Module 1: Cells as the Basis of Life – part 1: cell structure

The cell theory

 The cell theory consists of three main principles:
1. Cells are the basic units of life
2. All living things are composed of one or more cells
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells
1.1.1 investigate different cellular structure, including but not limited to:
 examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
cells
 cells are the basic structure of all living things. Some organisms consist of only one cell that has to perform all
functions; these are called unicellular organisms
 other organisms consist of many different types of cells, each with a specific structure and function, organised to
work together to ensure effective functioning; these are called multicellular organisms
types of cells
 organisms are classified according to what types of cells they are composed of. Although there are many different
types of cells in organisms, there are two fundamentally different types of cells:
o prokaryotes are organisms which are composed of prokaryotic cells
o eukaryotes are organisms which are composed of eukaryotic cells

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

 prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many differences, but they do share basic similarities, with each possessing
o cell membrane
o cytoplasm
o ribosomes
o genetic material

prokaryotic cells
 prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and therefore have no nucleus. They are composed of a cell
membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes and genetic material. These cells range in diameter from 0.1 to 5.0 μm
 prokaryotic organisms (prokaryotes) are unicellular (made up of a single cell). There are two main groups of
prokaryotes:
1. bacteria
2. archaea

Eukaryotic cells
 eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell.
 All of the internal structures of these cells are membrane bound and are known as organelles.
 Each organelle has a specific function within the cell. Together these organelles carry out all the biochemical
processes and reactions that are required for the successful functioning of a living cell.
 Eukaryotic cells range from 10 to 100 μm
 Eukaryotic organisms (eukaryotes) can be unicellular or multicellular and can be divided into four main groups:
 1. Protists
2. Fungi
3. Plantae
4. Animalia
 describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function
before the microscope
spontaneous generation:
 this theory predicted that living creatures could arise from inanimate (non-living) material.
 This idea dated back to the time of Aristotle and the evidence was based on observation (using on the naked eye)
o E.g. it was noticed that maggots appeared on rotting meat if meat was left exposed for a long period of
time. However, this was disproved in 1668 by Francesso Redi who showed that maggots developed from
flies that laid their eggs on meat
Invention of the microscope
 In the late 1500s, scientists used handheld magnifying glasses to view very small objects. After further
advancements, the first compound microscope was developed which consisted of two convex lenses, one placed
above the other
Major discoveries
 The discovery of cells would not have been possible without the invention of the microscope. Below are a list of
scientists who used/refined microscopes to make the following discoveries:
o 1663 Robert Hooke: placed a piece of cork under the compound microscope and described ‘little boxes’.
He called these boxes ‘cells’
o 1970 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: he discovered ‘animalcules’ – tiny living organisms (microorganisms)
o 1831 Robert Brown: discovered the cell nucleus
o 1839 Theodor Schwann (zoologist) and Matthias Schleiden (botanist): described the regular placements of
nuclei in animal and plant cells
o 1858 Rudolf Virchow: suggested that cells arise from pre-existing cells

Microscopes
 Further refinements in the structure of the compound microscope continued over the succeeding years until we
have those that are in use today. Here we look at the:
o Light microscope and staining techniques
o Fluorescence microscope
o Electron microscope
 Transmission electron microscope
 Scanning electron microscope
 For a microscope to be effective, it needs to do two things:
1. Give an enlarged view of an object. This is termed magnification
2. Make the detail appear clear, giving a precise (not fuzzy) outline of all the parts of the object. This is termed
resolution
Compound light microscope
 Light microscopes use a light source and lenses to magnify the specimen. The total magnification can be
calculated by multiplying the magnification of the eye piece with the magnification of the objective lens

Lens Magnification of eyepiece Magnification of objective Magnification of field of view

Low power x10 x10 x10
Medium power x10 x10 x10
High power x10 x10 x10
 These microscopes can produce image with magnification up to x1500 (or x400 with a school microscope) and
has a resolution of 200nm
 Once cells are prepared and mounted on a glass slide, they can be stained which highlight different components of
the cell
 Advantages of the light microscope:
o Both living and non-living specimens can be viewed
o Specimens can be viewed in colour

Staining techniques
 The ability of some biological materials to absorb stains was the basis of further study using the light microscope.
Some parts of cells (e.g. the nucleus) could be clearly distinguished if a chemical stain, that was absorbed by the
organelle material, was added. (adding indicators, iodine)
Fluorescence microscope
 The fluorescence microscope is similar to the light microscope. The specimen is firstly labelled with a fluorescent
substance that will attach to the structure of interest. The specimen is illuminated with a high-intensity light source
causing only the structure of interest to emit light. This allows the structure to be separated from its environment.
Fluorescence techniques allow structures and materials inside a cell that are usually too small to view with a
normal light microscope
Technology advances
 The best light microscope cannot effectively magnify larger than x1500 because the wavelength of visible light
limits the resolving power. This led scientists to begin experimenting with forms of energy, inventing the electron
microscope
 The electron microscope uses a beam of electrons (instead of light) and electromagnets (instead of lenses) to view
a specimen on a screen. Electron microscopes have greater magnification and resolution than a compound light
microscope. There are two types of electron microscopes:
1. Transmission electron microscope
2. Scanning electron microscope
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
 The electrons in a TEM are transmitted through (pass through) the specimen that have been stained with heavy
metals, producing a 2D image. A specimen can be magnified up to 1,500,00 times and has a resolution of 2nm.
This means that structures at a sub-cellular level can be viewed (organelles can be viewed)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 A SEM bombards solid specimens with a beam of electrons that scans the surface of a sample that has been coated
with a metal (i.e. gold) causing secondary electrons to be emitted from the surface layers of the specimen,
producing a 3D image. SEM only shows the outside and does not show organelles
Advantages to electron microscope
 Structures can be seen at a cellular and sub-cellular level (TEM). This means that some organelles were seen for
the very first time
 Organelles seen with a light microscope could be seen in more detail, providing an increased knowledge of their
internal structure. This led to greater understanding of their function
Disadvantages to electron microscope
 Specimens must be placed in a vacuum, as air would interfere with the beam of electrons. This means that a living
specimen cannot be viewed
 The preparation to the specimen is very complicated and comes with a risk of introducing something into the
image that is not normally there – could damage the specimen
 Microscopes are very large and expensive (initial cost and maintenance)
 School light microscope (10-400x) Advanced light microscope (800- Electron microscope (60-1 500
1500x) 000x)
Cell wall All structures in previous column as All structures in previous two
well as: columns as well as:
Nucleus and nuclear membrane Cell membrane Endoplasmic reticulum
Chloroplast Golgi body Ribosomes
Vacuole: tonoplast and cell sap Mitochondria Lysosomes
Cytoplasm Nucleolus (special staining required Centrosome
for all)
Cell membrane Cytoskeleton (special staining is
needed to see this)
1.1.2 investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not limited to:
 drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
rules for drawing cells
 large, simple 2D pencil drawings
 have ruled lines where possible
 keep proportions realistic
 include labels, lines, magnification (e.g. 1000x), heading and scale (e.g. 1:100)
 use simple clear lines (no sketching)
 do not shade your drawing
 make the diagram as large as possible
 do not draw structures you cannot see
 do not use arrowheads
cell size
 cells vary in size, where most are only visible under a light microscope. Cells are measured in micrometres (μm),
where 1000μm = 1mm
remember
 a light microscope has two lenses: the eyepiece (ocular lens) and the objective lens. Both lenses magnify the
specimen. To calculate the total magnification, multiple the magnification of the ocular lens by the magnification
of the objective lens
total magnification = ocular lens magnification x objective lens magnification
Estimating cell size
 when looking down a microscope, the size of a cell can be estimated by working out the diameter of the field of
view. The field of view is the area that you can see when you look down a microscope

Ocular lens Objective lens Total magnification Field of view (mm) Field of view (μm)
x10 x4 x40 4 4000
x10 x10 x100 1.6 1600
x10 x100 x400 0.4 400

 to work out the size of a cell, you use the following formula:
field of view ( μm)
¿ cell=
number of cells across diameter
 comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
Organelle Structure Function
Nucleus  a large oval structure in the  controls all cell activities
cytoplasm  pores regulate the passage of
 surrounded by a double nuclear substances between the nucleus
membrane pierced by tiny pores and cytoplasm
(semi-permeable)  stores DNA; hereditary
information of an organism that
gets passed from one generation
to the next
 contains a nucleolus, which is
responsible for the manufacture
of ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum  the outer nuclear membrane is  the ER provides a pathway
usually continuous with a between the nucleus and the
network of flattened, cell’s environment, allowing
interconnected membranes, the transport of many substances
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)  two types of ER:
 the folding of the membranes o rough ER has ribosomes
increases the surface area attached which folds
allowing more efficient transport and processes proteins
and processing of proteins and o smooth ER has no
lipids ribosomes attached and
is the site of lipid
production
Ribosomes  very small and spherical  site of protein synthesis
 found free in the cytoplasm or  newly synthesised proteins are
attached to the rough ER passed from the ribosomes into
the ER where the protein is
folded
 amino acids  polypeptide
(these 2 in the ribosomes)
protein (in the rough ER)
Golgi apparatus  also referred to as Golgi body or  they process, package and sort
Golgi complex cell products (i.e. proteins)
 made of flat membranes which
are arranged in stacks. Each
membrane has a curved shape,
where vesicles can be seen
budding off
Lysosomes  formed in the Golgi body  ‘lysis’ – to break apart
 membrane-bound vesicle  The enzymes break down
containing digestive enzymes compounds when they are no
longer needed or when they are
passed their ‘use-by-date’
 Allows the body to recycle
materials
Mitochondria  Mitochondria is oval shaped  Site of aerobic respiration:
 with a double membrane obtains energy from organic
 The inner membrane is highly compounds
folded (folds are called cristae)  Contains DNA
to increase the surface area of
chemical reactions
Vacuole  Membrane-bound, fluid-filled  Stores substances, water and
vesicle nutrients
 In animals, they are usually  Involved in intracellular
small digestion and release cellular
 In plants, they are large waste products
 In plants they play a role in
turgor pressure and help
maintain the shape of a cell
Chloroplasts  Chloroplasts have a double  Site for photosynthesis in plants
membrane with stacks of  Contains DNA
thylakoids containing
chlorophyll to trap sunlight
Cell wall  External structure surrounding  Helps maintain the cell structure
the cell membrane  Provides the cell with protection
 Only found in plants
Cell membrane  Semi-permeable  Holds the cell contents in place
 Lipid bilayer  Controls the movement of
substances into and out of the
cell

 modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane
cell membrane
 the cell membrane controls the exchange of material between the internal and external environments of the cell. It
is semi-permeable, meaning that it allows only certain substances into and out of the cell
fluid mosaic model
 the structure of the selectively permeable cell membrane is described as a ‘fluid-mosaic’. This model proposes a
‘lipid sea’ with ‘many and various proteins floating on and in it’
lipid component
 the lipid component is the ‘fluid’ part (it is not rigid) and is composed of two layers of phospholipids forming a
phospholipid bilayer

 a phospholipid is made up of two parts:

o a phosphate group on the head makes this end hydrophilic (able to absorb or dissolve water), also known
as ‘water loving’
o a fatty acid tail which is hydrophobic (water avoiding or unable to dissolve water), also known as ‘water
hating’
 when these molecules form a bilayer, the hydrophilic (water-loving) heads are positioned facing outwards
(towards the cytoplasm on one side and to the outside of the cell on the other side).
 The hydrophobic (water-hating) tails are positioned inwards (towards each other)
 The phospholipid nature of cell membranes makes them impermeable to water soluble particles
 The movement of these molecules across the membrane is controlled by protein channels

Protein component
 Protein molecules are scattered throughout the lipid bilayer, and are suspended in it.
 Some proteins penetrate all the way through the bilayer forming channels that allow some materials to cross the
membrane
 Other proteins are partly embedded in the membrane
 Some proteins are fixed in place, while others travel about freely (they float ‘like icebergs in a sea’, giving a
mosaic effect)

Surface component
 There are many cholesterol molecules found between the phospholipid molecules which gives the cell membrane
some stability, without affecting the fluidity
 Carbohydrates are linked to protruding proteins (glycoproteins) or to lipids (glycolipids). These play a role in
recognition and adhesion between cells and in the recognition of antibodies, hormones and viruses
 part 2: cell function
1.2.1 investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but limited to:
 Conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis
Solutions
 A solution is formed when a solute (i.e. sugar) dissolves in a solvent (i.e. water). The amount of solute dissolved
in a given quantity of solvent determines the concentration of the solution
 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute in relation to the amount of solvent, the solvent is said
to be in low concentration
 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in relation to the amount of solvent, so the solvent is said to be
in high concentration
Movement of material
 The movement of materials into and out of cells takes place either:
1. Passively; requires no energy input
2. Actively; requires energy input
Diffusion
 Diffusion is the movement of any molecules (except water) from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration to the substances, until equilibrium is reached.
 Equilibrium is reached when there is no net movement of move equally in each direction. This process does not
require energy (passive)
o Everyday examples include:
 Spraying perfume
 Pouring milk in tea
 Diffusion is a slow process. The rate is affected by:
o Concentration gradient
o Particle size: the smaller the particles, the faster the rate of reaction
o Temperature: the higher the temperature, the higher the rate of diffusion. Increasing temperature causes
the molecules to move faster
 The difference in concentration of a substance in two areas, which may be divided by a barrier, is called a
concentration gradient (a gradient is a slope). The rate of diffusion changes, depending on the concentration
gradient
o If there is a large difference in concentration of substances, the concentration gradient will be steeper and
the diffusion will occur faster
o If there is a small difference in concentration of substances the concentration gradient will be gentler and
the diffusion will occur slower
Facilitated diffusion
 Large molecules and charged particles cannot diffuse through the cell membrane. They are transported into or out
of the cell via proteins. There are two types of proteins:
1. Channel proteins
 Small ions such as sodium ions diffuse through the cell membrane via protein channels, a narrow
passageway that spans the cell membrane. This works like gates that open and close allowing a
specific ion to enter or exit the cell
2. Carrier proteins
 Carrier proteins bind to molecules on one side of the cell membrane, they then change shape and
release the molecules on the other side of the cell membrane
 This process is called facilitated diffusion. Each protein that acts on a membrane-transporter is specific to one
solute or several similar solutes. This allows the movement of a large or charged molecule to occur move rapidly
Osmosis
 Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. It is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water
concentration to a region of lower water concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. This process
does not require energy (passive)
Osmosis in cells
 Water moves into and out of the cell membrane via the process of osmosis. Water does not move directly through
the lipid bilayer, but through special protein channel called aquaporins (water pores)

 Examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis an exocytosis

Active transport
 Active transport is the movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration
(against the concentration gradient), requiring the input of energy
 Active transport requires a carrier protein that spans the membrane to actively move chemicals from a low to a
high concentration utilising cellular energy
 An example of active transport is when glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by kidney cells so they are not
lost in urine or when the end products of digestion are loaded from the intestines into the bloodstream to absorb
food after eating
Transport of large molecules
 Particles that are too large to move through the cell membrane by either diffusion or active protein transport, can
be transported actively by:
o Endocytosis (enter the cell)
o Exocytosis (exit the cell)

Endocytosis
 When a large particle has to be moved into a cell, the cell membrane can change shape to surround and engulf it
by the process endocytosis
o If a solid is engulfed it is called phagocytosis (cell eating)
o If a liquid is engulfed it is called pinocytosis (cell drinking)

Exocytosis
 Cells produce many waste products and these wastes are removed through the process of exocytosis. During
exocytosis, a membrane-bound vesicle moves to the cell membrane, fuses with it and then releases its contents
into the extracellular fluid. The vesicle becomes part of the cell membrane
 Relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface area to volume ratio, concentration
gradients and characteristics of the materials being exchanged
Exchange of materials
 The following factors will affect the exchange of materials across the cell membrane:
o Characteristics of materials
 Chemical factors
  Physical factors
o Concentration gradient
o Surface-area-to-volume ratio

Characteristics of materials
Chemical factors
 Uncharged particles can easily diffuse through the cell membrane because they are easily dissolved. However,
charged particles (i.e. sodium ions; Na+) require protein channels to travel through the cell membrane. Water is
also not lipid-soluble and therefore move into and out of the cell through aquaporins
Physical factors
 Size and shape affect the movement of substances across the cell membrane. Small molecules can diffuse easily.
However, large molecules require protein channels (i.e. glucose). Very large molecules are transported into the
cell by endocytosis or out of the cell by exocytosis
Concentration gradient
 The relative concentration of substances on either side of the membrane affects the rate of diffusion of that
substance
 If the concentration gradient to high (large difference between the concentration of ether side of the cell
membrane), then the substances will diffuse rapidly
 As the concentration gradient decreases, the rate of diffusion well be slower
 In order to maintain a rapid rate of diffusion, cells need to maintain a high concentration gradient. When
concentration reaches equilibrium, there will be no net movement across the cell membrane
Surface area
 surface area of the cell is the outside area of the cell
surface area (cm2) = number of faces x height x length
volume
 volume of the cell is the space taken up by the internal contents of the cell
volume (cm3) = height x length x width
surface-area-to-volume ratio
 the surface area (SA) divided by the volume (V) is called the surface area to volume ratio
 SA to V ratio affects the movement of substances into and out of the ell through the cell membrane. A cell needs
to have enough surface area to supply its volume with requirements and remove wastes
 A sell cell has more surface area in relation to its volume; it is said to have a high SA to V ratio.
o As a cell grows, the SA to V ratio decreases. Therefore, large cells have a smaller amount of surface area
in relation to its volume; it is said to have a low SA:V
 The distance from the surface of the cell to its centre is much smaller in a smaller cell compared to a larger cell.
 Therefore, a smaller size allows a faster movement of substances between the centre and the surface of the cell.
Anything that the cell needs can get to all parts of a small cell quickly and wastes can be removed easily. This
allows the cell to perform at an optimum level of functioning
Cells
 If cells get too big, the cell will not be able to maintain its homeostasis and it will die
 Cells must maintain a large surface area (SA) to volume (V) ratio to maintain good health.
 So, if the cell grows too big it divides (cell division) into two cells so it can maintain a large surface area to
volume ratio
1.2.2 investigate cell requirements, including but limited to:
 Suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in complex molecules
 Matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions
Cell requirements
 All organisms on Earth use matter (organic and inorganic compounds) to produce the energy required for all
biological processes
o Organic compounds are synthesised by autotrophs and are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
atoms. These include:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids
o Inorganic compounds are part of the non-living world and do not contain carbon and hydrogen in long
chains. These include:
 Water
 Mineral salts
 Gases
Carbohydrates
 The basic subunits of carbohydrates are simple sugars called monosaccharides (single sugar), disaccharides (two
sugars joined together) and polysaccharides (many sugars joined together)
 Carbohydrates are important:
o Energy sources; glucose is a monosaccharide and used for quick energy and starch is a polysaccharide and
is used for stored energy
o Structural components; cellulose is a polysaccharide and is used for strength and support in plant cell
walls
Lipids
 Lipids are composed of a glycerol head and a fatty acid tail. They are often arranged as triglyceride; a glycerol
molecule attached to three fatty acid tails
 In cells, lipids have two main functions:
o Energy storage (fats and oils)
o Structural component of membranes

Proteins
 Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids join together by peptide bonds to form a
polypeptide. One or more polypeptide chains twists together in a specific shape to form a protein

 Functions of proteins include:

o Form structural components in cells, cell membranes and tissues
o Some have a functional role
 Enzymes control metabolic processes
 Hormones control the functioning of cells
Nucleic acids
 Nucleic acids carry the genetic information of cells. There are two types of nucleic acids:
o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a double-stranded molecule that stores the information that controls the
cell
 E.g. nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA, viral DNA
o Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single-stranded molecule that assists in the manufacture of proteins
 E.g. rRNA, mRNA, tRNA (involved in protein synthesis). There are many other types including
regulatory RNAs, parasitic RNAs
Inorganic compounds
 Water
o The transport medium in cells and organisms
o A solvent for many molecules inside cells
 Mineral salts: chlorides, nitrates, phosphates (e.g. sodium chloride, NaCl)
o Assist in chemical reactions
o Used in synthesis of many macromolecules and body tissues (i.e. calcium for bones, iron for blood)
o Sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) assist in balance in cells and are essential for cell membrane
functioning and for nerve and muscle cells
 Gases
o Carbon dioxide
 Used in the process of photosynthesis
 Released as a by-product of cellular respiration
o Oxygen
 Used in the process of cellular respiration
 Released as a by-product of photosynthesis
 Removal of wastes
Removal of cellular wastes
 Not all the products that are produced from chemical reactions are required by the organism. These products are
called ‘wastes’ and they must be removed so they do not accumulate and interfere with cell function. The removal
of wastes from the cell is called ‘excretion’
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide are waste products from the chemical reactions of photosynthesis and cellular
respiration, respectively. These gases can easily be removed from the cell by diffusion through the cell membrane
 Excess water that is not required by the cell moves out of the cell by osmosis
 Lysosomes containing digestive enzymes are responsible for breaking down and removing old cells and other
cellular wastes
 Any of the wastes that cannot be eliminated by lysosomes, for example hormones and enzymes, are packaged and
removed by exocytosis
1.2.3 investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of cellular products and
wastes in eukaryotic cells
1.2.4 conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells
1.2.5 investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection of primary or secondary data
Metabolism
 Metabolism is the total sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism. Each step of a metabolic
pathway in cells is catalysed by enzymes
 Metabolism is divided into two:
1. Anabolic
2. Catabolic

Anabolic reactions
 Anabolic reactions involve building up large organic compounds from simpler molecules. These reactions require
the input of energy
o E.g. making a protein from amino acids (protein synthesis)
making a polysaccharide (i.e. starch) from monosaccharide unites (i.e. glucose)
Catabolic reactions
 Catabolic reactions involve breaking down complex organic compounds to simpler ones. These reactions give out
energy:
o E.g. breaking down of glucose for energy
digestion of food
enzymes
 Enzymes are proteins
o A protein is a long chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (called a polypeptide), folded into a
three-dimensional shape (their effective functioning relies on their shape)
 Enzymes are biological catalysts, they are able to control the rate of a chemical reaction. An animal cell may
contain up to 4000 different types of enzymes, each catalysing a different chemical reaction
o Some enzymes are common to many types of cells carrying out particular functions
 Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as it is made of a specific pattern of amino acids
o Within their structure, enzymes have active sites that are usually composed of three or four amino acids
 the active sites are the areas that substrates (the molecule on which an enzyme acts on) will bind to and catalyse
chemical reactions.
 When an enzyme binds to a substrate it makes a new molecule called the enzyme substrate complex
Role of enzymes
 Enzymes are able to speed up reactions without a change in temperature.
 In chemical reactions that occur in the non-living world, heat could provide the necessary activation energy for a
chemical reaction, but in the living world, heat burns tissue
 For a chemical reaction to begin, activation energy is necessary.
 The role of an enzyme is to lower the activation energy needed to start a reaction (by bringing specific molecules
together, rather than replying on them colliding randomly), so that the reaction can proceed quickly without a
change in temperature
Lowering of activation energy
 For a chemical reaction to take place, the molecules involved need to collide at the correct orientation and with the
right amount of energy. This is called the activation energy
How enzymes work
 There are two models that describe enzyme specificity on substrates:
1. Lock and key model
2. Induced-fit model
Lock and key model
 It was thought that an enzyme’s active site is rigid and the small molecule (the substrate) is reciprocally shaped
and fits into the active site, like a lock fits a key
 Once the enzyme-substrate complex has formed, the close proximity of the molecules allows the reaction to be
rapidly catalysed and the products of the reaction released

NOTE: the enzyme remains unchanged after the reaction has taken place. Enzymes are only needed in small
amounts and can be used over and over again. These reactions are always reversible
 Enzymes can get old and wear and tear
o They will go back to amino acids
o Or lysosomes can get rid of them
 They can get old due to pH and temperature
Induced-fit model
 Experimental evidence has indicated that this is not always the case, so a second model has since then been
theorised
 The induced fit theory assumes that the substrate plays a role in determining the final shape of the enzyme
substrate complex and the active site is more flexible than once thought
 The substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme, shaping the active site and properly aligning the enzyme for the
reaction to take place. Other substances may fit into he active site, but unless they are properly able to shape the
enzymes, the reaction will not be catalysed

Coenzymes
 Many enzymes cannot functions without a coenzyme (also known as a cofactor)
 A coenzyme is a non-protein group such as a vitamin or a metal ion (e.g. zinc, copper or iron) that binds with the
protein part and helps to form the active site
 It increases the size of the enzyme molecules and its active site, increasing the chance of collision.
 It can be easily separated from the protein part of the enzyme, but its presence cannot function without the
cofactor
 A functional enzyme may therefore consist of protein only, or it may be in the form of an enzyme – cofactor
complex (where the enzyme part of the complex is a protein) – these don’t get used up in a reaction either
Characteristics of enzymes
 Enzymes, due to their protein nature, are sensitive to:
1. Temperature (heat and cold)
2. pH (acidity or alkalinity of a substance)
3. substrate concentration
Temperature-sensitive
 enzymes, in most living things, function normally around 37ºC. Above or below this temperature their efficiency
(rate of reaction) decreases
 at temperatures above 60ºC, most enzymes stop functioning all together. the enzyme will start to break down,
whereby the structure and shape start to change, a process known as denaturing

 excessive cold causes the enzyme to slow down or stop functioning, but this is NOT permanent. When the
temperature starts to increase, the enzyme will start functioning. This in NOT denaturing.
Optimum temperature
 not all enzymes will “peak” at the same temperature, or have exactly the same shape graph. In mammals, most
enzymes will peak at around the animal’s normal body temperature, and often work only within a narrow range of
temperatures
 an enzyme from a plant may show a much broader graph, indicating that it will work, at least partly, at a wider
range of temperatures
 an enzyme from a thermophilic bacteria from a hot volcanic spring will show a totally different “peak”
temperature, indicating that its metabolism will perform most efficiently at temperatures that would kill other
organisms
Denaturing
 denaturing of an enzyme renders it useless, as the substrate cannot bind with the active site. It will no longer be
able to function properly to help catalyse reactions. Once denatured, the change is permanent – the enzyme cannot
be reformed in its original shape
pH sensitive
 each enzyme has a region of pH optimal stability, which varies greatly from one enzyme to another, depending on
the reaction catalysed by the enzyme
 they work in a narrow range
 acidic and basic (alkaline) are two extremes that describe a chemical property of substances. Mixing acids and
bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral
 pH is a way of describing the acidity of substance. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. It is
a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration, [H+].
 The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
o A pH of 7 is neutral
o A pH less than 7 is acidic
o A pH greater than 7 is basic
 The shape of the pH graph is usually symmetrical on either side of the ‘peak’
o At the optimum pH the enzymes 3D shape is ideal for the substrate, so reaction rate is maximum
o At any pH higher or lower than optimum, the enzyme’s shape begins to change. The substrate no longer
fits, so activity is less
 o At extreme pH, the enzyme can be denatured and shows no activity at all

Substrate-sensitive
 Enzyme molecules are specific, acting on only one type of substrate; therefore, each enzyme catalyses one
particular chemical reaction involving the substrate for which it is specific
 The rate of enzyme-controlled reaction is affected by the concentration of the substrate.
 Substrate concentration means the amount of compound present that the enzyme catalyses. Beyond certain
substrate concentrations, the rate of reaction is limited by the amount of enzyme
 As the substrate concentration increases, the rate of reaction will increase because more enzyme is available to
catalyse the reaction.
o At higher substrate concentrations the rate of reaction will plateau because no more enzyme is available to
catalyse the reaction. The maximum rate at which the reaction will occur is called saturation point

 Affinity: degree to which a substance tends to combine with another

Adding more enzyme
 If, at saturation point, more enzyme was added, the reaction would once again increase. It would level off again as
the enzyme molecules are saturated with the substrate
Rate of reaction
 Enzymes are highly efficient, they work rapidly, having a high rate of reaction. For example:
o The reaction of carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
o In the absence of an enzyme, this reaction is very slow, producing only 200 molecules of carbonic acid
per hour. In living cells, this reaction is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and 600,000
molecules of carbonic acid are formed every second