphysical,
epistemological, , semantic, and psychological, presuppositions and
commitments of moral thought, talk, and practice (Sayre-McCord, 2012).
Ditmmer simply puts this as the branch that “deals with whether morality
exists”.
 Examples:
1. Are ethical statements such as "lying is wrong", or "friendship is good" true or
false?
a) cognitivism: the view that moral judgments are capable of being true or false
b) non-cognitivism: the view that moral judgments are not capable of being true or
false (instead they are like commands or interjections)
c) debate limited to statements like examples above NOT statements like “Most
Catholics oppose abortion”
2. Assuming there are truths of morality, what sorts of facts make them true?
a) subjectivism: the view that moral truths are subjective, i.e., dependent upon the
subjective attitudes, values, desires and beliefs of individuals, not on anything
external to these things.
b) objectivism: the view that moral truths are objective, i.e., based on facts that are
independent of the attitudes, values, desires and beliefs of any individual.
3. What makes ethical discourse meaningful? Is it different from what makes other
sorts of discourse meaningful?

4. How do the rules of logic apply to ethical arguments and ethical reasoning? Is it
possible to validly infer a moral conclusion based on non-moral premises?

5. Assuming we have any, what is the source of our knowledge of moral truths? Is it
based on reason, intuition, scientific experimentation or something else?

6. What is the connection (if any) between morality and religion? If God exists, is
God's will the basis of morality? Can there be morality if God doesn't exist?

• Branch 3: Applied ethics

 Dimmer states that applied ethics as that branch which “addresses the
moral permissibility of specific actions and practices”.
  Bioethics and medical ethics - deals with ethics and its application in the
moral issues concerning life sciences such as euthanasia, use of human
embryos in research, among others.
 Business ethics - concerns on moral and ethical problems on economic
activities or on business environments. Take for example, ethical
questions on abusive labor practices, usage of toxic materials and many
more.
 Environment ethics - concerned with ecological issues like the
government’s responsibility or corporation’s duty to help in the
minimization of the effect of pollution.
 Professional ethics – is unto setting rules and regulations on how a certain
professional must act towards his profession and institution.

• General Definition of Values

 Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong,
should and should not, good and bad. They also tell us which are more or
less important, which is useful when we have to trade off meeting one
value over another.

ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES
• Every organization has values that are important to the group. It will help the
organization to survive. Organizations develop values much the same as each
individual has developed values.

PNP CORE VALUES

• Maka-Diyos (Pro-God)
• Makabayan (Pro-Country)
• Makatao (Pro-People)
• Makakalikasan (Pro-Environment)

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
• It is the branch of moral science treats of the obligations, which a member of a
profession owes to the public, to his profession, to his brethren, and to his clients.
 Social norms are the perceived informal, mostly unwritten, rules that define
acceptable and appropriate actions within a given group or community, thus
guiding human behaviour. They consist of what we do, what we believe others
do, and what we believe others approve of and expect us to do. Social norms are
therefore situated at the interplay between behaviour, beliefs and expectations.
The Seven Deadly Sins by Pope Gregory

Why we study ethics?

1. Decisions (wrong ways and right ways of doing things)
2. To have an orderly social life.
3. To value life.
 Ethics and Action: Why Behave?
Responsibility vs. Accountability
• Responsibility is the ability to respond to situations and events in our lives, as
well as to perform or complete assigned tasks.
• Accountability is the recognition and acknowledgment of our responsibilities,
and being answerable for the outcomes of our actions, decisions, and mistakes.
Accountability and Action
For public service they must ultimately be accountable to:
a. Accountability in Government and in Civil Society
b. Accountability in Management
c. Accountability to the Public