(Department of Computer Science and Engineering)

Practical File of

Database Management System Lab.

(Subject Code: BCS-551)

Submitted To : Submitted By :

Mr. Badal Bhushan, Student’s Name:-______________

Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, B. Tech. (CSE): V-B G1
IIMT College of Engineering, Roll no: _________________
Greater Noida-201310 Session : 2024-25

(Department of Computer Science & Engineering)

IIMT College of Engineering, Gr. Noida
Plot No. 20, Knowledge Park III, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310
Affiliated
to
Dr. A. P. J. Abdul kalam Technical University, Lucknow,
UP
 INDEX

Date of
Page Date of Remarks Remarks
SL Name of Experiment no. Experiment

1 Installing oracle/ MYSQL

Creating Entity-Relationship Diagram

2 using case tools.

Data types in SQL and usage of various

Data
3 Definition Language commands

To implement constraints on database

4 and table.

To Manipulate the Operations on the

5 table

To implement the concept of Joins and

6 grouping of Data

7 To implement the concept of SubQueries

To implement the concept of Indexes and

8 views

9 To implement the basics of PL/SQL

To implement the concept of Cursor and

10 Trigger
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Name of Experiment: Installing oracle/ MYSQL
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical : 1

Objective: Installing oracle/ MYSQL

MySQL is one of the most popular relational database management software that is widely used in
today's industry. It provides multi-user access support with various storage engines. It is backed by
Oracle Company. In this section, we are going to learn how we can download and install MySQL for
beginners.

Prerequisites
The following requirements should be available in your system to work with MySQL:

MySQL Setup Software

Microsoft .NET Framework 4.5.2
Microsoft Visual C++ Redistributable for Visual Studio 2019
RAM 4 GB (6 GB recommended) Download MySQL Follow
these steps:

Step 1: Go to the official website of MySQL and download the community server edition software. Here,
you will see the option to choose the Operating System, such as Windows.

Step 2: Next, there are two options available to download the setup. Choose the version number for the
MySQL community server, which you want. If you have good internet connectivity, then choose the
mysqlinstallerwebcounity. Otherwise, choose the other one.
Installing MySQL on Windows
Step 1: After downloading the setup, unzip it anywhere and double click the MSI installer .exe file.

Step 2: In the next wizard, choose the Setup Type. There are several types available, and you need to
choose the appropriate option to install MySQL product and features. Here, we are going to select the
Full option and click on the Next button.

Step 3: Once we click on the Next button, it may give information about some features that may fail to
install on your system due to a lack of requirements. We can resolve them by clicking on the Execute
button that will install all requirements automatically or can skip them. Now, click on the Next button.

Step 4: In the next wizard, we will see a dialog box that asks for our confirmation of a few products not
getting installed. Here, we have to click on the Yes button.

After clicking on the Yes button, we will see the list of the products which are going to be installed. So, if
we need all products, click on the Execute button.
Step 5: Once we click on the Execute button, it will download and install all the products. After
completing the installation, click on the Next button.

Step 6: In the next wizard, we need to configure the MySQL Server and Router. Here, I am not going to
configure the Router because there is no need to use it with MySQL. We are going to show you how to
configure the server only. Now, click on the Next button.

Step 7: As soon as you will click on the Next button, you can see the screen below. Here, we have to
configure the MySQL Server. Now, choose the Standalone MySQL Server/Classic MySQL Replication
option and click on Next. Here, you can also choose the InnoDB Cluster based on your needs.
Step 8: In the next screen, the system will ask you to choose the Config Type and other connectivity
options. Here, we are going to select the Config Type as 'Development Machine' and Connectivity as
TCP/IP, and Port Number is 3306, then click on Next.

Step 9: Now, select the Authentication Method and click on Next. Here, I am going to select the first
option.

Step 10: The next screen will ask you to mention the MySQL Root Password. After filling the password
details, click on the Next button.

Step 11: The next screen will ask you to configure the Windows Service to start the server. Keep the
default setup and click on the Next button.
Step 12: In the next wizard, the system will ask you to apply the Server Configuration. If you agree with
this configuration, click on the Execute button.

Step 13: Once the configuration has completed, you will get the screen below. Now, click on the Finish
button to continue.

Step 14: In the next screen, you can see that the Product Configuration is completed. Keep the default
setting and click on the Next-> Finish button to complete the MySQL package installation.
Step 15: In the next wizard, we can choose to configure the Router. So click on Next->Finish and then
click the Next button.

Step 16: In the next wizard, we will see the Connect to Server option. Here, we have to mention the root
password, which we had set in the previous steps.

In this screen, it is also required to check about the connection is successful or not by clicking on the
Check button. If the connection is successful, click on the Execute button. Now, the configuration is
complete, click on Next.
Step 17: In the next wizard, select the applied configurations and click on the Execute button.

Step 18: After completing the above step, we will get the following screen. Here, click on the Finish
button.

Step 19: Now, the MySQL installation is complete. Click on the Finish button.
Verify MySQL installation

Once MySQL has been successfully installed, the base tables have been initialized, and the server has
been started, you can verify its working via some simple tests.

Open your MySQL Command Line Client; it should have appeared with a mysql> prompt. If you have set
any password, write your password here. Now, you are connected to the MySQL server, and you can
execute all the SQL command at mysql> prompt as follows:

For example: Check the already created databases with show databases command:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Name of Experiment: Creating Entity-Relationship Diagram using case tools.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical -2

Objective: Creating Entity-Relationship Diagram using case tools.

An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a database with the help of a
diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram). An ER model is a
design or blueprint of a database that can later be implemented as a database.

Rectangle– It represents entity in the ER Model.

Ellipse– It represents attribute in the ER Model.
Diamond– It represents relationship between entity and attribute.
Line– It links attribute(s) to entity set(s) and entity set(s) to relationship set(s).
Doubles Ellipses– It represents multivalued attributes.
Dashed Ellipses– It denotes derived attributes.
Double lines– It indicates total participation of an entity in a relationship set.
Double Rectangle– It represents weak entity set.
Double Diamonds– It represents weak relationships.
Multiple ellipses connected to single ellipse using lines– It represents composite attribute
Ellipse with line inside it– It represents single values attributes
Database - bank.
Tables - account, branch, customer, loan, trandetails.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Name of Experiment: Data types in SQL and usage of various Data
Definition Language commands
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical -3

Objective: Data types in SQL and usage of various Data Definition Language commands
Introduction about SQL-
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a nonprocedural language, you specify what you want, not
how to get it. A block structured format of English key words is used in this Query language. It
has the following components.
DDL (Data Definition Language)-
The SQL DDL provides command for defining relation schemas, deleting relations and
modifying relation schema.
Data Definition Language-
The SQL DDL allows specification of not only a set of relations but also information

about each relation, including-

• Schema for each relation

• The domain of values associated with each attribute.

• The integrity constraints.

• The set of indices to be maintained for each relation.

• The security and authorization information for each relation.

• The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.

Domain types in SQL-

The SQL standard supports a variety of built in domain types, including- •

Char (n)- A fixed length character length string with user specified length .

• Varchar (n)- A variable character length string with user specified maximum length n.
• Int- An integer.

• Small integer- A small integer.

• Numeric (p, d)-A Fixed point number with user defined precision.

• Real, double precision- Floating point and double precision floating point numbers with

machine dependent precision.

• Float (n)- A floating point number, with precision of at least n digits.

• Date- A calendar date containing a (four digit) year, month and day of the month.

• Time- The time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds Eg. Time ’09:30:00’.

• Number- Number is used to store numbers (fixed or floating point).

DDL statement for creating a table-

Syntax-
Create table tablename
(columnname datatype(size), columnname datatype(size));

Creating a table from a table-

Syntax-
CREATE TABLE TABLENAME
[(columnname, columnname, ………)]

AS SELECT columnname, columnname……..FROM tablename;

Insertion of data into tables-
Syntax-
INSERT INTO tablename
[(columnname, columnname, ………)]
Values(expression, expression);
Inserting data into a table from another table:
Syntax-
INSERT INTO tablename
SELECT columnname, columnname, …….
FROM tablename;
Insertion of selected data into a table from another table:
Syntax-

INSERT INTO tablename

SELECT columnname, columnname……..
FROM tablename
WHERE columnname= expression;
Retrieving of data from the tables-
Syntax-
SELECT * FROM tablename;
The retrieving of specific columns from a table-

Syntax-

SELECT columnname, columnname, ….

FROM tablename;
Elimination of duplicates from the select statement-
Syntax-
SELECT DISTINCT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename;
Selecting a data set from table data-
Syntax-
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename
WHERE searchcondition;
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Name of Experiment: To implement constraints on database and table.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical -4

Objective: To implement constraints on database and table.

Data constraints: Besides the cell name, cell length and cell data type there are other parameters
i.e. other data constrains that can be passed to the DBA at check creation time. The constraints
can either be placed at column level or at the table level.
i. Column Level Constraints: If the constraints are defined along with the column definition, it
is called a column level constraint.

ii. Table Level Constraints: If the data constraint attached to a specify cell in a table reference
the contents of another cell in the table then the user will have to use table level constraints.

Null Value Concepts:- while creating tables if a row locks a data value for particular column
that value is said to be null . Column of any data types may contain null values unless the
column was defined as not null when the table was created.
Syntax:

Create table tablename (columnname data type (size) not null ……)
Primary Key: primary key is one or more columns is a table used to uniquely identity each row
in the table. Primary key values must not be null and must be unique across the column. A
multicolumn primary key is called composite primary key.
Syntax: primary key as a column constraint
Create table tablename

(columnname datatype (size) primary key,….)

Primary key as a table constraint
Create table tablename

(columnname datatype (size), columnname datatype( size)…

Primary key (columnname,columnname));

Default value concept: At the line of cell creation a default value can be assigned to it. When the
user is loading a record with values and leaves this cell empty, the DBA will automatically load
this cell with the default value specified. The data type of the default value should match the
data type of the column .
Syntax:

Create table tablename

(columnname datatype (size) default value,….);

Foreign Key Concept : Foreign key represents relationship between tables. A foreign key is
column whose values are derived from the primary key of the same of some other table . the
existence of foreign key implies that the table with foreign key is related to the primary key
table from which the foreign key is derived .A foreign key must have corresponding primary
key value in the primary key table to have meaning.
Foreign key as a column constraint

Syntax :

Create table table name

(columnname datatype (size) references another table name);
Foreign key as a table constraint:
Syntax :
Create table name

(columnname datatype (size)…. primary key

(columnname); foreign key (columnname)references

table name); Check Integrity Constraints: Use the

check constraints when you need to enforce integrity

rules that can be evaluated based on a logical

expression following are a few examples of

appropriate check constraints.

• A check constraints name column of the client_master so that the name is entered in upper case.

• A check constraint on the client_no column of the client _master so that no client_no value starts with
‘c’ Syntax:

Create table tablename (columnname datatype (size) CONSTRAINT

constraintname) Check (expression));

 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Name of Experiment: To Manipulate the Operations on the table
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical -5

Objective:- To Manipulate the Operations on the table.

DML (DATA Manipulation Language)-

It includes commands to insert tuples into, delete tuples from and modify tuples in the database.
Data manipulation includes:

• The retrieval of information stored in the database.

• The insertion of new information into the database.

• The deletion of information from the database.

• The modification of information stored by the appropriate data model. There are basically two

types.

(i) Procedural DML:- require a user to specify what data are needed and how

to get those data.

(ii) Non Procedural DML : require a user to specify what data are needed

without specifying how to get those data.

Updating the content of a table:

In creation situation we may wish to change a value in table without changing all values in the
tuple . For this purpose the update statement can be used.
Update table name
Set columnname = expression, columnname =expression……
Where columnname = expression;
Deletion Operation:-
A delete query is expressed in much the same way as Query. We can delete whole tuple (

rows) we can delete values on only particulars attributes.

Deletion of all rows

Syntax:
Delete from tablename :

Deletion of specified number of rows

Syntax:
Delete from table name
Where search condition ;
Computation in expression lists used to select data
+ Addition - Subtraction
* multiplication ** exponentiation
/ Division () Enclosed operation
Renaming columns used with Expression Lists: - The default output column names can

be renamed by the user if required

Syntax:
Select column name result_columnname,
Columnname result_columnname,
From table name;
Logical Operators:
The logical operators that can be used in SQL sentenced are
AND all of must be included
OR any of may be included
NOT none of could be included
Range Searching: Between operation is used for range searching.
Pattern Searching:
The most commonly used operation on string is pattern matching using the operation
‘like’ we describe patterns by using two special characters.

• Percent (%) ; the % character matches any substring we consider the following examples.

• ‘Perry %’ matches any string beginning with perry

• ‘% idge % matches any string containing’ idge as substring.

• ‘ - - - ‘ matches any string exactly three characters.

• ‘ - - - % matches any string of at least of three characters.

Oracle functions:

Sorting of data in table

 Syntax:
Select columnname, columnname
From table
Order by columnname;
Aggregate function -Functions are used to manipulate data items and return result. function
follow the format of function _name (argument1, argument2 ..) .An arrangement is user defined
variable or constant. The structure of function is such that it accepts zero or more arguments.
Examples:
Avg return average value of n
Because an aggregate function operates on a set of values, it is often used with the GROUP BY
clause of the SELECT statement. The GROUP BY clause divides the result set into groups of
values and the aggregate function returns a single value for each group.
The following are the commonly used SQL aggregate functions:
•AVG() – returns the average of a set.
• COUNT() – returns the number of items in a set.

• MAX() – returns the maximum value in a set.

• MIN() – returns the minimum value in a set

• SUM() – returns the sum of all or distinct values in a set

Except for the COUNT() function, SQL aggregate functions ignore null.

Syntax:
Avg ([distinct/all]n)
Min return minimum value of expr.

Syntax:
MIN((distinct/all )expr)
Count Returns the no of rows where expr is not null
Syntax:
Count ([distinct/all)expr]
Count (*) Returns the no rows in the table, including duplicates and those with nulls.
Max Return max value of expr
Syntax:
Max ([distinct/all]expr) Sum

Returns sum of values of n

Syntax:
Sum ([distinct/all]n)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Name of Experiment: To implement the concept of Joins and grouping of data.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical -6

Objective:- To implement the concept of Joins and grouping of data.

Joint Multiple Table (Equi Join): Some times we require to treat more than one table as though
manipulate data from all the tables as though the tables were not separate object but one single
entity. To achieve this we have to join tables.Tables are joined on column that have dame data
type and data with in tables.
The tables that have to be joined are specified in the FROM clause and the joining attributes in
the WHERE clause.
Algorithm for JOIN in SQL:
1. Cartesian product of tables (specified in the FROM clause)

2. Selection of rows that match (predicate in the WHERE clause)

3. Project column specified in the SELECT clause.

1. Cartesian product:-

Consider two table student and course

Select B.*,P.*
FROM student B, course P;
2. INNER JOIN:

Cartesian product followed by selection

Select B.*,P.*
FROM student B, Course P

WHERE B.course # P.course # ;

3. LEFT OUTER JOIN:

LEFT OUTER JOIN = Cartesian product + selection but include rows from the left table which
are unmatched pat nulls in the values of attributes belonging to the second table Exam:
Select B.*,P*
FROM student B left join course p
ON B.course # P.course #;
4. RIGHT OUTER JOIN:
RIGHT OUTER JOIN = Cartesian product + selection but include rows from right table which
are unmatched Exam:
Select B.*,P.* From student B RIGHT JOIN course P
B.course# = P course # ;
5. FULL OUTER JOIN

Exam
Select B.*,P.*
From student B FULL JOIN course P
On B.course # = P course # ;

Grouping Data From Tables:

There are circumstances where we would like to apply the aggregate function not only to a
single set of tuples, but also to a group of sets of tuples, we specify this wish in SQL using the
group by clause. The attribute or attributes given in the group by clause are used to form group.
Tuples with the same value on all attributes in the group by clause are placed in one group.
Syntax:
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename
GROUP BY columnname;
At times it is useful to state a condition that applies to groups rather than to tuples. For example
we might be interested in only those branches where the average account balance is more than
1200. This condition does not apply to a single tuple, rather it applies to each group constructed
by the GROUP BY clause. To express such Questionry, we use the having clause of SQL. SQL
applies predicates in the having may be used.
Syntax:
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename
GROUP BY columnname;
HAVING searchcondition;
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Name of Experiment: To implement the concept of SubQueries.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical - 7

Objective:- To implement the concept of SubQueries.

SubQueries:- A subQuery is a form of an SQL statement that appears inside another SQL
statement. It also termed as nested Query. The statement containing a subQuery called a parent
statement. The rows returned by the subQuery are used by the following statement. It can be
used by the following commands:
1. To insert records in the target table.

2. To create tables and insert records in this table.

3. To update records in the target table.

4. To create view.

5. To provide values for the condition in the WHERE , HAVING IN ,

SELECT,UPDATE, and DELETE statements.

Exam:-
Creating clientmaster table from oldclient_master, table
Create table client_master
AS SELECT * FROM oldclient_master;

Using the Union, Intersect and Minus Clause:

Union Clause:
The user can put together multiple Queries and combine their output using the union

clause . The union clause merges the output of two or more Queries into a single set of

rows and column. The final output of union clause will be

Output: = Records only in Query one + records only in Query two + A single set of

records with is common in the both Queries.

Syntax:
SELECT columnname, columname
FROM tablename 1
UNION

SELECT columnname, columnname

From tablename2;
Intersect Clause: The use can put together multiple Queries and their output using

the interest clause. The final output of the interest clause will be : Output =A single

set of records which are common in both Queries

Syntax:
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename 1
INTERSECT
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename 2;
MINUS CLAUSE:- The user can put together multiple Queries and combine their output

= records only in Query one

Syntax:
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename ;
MINUS
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename ;
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Name of Experiment: To implement the concept of Indexes and views.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical - 8

Objective:-To implement the concept of Indexes and views.

Indexes- An index is an ordered list of content of a column or group of columns in a table. An index
created on the single column of the table is called simple index. When multiple table columns are
included in the index it is called composite index.
Creating an Index for a table:-
Syntax (Simple)
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON tablename(column name);
Composite Index:-
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON tablename(columnname,columnname);
Creating an UniQuestion Index:-
CREATE UNIQUESTION INDEX indexfilename
ON tablename(columnname);
Dropping Indexes:-
An index can be dropped by using DROP INDEX
SYNTAX:-
DROP INDEX indexfilename;
Views:-
Logical data is how we want to see the current data in our database. Physical data is how this data is
actually placed in our database. Views are masks placed upon tables. This allows the programmer to
develop a method via which we can display predetermined data to users according to our desire. Views
may be created fore the following reasons:
1. The DBA stores the views as a definition only. Hence there is no duplication of data.

2. Simplifies Queries.

3. Can be Queried as a base table itself.

4. Provides data security.

5. Avoids data redundancy.

Creation of Views:-
Syntax:-
CREATE VIEW viewname AS
SELECT columnname,columnname
FROM tablename
WHERE columnname=expression_list;
Renaming the columns of a view:-
Syntax:-
CREATE VIEW viewname AS

SELECT newcolumnname….
FROM tablename
WHERE columnname=expression_list;
Selecting a data set from a view-
Syntax:-
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM viewname
WHERE search condition;
Destroying a view-
Syntax:-
DROP VIEW viewname;
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Name of Experiment: To implement the basics of PL/SQL.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical - 9

Objective:-To implement the basics of PL/SQL.

Introduction – PL/SQL bridges the gap between database technology and procedural programming
languages. It can be thought of as a development tool that extends the facilities of Oracles SQL
database language. Via PL/SQL you can insert, delete, update and retrieve table data as well as writing
loops or branching to another block of code.
PL/SQL Block structure-
DECLARE
Declarations of memory variables used later
BEGIN
SQL executable statements for manipulating table data.
EXCEPTIONS
SQL and/or PL.SQL code to handle errors.
END;
Displaying user Messages on the screen – Any programming tool requires a method through which
messages can be displayed to the user. Dbms_output is a package that includes a number of procedure
and functions that accumulate information in a buffer so that it can be retrieved later. These functions
can also be used to display message to the user.
put_line: put a piece of information in the buffer followed by a end of line marker. It can also be used
to display message to the user.
Setting the server output on:
SET SERVER OUTPUT ON:
Example: Write the following code in the PL/SQL block to display message to user
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(‘Display user message’);
Conditional control in PL/SQL-
Syntax:
IF <condition> THEN
<Action>

ELSEIF<condition>
<Action>
ELSE
<Action>
ENDIF;
The WHILE LOOP:
Syntax:
WHILE <condition>
LOOP
<Action>
END LOOP;
The FOR LOOP statement:
Syntax:
FOR variable IN [REVERSE] start—end
LOOP
<Action>
END LOOP;
The GOTO statement: The goto statement allows you to change the flow of control within a

PL/SQL Block.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Name of Experiment: To implement the concept of Cursor and Trigger.
Course Name: DBMS Lab Course Code: BCS-551
Branch: CSE Semester: V

Date of Experiment: Faculty: Mr. Badal Bhushan

Practical No- 10

Objective:-To implement the concept of Cursor and Trigger.

Cursor– We have seen how oracle executes an SQL statement. Oracle DBA uses a work area for its
internal processing. This work area is private to SQL’s operation and is called a cursor. The data that is
stored in the cursor is called the Active Data set. The size of the cursor in memory is the size required
to hold the number of rows in the Active Data Set.
Explicit Cursor- You can explicitly declare a cursor to process the rows individually. A cursor declared
by the user is called Explicit Cursor. For Queries that return more than one row, You must declare a
cursor explicitly.
The data that is stored in the cursor is called the Active Data set. The size of the cursor in memory is
the size required to hold the number of rows in the Active
Why use an Explicit Cursor- Cursor can be used when the user wants to process data one row at a time.
Explicit Cursor Management- The steps involved in declaring a cursor and manipulating data

in the active data set are:-

• Declare a cursor that specifies the SQL select statement that you want to process.

• Open the Cursor.

• Fetch the data from the cursor one row at a time.

• Close the cursor.

Explicit Cursor Attributes- Oracle provides certain attributes/ cursor variables to

control the execution of the cursor. Whenever any cursor(explicit or implicit) is opened
and used Oracle
creates a set of four system variables via which Oracle keeps track of the ‘Current’ status of the cursor.
• Declare a cursor that specifies the SQL select statement that you want to process.

• Open the Cursor.

• Fetch the data from the cursor one row at a time.

• Close the cursor.

How to Declare the Cursor:-
The General Syntax to create any particular cursor is as follows:-
Cursor <Cursorname> is Sql Statement;

How to Open the Cursor:-

The General Syntax to Open any particular cursor is as follows:-
Open Cursorname;

Fetching a record From the Cursor:-

The fetch statement retrieves the rows from the active set to the variables one at a time. Each time a
fetch is executed. The focus of the DBA cursor advances to the next row in the Active set. One can
make use of any loop structure(Loop-End Loop along with While,For) to fetch the records from the
cursor into variable one row at a time.
The General Syntax to Fetch the records from the cursor is as follows:-
Fetch cursorname into variable1,variable2,______
Closing a Cursor:-
The General Syntax to Close the cursor is as follows:-
Close <cursorname>;
Database Triggers:-

Database triggers are procedures that are stored in the database and are implicitly executed(fired) when
the contents of a table are changed. Use of Da tabase Triggers:- Database triggers support Oracle to
provide a highly customized database management system. Some of the uses to which the database
triggers can be put to customize management information in Oracle are as follows:-
• A Trigger can permit DML statements against a table any if they are issued, during regular
business hours or on predetermined weekdays.

• A trigger can also be used to keep an audit trail of a table along with the operation performed

and the time on which the operation was performed.

• It can be used to prevent invalid transactions.

• Enforce complex security authorizations.

How to apply DataBase Triggers:-

A trigger has three basic parts:-

1. A triggering event or statement.

2. A trigger restriction

3. A trigger action.
Types of Triggers:-
Using the various options , four types of triggers can be created:-
1. Before Statement Trigger:- Before executing the triggering statement, the

trigger action is executed.

2. Before Row Trigger:- Before modifying the each row affected by the

triggering statement and before appropriate integrity constraints, the trigger is

executed if the trigger restriction either evaluated to TRUE or was not included.’

3. After Statement Trigger:- After executing the triggering statement and

applying any deferred integrity constraints, the trigger action is executed.

4. After row Trigger:- After modifying each row affected by the triggering

statement and possibly applying appropriate integrity constraints, the trigger action

is executed for the current row if the trigger restriction either evaluates to

TRUE or was not included.

Syntax For Creating Trigger:-
The syntax for Creating the Trigger is as follows:-
Create or replace Trigger<Triggername> {Before,After} {Delete, Insert, Update } On
<Tablename> For Each row when Condition
Declare
<Variable declarations>;
<Constant Declarations>;
Begin
<PL/SQL> Subprogram Body;
Exception

Exception Pl/SQL block;

End;
How to Delete a Trigger:-
The syntax for Deleting the Trigger is as follows:-
Drop Trigger <Triggername>;