3

Syn chro nou s Ge1 1era tors or Alte rnat ors

1~1 t ro rluction -
Constru ction - Productiou of Sinusoid al Altcrnat mg fl~MF Freq111•w y of J11ducccl
}<,MF - Armatu re Windings - Winding Factor - EMF Equatio n - Wav£• Sh;ip<·
Harmon i c'- 111
Voltag<' Waveform - Ratmgs of Alterna tors - Leakage Reactance - Armatu re R<:,1tt1on
- Synchro-
nous Impedan ce - Alterna tor On Load - Laborat ory Method of Determi nation of Syn<hro
nous Reac-
tance - Short-C ircuit Ratio (SCR) - Voltage Regulati on - Zero Power Factor or
Pot1n Method of
DP termina tion of Voltage Regulat ion of an.Alter nator -Two-R eactanc e Concept F01 Salient
PolP Syn-
chronou s l\fochin es - Constru ction of Two-Reaction Diagram From Test Data - Power
Dev<:lopPd By a
Synchro nous Generat or - Transie nt Conditions of Alternat ors - Losses and Efficienc
y -- Power Flow
- Ventilat ion - S~lved Exampl es, Exercise s and Problems.

:Lt. INTRODUCTION
/\ synrhro nous machine is an ac machine in which the r~tor moves at a speed which
benrs a const,rn t
n•latrnnsh1p to the frequenc y of currents , in the armatur e winding. A synchro nous machine
is one of the
importa nt types of electric machine s. Large ac network s operatin g at constan t frequenc
y of 50 Hz (or 60
Hz) rely almost exclusiv ely on sy1Lchro1Lous generators, also called the alternat
ors, for the supply of
t>h~ctrical mrnrgy, and may have synchro nous compens alors at key points for control
of reactive power.
Private. stand-b y and peak load plants with diesel or .gas-turbine prime-m overs also
havP synchro nous
g,•ncrators. Non-lan d-based synchro nous plants (with a generati ng capacity of 50
MVA ur more) are
found on oil rigs, on large air-craft s (wit_h hydrauli cally driven generato rs working
at 400 Hz). "nd 011
ships for variable frequen cy supply to synchro nous propelle r motors. Synchro nous
motors proviclt:> con-
."l, ant speed industri al drives with the possibil ity of power factor correctio n.
Synchro nous machin es are generall y construc ted in larger sizes. Small size alternat
ors are not
economical. The modern trend is to build alternat ors of.very large sizes capable of
generat ing 500 MVA
or l'Ven more. The·syn chronou s motor is rarely built in small sizes owing to superio
r perform ance char-
:-aclcristics and econom ical construc tion of inductio n motors.
3.1.1. Operat ing Princip le. The operatin g principl e of a synchro nous machin e
is fundam entally the
same as that of a de machine , but, unlike the latter, in the synchro nous machin
e there is no need to
rectify the time varying emf which is induced in the armatur e winding . Conseq
uently a synchro nous
machine does not require a commut ator. It is, in fact quite possible to·use a de generat
or as an alt<'fna-
tor by p]acing a set of collecto r rings on the shaft and connect ing these rings to the
proper points on the
arm.1tun • winding ; brushes riding on the rings can then be connect ed to the
load. But unlik<• <le ~Pn<'rn-
lor. they are to be driven at a very definite constan t speed as the frequen cy
of generatc•d l•mf is detPr•
mined by that speed. The latter is usually referred to as the synchron ou.s speed, for
which rPason these
m.1chines are frequen tly called the synchro nous generato rs.
Synchro nous generat ors, because of absence of commut ator, are compara tively simple
and pol-lsess
several importa nt advanta ges over the de generato rs.
:J.1.2. Classif ication of Synchr onous Machin es. Synchro nous machine s, accordin
g to lhPu· applicn-
tions, may be synchro1101Ls generators, synchro11ous motors or synchro11ous compeu
sators. A synchro nous
gpnerar or is a synchro nous machin e which receives mechan ical energy
from a prime - mover (steam
turbine, hydraul ic turbine or diesel engine) to which it is mechan ically coupled
and delivers elect ncal
nf'rgy. A· synchro nous motor receives electric al energy from ac supply main an4 drives
mechan ical
d Synchronous compen sator (or phase modifie r) is a synchro nous machin e designe d
to operate on
oad with its shaft connect ed neither to a prime - mover nor to a mechan ical load and is used
to

~
 ACMochuW!a

. od for ratio &•

192 tor• aro dea1 1n
co01 pena a h
ol'ks . Syuc hron oua . base typo . t e
. lower in power supp ly i~otw
control 1-e~ ~~ and spee ds upto 3,000 i~i~:~ es. fol" t.he su~g l: : pair of out.p ut
le, two or ~-f" °;\?i ~nge s; this proVldeof wind
up to 100 ings plac ed
r 8
rono us mach ines may b~ dditi on of indiv1dua
::::.0 1::\11 the coils conn~c~co:
~~:c
arm . I , and a single ac outp u_. l (one comm
:wo phas e typ;, '-~::t:r atur e has t.wo sots ·ee pluu w t.ypf', the
phas e. For
on) are 0 t uts with a rout ua
~l~:h~:~ (lim•r<•nc«' or \ 20 °
tN·nu n:i :s f three teruu na s in~c:h 1n(•H 11n• rnva n-
l
I tputs rom . d" >lace( so that three .ou pt r o1· de lta . Larg e ac .
:-;o_ I l~t~1~1 hns three set~ of win i:~s ~e
conn ected eithe r 111 s a be clnsHifi<itl i4S (,) mt.A l-
na ma ) bl Thre e wrndmgs m
are avm a e. . roac hine s n1aY
·1hly ·3-phnsc type. 1 nchr onou s
t"on of the macl unes , tie sy .
. . Base d on the c:~sJ \~~ :-otating fie~d type. tor move:-J acro ss., mag-
. duce d emf whe ther a ~~:d ;~he r the arm
ang armat1~re t~e erial for gene ratio n of an in atur e or the
Since it is unm at be cons truct ed w1
hron ous gene rator s may .
. vice-versa, sync t that ther e arc :} !ihp
nctac fi c Id o1 l ·evolving mem ber.
fi<>lcl struc ture ns t 1e I t pe altem ator h like a de gene ra tor exce pction t.o th<' ge . t
looks very_ in:ucd . ·ed to prov ide a conn e .•. , n or
Rota ting armatrire y ( 4 lip-r ings if it is esu:
rrngs in place of comm utato r or s
neut ral). In such gene r~-
tors the requ ired mag netic Q
field is prod uced by de
elect ro-m agne ts plac ed on
the stati onar y mem ber
c.illed the stator, a~d t~e
curr ent gene rated is col- FIELD
MAGNElS
lected by mea ns of brus hes
a ml slip- rings on t 118 re- FROM SOURCE OF
volving mem ber, calle d the EXCITATION _ ___,..,
rotor . Ruch an arra nge-
11w11t. is econ omic al for the
smal l low volta ge gene ra-
toi-s. Rota ting arm atur e
type alter nato rs are buil t
only in smal l ratin gs upto
ab~u t 200 or 250 kva be-
caus e the volta ge gene r-
ated is com para tivel y low
and t.he curr ent to be col-
lt~cted by the brus hes
smal l, no diffi culty bein g
expe rienc eJ in colle cting
such a cw·r ent. Such ma-
chin es are suit able for
sma ll pow er plan ts, iso-
late d ligh ting plan ts,
whe re med ium or sma ll Revolving Armature Alte,-n.ato1'
size mac liine s are re- Fig. 3.1
quired.
Pt·actically all medium and large mac hine s are
alwa ys cons truc ted with revo lvin g fiehl. The
tapa of stati onar y arm atur e and revolving field mlvan-
syst em are given below:
1 It is easier to insulate stati onar y arm atur e wind
ing for very high voltage e.g. as high as :U,000
volts because insulation of ~tationai-y arm atur e
is not subjected to mec han ical st.reRRes duP to
centrifucal action and more space is available on the
atator II outside the rotor. stat or fo1· prov idin g mor e imrn latio n as the
Synchro Mu.s Gen.erators or Alt.ernator, 103

d d'
. can be connectn 1rcr.tly with tho fixo<l tormrno ls of tho et11tor (or nrmatur o
load circuit
2. Thedin
~ . p) without paaain1 through alip-nni.rs and t,ruaho11 In t tao r 880 r,f rr,t.nling ar m,.turo tli
nngs and
boa shcirc~t ia ~quired to be connor.ted with tho nrmnt,ur o wm,J 111 g t,y mcurne ohlip
88 11 oxponon r.od m r;t11,n ,,f }11u1vy curr, rat.II at vr f'Y tugl;
ru m which case a difficulty 111111,
voltages .
· diDI can ho morn eaBily brocod in o rigid l,omo 11, ,,,ovont. nny dof,,rma tJ,,n
3· Th ~ arm.a t ure win
and tlHt
w_h1ch cou~d be develope d by the mechonicol etreu 8011 ,iot up ,Juo t1111 ti,,,t...{;ir' •nt t•Jnente
high centrifu gal forces brouirht into play.
4. The armatur e winding is cooled more readily bocaun,, th•t qt.ouu u,ra urn
•~ ma,Jo Jute9 cmou[f}J
with many air passage s or coolin1 duct.a for forcod air cm,ulotu m
th9 fJX(;1tin1
5. Only two slip-ring s are required for the supply of direct cunont th the rntM a nrJ IJlf•'A
no d1Hi<,ult. y w 1r1l!lulau n1 tl19m
current is to the supplied at low voltage of 126 or 260 V, thoro JR

garu riood ~
6. Since the exciting current is relativel y small, therefor e, the elip-rin1e arid the hru,b
of only light construc tion.
de. field us
7. Due to simple, light and robust construc tion of the rotor, higher epeed of rntatm1
possible . This results in increase d output from the machine of Jiven dimene1 one
Since in de machine s, the commut ator makes necessar y that either the drmatur e ehould
h1' rCJtatinr
armatur e a rotatmi memh9t m
one, or brushes should revolve with the field, so it is conveni ent to have ll8
de machine s.
Revolving field alternat or with e88ential parts is shown in fig. 3.2.
cal rothT ma-
The synchro nous machine s may be classified as (i) salient pole machine s and (ii) cylindri
chines dependi ng upon the
type of construc tion used for
the rotor. The salient pole
construc tion is used for gen-
era tors and motors of all AP.11ATUP.£ TOl
ranges of output and up to all SLOTS- ---,4-~,; ~:;a,,.
but the higher speeds. All.MATURE
CORE --•
Medium -and large-siz ed gen-
erators for the highest speeds
are of the cylindri cal-roto r
type.
The synchro nous genera-
tors, based on the type of
prime-m overs to which they
are mechan ically coupled ,
may be classifie d as (i) turbo-
genera tors, (ii) hydro-g enera·
tors and (iii) engine driven
generato rs
Turbo-g enerato rs are
driven by steam turbines . The
efficiency of steam turbines is
high at large speeds, and
therefo re, synchro nous
machin es driven by steam Revolving Field Salient Pole Type Alternator
turbine s (i.e. turbo- Fig. 3.2
generato rs) are high speed
pole, and 60 Hz. Theae
machine s. The maximu m speed of turbo-ge nerators is 3,000 rpm correspo ndina to 2
cal rotor conatruc tion ii
have small diamete rs (limited to about 1.2 m) and horizon tal con.figurations. Cylindri
9led II the aalient pole construc tion is impract ical owing to laqe mechan ical forces. Two-pole conatruc
lion
widl a apeecl of 3,000 rpm for 50 Hz is commonly used for tw bo-1enerator1. The 4-pole conatruc tion, with a
..., I ,.. apeed of 1,600 rpm ia now obeolete. Turbo-alternaton have ratin1a upto 1,000 'MVA
 AC M( l(' hin es
q4
l e1 1rr nto rs or l1.wfro-
led the u,a tcr -1. .vh e:1 tin
r1, e11 b~ ,,o tc1 tu, un lC S oic' ';lu c> s dr ivi ng ~lwm
H' ~) ,ch ro ~uu~ gt' ue rat iro 1n en ts of the I~ (i.e
ors d u\ ,t h tlw ~p'-'r1 . nHmbe_r ol po les
:-: su d, ~em'rator-s h. ' fic pe ed r 111 50 0 on
d \0 0 rp allY ha ve ve rti
' ~ "" l, ,th sp , bc ca l sh,aft.
e ••1> ll'l ih.1 1-.s u-e l c~ d m, ,ch nH " els tw oc i ·
h.':c u\\ :.,.p . d lrd 1 ic po w er J>l:-inO ts us u to l 00 0 kv a. fh e
u c1 ,t;'"' f ·1 4 ,, 6 l) nn i:l fra tm t,; l1p to ,. "' 0 MV \ H, ,o c> kv a or I
,ll 1 ull ng ~ fro m }O1G to
es s ,
\l
,, I,
•
, •,
!, llt ul<'' .<1 ,11 t' o f
m \ . of 4
G w nl lv
c1
\ to ('> po \e
• $.' , ,c . . ~"' ,t
thC ' nu lll po les is . f • .
c-, l .. .,t lH.'t :tl h 1.. ,· "c ~n l hl l ,)01) rpi n. ' 1e1 cl n r1• d ;11-1 hon·1.11nt n \
·., , \ h ~, t'll
t'. ,' 1 c el en gin es a re in an u a \\ I
.i
g •1w1 ,tN 1 ho c i tt>d
, , nm on t01 ,\lt ' t ' cn cra tor n10 mu un ·t, h<H r1.onl ;i y ;1111 an •
•·h t'.. ,l'l t'1 1P ,ttW l 1
i1- 1t,H 'l._ 1.'\ .:I
l ,ch ron ou 1 Tl w
t
'1 ••u, tht •t, '1Y.
ltl , ,,,l ~ ,i h'l
lh) ,'\'\•ft ,"\ lllt 1c s)l
~ s,1
~g
S\ \lh ~l'l ll.' talo 1:: . cm plo , , hc utp olP lY Pc c<
. Hl '-tr uc 1°1
ge nc n,t or sc ns 1t ne o
I urq m• of tlw
, t tor qu c•v an al1 01 1
.....
l nt/ 1 !' '·:n cl tln ;;
. tlt'" m,,kt•s the s~ nd 1ro no us
'l ._,_.....~to, llll ' l:S lh' t ,I 'l ul Ill
..

.'J.2. CO =" ST RU CT IO
S,nc.h10n.:-1.1 5 m.1.c un e ~ 1ns 1.:: ts es se ntw lly of
· _ '-' ' • , . •ta tor ) an
t;\\ o Jl, l t:,, 1.. Uk,1 tl t> nn atu re ,,n ::.. • d
~
iht> f1.:ld ll', ,p. lc, :S) ste m.
1 \1 m. ,tu re ( or -- .:;,rn.t Jr) Th e ar ma tu re .
1s
• f, e: , ' .
11 l n. lg ...u il' li '- 1• •Jm•·na tio ns 0f sp ec ia ma g-
. 1 an
'
ll(' l .~ it"Cln or ste el a U,
''
·lot.., :m 1t :,,- p"1
v~ (~i ::,, ~ *'
lico n ·te e1 l1a vm .
g
, ·1pl·.,, d
•- ••..., to a.:.:otn1u0 a t e ar ma tur e
~ond~crni:S an d 15 ku ow
n as stoto_r. Th e ~bh Olef
s ru.:tm"t' iS l10 id m · ••·· ine *,; , wl uc h ma ,
c.1 ,t tro l N we lde
3. u.1 .,. .
e ld o
d ~tc el pla te. ~ll h~ e the
1'1;,,!e::. m be tw ee n the sta ~e
tor . so th at flu x ot the_
ioc nr nu fie ltl .:ut::,,
· ..1uc"' ~he co re of th e sta t~
1
c-onn -us1~ au a., cau se: s~ ed dy - -u rre nt los s m
the sta tor co re. To 1ui :11 ..,
1.l' 1Z. e the _eddy cu
lo~ , th e su i.t or co rre nt
re is la m rn at ed . Th
l.rn ttn ; t10:1::. (u.:rn:.iily e_
of thi ..:k ne ss O.~ mm
1........ ) an ' :-t :un p ...,d ou t o1
in co mp let e nn gs (fo
-.111,tlh•1 ma d1 1n 0s) or r
in se gm en ts (fo r lar ~e
ma du ne s) an d ins ula ted r
fro m ea ch oth er wi th
1.1
1 per or va nu sh Th e sta mp mg ·
\llH'n111gs wh ich m s a l so hn°: ve
ak e ax ial _ an d r~ di
,enul.1t111g du.-:ts to pro al
vid e eff ici en t cooh.ng. A
l,!l'twr,,l Vl l''' of sta to r an
,, ·" d fra me is sh ow n m fig.
,>.•>
Th e op en slo ts are wo re
co mm on ly us ed be -
C.H ISl'the coils ca n be for m- wo
un d an d ins ula ted
pn or to be-mg placed in
ex pe nd itu re nn d wo re
th e st'o ts giving lea st
sa tis fa cto ry wi nd in g
me tho d. Tl us type of slo Stator of a Sy n~ hr on ou s
ts als o fa cil ita te in Ge ne ra to r
rem ov al anti rt'placeme Fr.g. 3.3
ut of defective coils. Bu t
g:l p flux hH u br an ch es th is typ e of slo ts ha ve di ..
or tuf ts wh ich ten ds sa dv an ta ge of di str ib ut
m-e be tte r in thi s respect to pr od uc e rip pl es in th e in g th e air
bu t do not pe rm it th e us e em f wa ve . Th e se m i-d os
of fo rm -w ou nd coils. To tal ed ty pe slo ts
Nu mb er of slo ts pe r po ly du :se d slo ts ar e ra re ly
le pe r ph as e sh ou
ld be lar ge to give sin us us ed .
1mmbr.r of slots pe r pole pe oi da l ge ne ra te d em f. In
r ph as e is 3 to 4 for sm ge ne ra l, th e
U m mes ma y ha ve integ all ma ch in es an d mo re
1:al slo t wi nd in g wi th en th an 5 fo r la1·ge ma ch in es .
11 l an d so th e nu mb er of slo ou gh ch or di ng . Fo r la1
ts pe r pole pe r ph as e ma ·ge m ac hi ne s fract10nal
y no t be an in te ge r.
n d ste els give low er co
re loss. th e or ie nt at io n
-o ne nt ed ste els co nt ain is no t ev er yw lw re fa ~m
in g 3 pe r ce nt sil ico n ar ,b le .
outer na m e (or yoke) serv e us ua lly us et\ .
es to can-y th e m ag ne tic
DI th e ar m at ur e sta m pi flu x bu t in an alt&•rna
ng s an d co ils in po sit io tur. ,t
u.
 S, 11(/11u111111 (,',•11c111 /r11 o, Alt, 11wlm 195

'l'ltt1 1111111111u111 tooth w1cl1h hould ~H rnc h rhnt

~%1////~
Wit
1111' 111,1'<111111111 flu"" dP11 1ly Ill ii doc 1111111•X1C1c,d tl11
1111111 "' 1111,- """ 1ty Ill 11'1 1 1Ii 111·11111 • 1ld1 '" IVl)lll
.II 111.1111>11 'l'li•· d••pt h of I h1 1 lot .1111I l,,1pc.. 1 11< Ii
w
,1.'-1 fo ,Ir'! 01111111111.111' I Iii' u•11111n•d 1111111111•1 of l'1111dw
I 111 'l 111•1 1 lol fen t 111• 1·.11 I'd v11l l.11 I' lo l11• pt 1111111 ed ,d
fhc• 1,1f1·d pc•f'd ll••11•••,tll:ir d,•pth I' l t11h l•IIH" 1111 1
w1dtlt II 1111• rlc•pth I l l l l l l ' . t I'd ,y11d11r ,11011•
1, •: 11 t :i 111 , • 111 •I,, t 111, • , ·• 1 1 • , 1 " " " Io H< • 111 It• c t h a re
l:u·1:c'I' :111d 11101·,, 1•x111.111011 w•ll Ill' ir•1p11n d fur t hr-
111:1ch11 H'

l. Vi1•ld Mu~~•wt Sy!-.((' m or Roto1·. Thi· magne tic

1'1Plcl 1·1•q1111Pcl f'or 1h1· gP111•r atwn uf alh•rn ating
vollag1• 1 1110,•1d,·d by fH·lcl magnr>1.~ !-!imilnr to thoHe
of ;1 ,le- 111:1d111w :ind l lwi-w 1wpd to Im s11pplied with
dar<'<'t 1·111·n•11t. Tlw; may be had from !iome extern al (a) Open Slot
Fig. 3.4
I
(IJ) .'~w1111-( {) I'( (J

~0111'<'< ', h111 so ~•s to malrn tl1e all.crn ator

oelf-
ro•1l:111 1l'd :rnd ind<'p<•ndcnt of other source of supply
, it is more usual to install a small <le get 1 ~ - ;r
(11s11ally a Ila t l'ompo und wound type) for this purvos e. The genera
tor is callecl the 'exciter ' and i;:, couple
1111' 1'n1~1111· or t url)Jne driving the alterna tor. The exciter armatu re is
connec ted direc'.'ly to the alrnrna or
fu·ld w111d111 g, usually withou t any kiud of control ling resista nce, so
that except for vanatr nns dut tr1
I1•111pPr;1t un• change s, the resista nce of the exciter load is constan t. For the
success ful operat ion of alterna tor
11 ,.., ll<'l'N,:- ;ary to U(.' able to vary the excitin g curren t over
a wide range from pract1c aliy zero to the full
0111 put uf t hi' f'xcitl'r , and this i8 achiev ed by varyin g the resista nce
in exciter field circuit . For makin g the
l1dd 1·l11 n•u1 e11l1n.dy indepe ndent of the armatu re termin al voltage ,
a small pilot exciter is design ed to be
sal 111':ll1•d .1t its ll::·rminal voltage , by reason of which its termin
al voltage remain s sensib ly rou:-ilcrnt al all
lo:ul~ 11 1..,, wrna lly couple d mecha nically to the main exciter and the two
are often enclo:-i<'d I ogPl lwr II\ thP
.-. :I 1111' Ii O ll SI 1l ~.
'1'111· fu·ld .'-;ystPm of the alterna tor is rotated within the armatu re ring
and is known a . . rotor The
1••,:c1I lllJ.: c·111TPnl i•; supplie d to the rotor thrcrng h two slip-rin
gs and brushe s. The polnrit it>~ 11f tlw fir Id
prod111·c•d 1s alterna tely north (N) and south (S). The power rating
of the exciter is ord11rnrily O.:, In 1° 0 of
p,iwPr rati11g of the .synchr onous genera tor. The voltage rating
of the exciter is usuall y lwt~vl•1•n U5 anti
ir,o v.
H1•n•111 ly, I.H·u.c,hless excitat ion ~ystem has been develo ped in
which a 3-phas e ac exciter and a );!.l'Oup
of' n•1·t ifu•rs supply to the alterna tor. Hence, brushe s, slip-rin
gs and comm utator are elimina tPcl. ·

(b) Non-S alient Pole Type Fi, ltl ~l11u1 w,

Fi63. 5
 \I H,11 /11,,, tt

l 1 111111 ul) 111111,1 I,

I tO" '"''''' ,11, I' \ pl
\ \\ ,,th\\''\ I' II"""'' '"
, ,\,,th h I' 11 ,h,,,, 11 '" t\Q ' , 11 1'"'" I,,, ~Im, 1111,I
111 I\, \1 \ "''''"'''''ttht• ,,hi 111u111 111 1 1111,,-.
1
I, '"' \lfll\ ,, '"'' \'I' PN• ,,,,,1 I 000 '""'
1
''""'' \\ wh 1 "'I\ ot l11lth I"'' 111h 11 111I
,, l'\\\p\11\ ,,,\ \I\ \11ilh.. 1111111111 (1111,l 11011111
t, ,•l ,,\.t 1\\\1\\'1 ,nit\,"'" •
~,· "' ,,,,t \'"''"" 11 ,,,,,,, 11111111 ht 11111 11{ Iii
\, \\\\\ "' '\\\\•\1•li I\ th\\ 1111111 ,, ilh
1
',t ,1, I II Ill I ,µI ,.,, ,ti 1111d
\ ,,n ,I\ ,,,,nu\ tlw ,,,, ,ph,,, 1 l l 111 """ ' '" '' '
l' ,, ,,t 1 ,,h , lw ,, , _ _....,.-----.._...,
m ,.,.,we , "tui,,t
"~.,,,,\\\ \h' \\ \\\ \\\}\ h "~,._,,,,,,
,h\\\\ll. h'"" (l ~"\1\1
1
\'''''
\1 {tth~ h,\ tlw ,,, 1~1wth' th'"'tt
\ lllmrn~(l,,\ \,,,t ,,, \\~ ,•n~ri, tlw
lll'. ~·,"' "\\\i\t\n,, 11•,•th \,,,t\\i•~n
•t -:.w, "1n,•h ._,,,w,1h111 mfl.- m
l ''",\\,fr,\ t)w 1,•im\tm.:_ ,,,\,h
,\.~ t\n,t h1·-ntrna. l'lw p,•l~ fht"\'R
t\\~:\\' h•n~,h \lh'l\l \l'\'S t\,\l\\ tht•
St ~h~,,, n n, h~ .~ l~. :.,, th.,t tlw tlu,

tm't' ~m t:-\,'t' \~ s,m,,111,,,\nl nu,{ J,~JJ . •,· ti

\\\\\~,,hl.\l

,nth a a'ampin11
utncinp ·
 A( 'Mflrlll11r1
191;
. lienl. pole typt• ;1111l (11) 11iuc1th
88
lloton,1, as already mentioned in Art 3 1.2. n1" of two type11 ~amel~ ~) '
cylindriC'al type .or non-salient pol(' typo . Bolh typoa 1110 shown in fie ·. · t entirely for slow aud
f J • typo ae used n 1inos -
(a) Solie11t Pole Type Held St111r.t111 c. Tht• fwhl HI ru 1·1 uie O t .118 cc for the fielcl 11mpun•-lurn~.

. . , l l 1. t • ·hinea when
18
apee
d
mo,lurate ~peod alt<>n1ators sim·o 11 1s ll'nHl l'XJwn,uvo 011 11 provide aanp epa does not f'Xct•eJ l ,000 rpm
h I .
Sahcnl pole macluncs am chcnpo1· thon cy 1111 ncn I o 01 mnc h.1 0 00 ncr.ount of'"" (H'rtp \(! I al
8ahent pole tnlc f1l'ld strncturc cnnnot bl' Pmployrcl 111 high speed anAc_ ~ :r,mg;h 'fhe 1-mlicnl field poles
~peed (100 to 170 m,~) nml tlw tuffin1lt't of obtnuung eulf1c1ent moch_anica tsh 1'ah ape.ad •
. l . d oiso if dnven n a .
would also l.',l\lsc an excessive wmdagc 1oss n1H JHO uce 11 ith eloctro-mAgnete. e1m1lar to th e fie ld
Thl• 1·otor of n low-speed machme resembles a flywheel w de of cast-iron or ca Ml •Al• •c•l nn,I
m.1~1wts of a de maclun~. bolted on all round the periphery. It is ueua Y ma
11
It.,:- a lh•a,-y c0ntral hub, a number of radial urms, and a heavy
ri111 which ·forms the yoke of the magnet system. The flywheel
l'.\1W of rntor is constructed to give adequate mechanical strength
lo withstand centrifugal and driving forces and at the same
111ne to provide the necessary paths for the magnetic fluxes.
Tlw poles may be either solid or laminated but in any case, the
pol<' shues are laminated because the armature teeth between
I he slots cause concentrations of flux which generate emfs in
the pole shoes. If they were not laminated the resulting eddy
c11rrnnL,;; would cause excessive loss and heating. The pole !aces
:we so shaped that the radial air-gap length increases from the
: pole centre to the pole-tips, as shown in fig 3.6, so that the flux
• distribution over the •armature surface. is sinusoidal and Fig . .'-J. (i
waveform of generated emf is sinusoidal.

Pole with o dompin§'

windinp

&,lieut Pole l-)eld Stmctun•

Fig. ,1. 7
Pole winding
l
Tiw polrn; ha\'~ cuncentrateJ windings and arn wounJ with onliuary wit-e coils~ ti 11 · but
· I I· h fi lcl · d · or . 1e HIIHI <· r s11.<•tt,
'" ar~or mac une~ I e 1e wm u~gs arc maJe of rectangular copJ>c1· strip wouncl 011 """"· Thi> JnUt>l'
a...-a111t!nacnt J>rovuk!S "'ood mcchamcal strength and Haves wastage of 8pacc.
 197
~11ch ro1w11 s Gener ators or Alter1Lators

damp er wmdm g on t he 10101· to damp rotor

. Salie nt P?le mach ines are frequ ently l) l'Ovidl'd with a
tion under un ba lanced load c:o111llt 1011:-1 The
oscillat~on_s d~rm g h"~ns ient-c onditi ons and to fa cilitate opera
faces of the pole pier.cs and co11m•1·lc•1l to c>ach
dampe1 wmdm g consi sts of coppe1· bars laid in slots on tho
soime nta on rnd1v1d11aJ p<Jlc•s an· gener ally
~t_h er at the ends by mean s of s hort-c ircu1tin1e sogm<'nts Tho
circui ted squin el cage windi ng simil ar to that
Jomed togeth er to form comm on rings rcirnlt in g in n short-
used in induc tion mach ines with squirr el cage rotors.
ting con<l1 lton1J, damp er wmd111K do<''- not
It shoul d be clearl y understood that unclc 1 norma l oporo
. The da mper wmdm g al,m ten,ls to m:1111ta111
cany any curren t. bec..1use roto1· runs ttt synch ronou s speed
balan ced 3-pha se volta ge under unbal anced load condi tions.
requir ed frequency, such nrnch mes have
Since the speed of salien t pole mach ines is quit.e low, so to give
number of poles, these mach1m:H have large
la1·1{e numb er of poles (4 to 60). To accom moda te such a large
is rough ly proportion11l to 1t.<i volume.
cliam etcr and small length , becau se the outpu t of a mach ine
es :
Tim snliPn t pol<.> field struc ture has the following specia l featur
(1 > Th<.>y have large diame ter and short axial
length .
(ii) The pole shoes cover about 2/3 of pole pitch.
(iii) Poles are lamin ated in order to reduc e eddy cun-e nt
losses .
(iv) These are emplo yed with hydra ulic turbin es
or diesel engin es. The speed J 8 100 lo :J'i~ rpm.
3. 7.
A gener al view of salien t pole field struct ure is shown in fig
(b) Smoo th Cylin drica l or Non-s alient Pole Type Field
Structu.re. The field struc tur e of t.ht8 I vp~ i!c< used
e the perip heral veloci ty the diame ter of the
in very high speed altern ators (turbo -alter nators ). To reduc
of diam eter to axial le ngth r:rngc--.; from
rotor is reduc ed and axial lengt h is increa sed. The ratio
J/:3 to 1/2. A small numb er of poles is requir ed to give
the requi red freque ncy.

,
SUPRINGS

VENTILATION DUCTS

Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9

-gene rator is subje cted to hig·h nwclaa nirnl
Due to high pe1-ip heral speed , the rotati ng part of the turbo
lly built from solid steel f01~n g. ( 'hrom ium-
sl.resses. As a result the rotor of a large turbo -gene rator is norma
is used for the rot~rs of turbo -~ tcrn:it o1·s . The
nick~ l-stee l or speci al chrom e-nick el-mo lybde num steel
in strip form, is placed . The coils are hC'lcl in place
ro1iui"g has radia l slots in which the field coppe r, usual ly
.ti!lgs . Norm ally two-t hirds of I.he rotor is
by .st~ul 01· bronz e wedg~~ and_!,!1e coil eQds are fasten e<!_~ m~tal
slots so as to form the pole faces, as show n m fig
idurtc d f01· die fie1d wTnding and one:tJ 1ird is left witho ut
the rotor so that rectan gula1 · condu ctors can be
3.8. Recta ngula r slots with taper ed teeth arc mille d out in
ation hole at the bottom . To reduc e harm ful
usetl fo1· the field windi ng. Each slot is provi ded with a ventil
ral view of an assem bled smoo th cylind rirRl
tooth i·ippJes, eithe1· stato r slots or poles are skewe d. Gene
rotor ia shown in fig 3.9.
 A< M 11111
198

The non-salient field stn-1ct ur<1 ha th I I fi ti•

(i) They nre of timnlll r ll1 m t r nd f v rv l11111t I l l n th
(ii) Robust con truct10n nnrl nm l
(iii) Less wmdago (au rt• 1 t 1m't) lo
(iu) Bott.er in dynnmu h ,truu 111,
(u) High operntmg pN•d (~l,000 1 pm)
,t v 1ml tliol' for , VIV
(u,) Nearly smuso1dnJ Hux d1 tnlmtum ll"«llllUJI) 1' 1' 0 11 I 101 ., ,
than that obi mnhlo w1th 1mhcnt polo fi<1ltl 011 tu I urn
0
(vu) There 1s no nood of pro~'ldmg ,tnmp.-.r wuuJmg (oxc pt III ftpocrnl <'
because t.he ohd field poles themeelvos act oe ofhc u nt dompr r ·
I d I 8 , nl O th occ ntnnty m tt.
Air-gap. A \'en small air-gap mcrcaace the stray- 00 00 • t X A I
· Th' 1 , aftoe tho synchronous ronc onco d
result from m<'chamca.l d1fficulties. 1s a eo mere tho r ,t,o of tnr pt
needs la~r excitation current. A compromise has to bo made. Oonorn 11Y
pitch 1s bet:'9. een 0 008 to 0.02.
3.3. PRODUCTION OF SINUSOIDAL A,LTERNATING EMF d t.o
When the rotor is rotated by means of some prime-mover, the armature con uc_ ~
8
;u .
t tho m gn
therefore, an emf is induced in the armature conductors, due to electro-magnetic m ucuon c c
ffi t

Wben the conductor is opposite the neutral planes, as at A,

C and E induced emf in it is minimum because flux density is
minim•~:n there. When the conductor is opposite the middle of
the poles, as at B,D and F, induced emf in it is maximum, the
direction of induced emf depends upon the name of the pole
influencing the conductor at any given instant. Thus an alternat-
ing emf is induced in the conductors which goes through one
complete cycle in an angular distance equal to twice of the pole
pitch. Though the shape of the wave of alternating induced emf is
not exactly the sinusoidal but taken as sinusoidal.
Fig. 3.10
3.4. FREQUENCY OF INDUCED EMF
· As mentioned above, an emf induced in conductor goes through one complete cycle in an angular distnnc
equal to twice the pole pitch.
If the number of poles on rotor of an alternator is P, then P/2 cycles of emf are completed in one
revolution. The number of cycles per second, known as frequency f, will be equal to the product of number of
cycles of emf per revolution and number of revolutions made per second by the rotor.

i.e. Frequency,/ = : x n
where n is the number ofrevolutions made per second by rot.or
_ P N PN
or/- - x - =--
120 .. (31)
2 60
where N is the number of revolutions made per minute by the rotor.
Hence frequency of induced emf or current induced in stator conductors depends llpori the ,a umber of
poles and speed of rowr.
~:s:ample 3.1. A 6-pole ac generator is running and producing the frequency of 60 Hz. C11 tculate the rovolu-
tions per minute of the generator. It the frequency is decreased to 20 Hz, how many numbor or pole,
will be required if the generator is to be run at the same speed. [B. T.E. U. P. Elec. E 11 gi,reerfog.JI, 1995]
Solution ; Frequency generated,/ = 60 Hz
Number of poles, P = 6
Spe~d• N = 120p / = 120Gx 60 = 1,200 ADI,
 ~y11chnH1011s (;e11erators or Alll'l'llalors HJ9

When frequency, f = 20 Hz

Number of poles required, P' = 120 f' -- 120 x :W - 2 A

N 1I 200 - n ■.

., 3.5. ARMATURE WINDINGS

The armature windings of de machines are usually closed circuit windints but altemato1 s wmdmgs may be
eilher closed giving delta com1ectio11s or open gwing stor-co1mectio"s.
The general principles governing windmgs for de machinea also hold good for alternator wmdmgs e.g
(i) The span of each coil must be equal to pole pitch i.e. the two sides of any coil must be under
adjacent poles.
(ii) The coils must be so connected that emfs induced in t!.iem help each other.
(iii) The winding can be either single layer or double layer. The single layer winding w1ll linv<' 11111 '
coil side per slot, while double layer winding will have two coil sides/slot.
(it,) In addition to above, winding must be so designed that it may approximately g1w m1luu:cl 1•mf of
sinusoidal form.
3.5.1. Classification of Armature Windings. The classification may be made nccordin\t lo HPVm-al pmnta
of view e.g.
(a) Single phase windings and poly-phase windings .
(b) Cor.centrated windings and distributed windings.
(c) Half coiled (or hemit.ropic) windings and whole-coiled windings.
(cl) Single layer windings and double layer windings.
(e) Lap windings, wave windings and concentric (or spiral) wind-
2 J C
ings.
(/) Full pitched coil windings and fractional pitched coil N s N s
windings.
(g) Integral slot winding and fractional slot winding.
l. Sfogle Phase Armature Windings. There are two types of
single phase armature windings, namely
(a) concentrated and (b) distributed windings.
(a) Concentrated Winding: If one slot per pole or slots equal to
numuer of poles are employed, then concentrated winding is obtained. (a) Skelt.01~ \\'m·,! \(1imli11,1.?

I
I
I
17

l (or Hemi-troµic) Wind,:11-g (c) Whole Coilr.d 'Windi'.ng

Fig.3.11
 \( /I f,,,,,,,,,
:!Oil

1 l,111 1111 w IVI 11 11 Ill 1, l 111rl111 I ,I

S111 h w111rl111K8 ~1v11111nx111111111111d1111•d 1•111f 1 J111 11""'",' 11 11 1• 11 ,1 1, 11 of 11111il11 1,11
., 11 ,filii 11111 PX111 lly of 11111 01rl,il 1111111 1, ,I 11 ( ,, 1111111 111111111 1111

81111pl1•Mt po14M1hli Willi I 111.i k tlll\\1111 H • ' '

1 " ' ,, "' "''"''' ,,,,,,,1,,,,1 ,
IN ,. 1Ill '(II Ill
l
1
'I I ,1 11 , , 111 ,, 1 ,,I 11 1d1111, I 1 1111 111 flu
' I I 111 1h1I 1111111111l•1 11I P" IJU
1 ,,
, 11 p,,I, d 1 ,w11w 11 ,I
,
1111111!11 •1 of 1"01111111 I01 1t 111 1 ml t11 1 ,,,. 11:1 1 ''1 11 11 J , 1111
d \V II I rt Ill f I ll f 11111 1Ill 1,,, 11111 1 1 1 11 1
1·rn11l111•f111 · 1111d1 •1 111111h pof., u1 H I 111w11 1tp1VIII ,, H .,,J, ,,,1,, nt fill' I,,, I 111d ,,,11d11, 1,
I I1 f 1 ,I frl HIIII 1llf fol 1111 "- 11111 1Il l 11 1 • 11
n111d1111111 1111 I 1111d,•1 111111 1 I'" 1 ' " •
111111
''' J ii, 1yo, f 11JJ ,,lt 1,, d 11,d w111d111v
h , f1111ll 11111 1 11 111111 1I l ltll JII ," ', ,,,,,,, ,, 1
1111 :! tH, on111 r11•1 I 111,011, I 11, 1111 11< 1•I 11 I l ' ,,I t l,, 11,,I ,11111 I f 111 ,1 1
0
1

S111i:l11 l.1\11>1 w1111l111n I 11 1fllll Ml I 11111111 I1•I , I I, 111 fl lil II 1"'

11 Ill f 1II, 1 111111 11

1
1:11,•ly11:-;i d111111H 1 l11t• I lly uidfi , 11111 ,. ,,, 11 1111,,d,, ti,1,l,11111l11"l11r
I V Wit1di11~ Ill''' lf ' JI 111 ·1• 1 I I
II s111i:l1 111111 (Ill I R 1) I li l\l' OIi WI ,.
1. fl
I' I I ' J 11
•) WJIH Ill ~ IH II l1lllllllf
<•,,,,, u,,I t 1,11ly (l1Vl•1 1,111• li,111 ,,r lhfl
1•111I, 1111' 11111111 111111 h.1)/ illl I1' 1I ( / lr'/11/(lll/llf J / // / Jr ftt ' /llll/lJJJlf #J11d1111(
I 111 I I llllM I H dlll\VII IHI ' " / '()/ ('( )f '
,11·111:111111•J1••nph,•1v, I h•rf 1'1', 1 ll ltW IIII . I ,, , . fl, , w 11 ,t1 111 1,: 'it, 1Jl,t:1111• •d 1 1,dl1 rl II Iv,/,.
lf1h,• ,o,1,, ,.,, 1h i;tnh1111'1I ov,·1· 1111' wlwli• o 1 I 10 1' 111 1' 1111 Y, · 1
111
• u,/,•,I wn,d .!l I l
l111l11 1,w 111d111g1li1•111111tl)(•J'1JfC'o,ls1Hf•(JWI fof.lf•llllllllllll) 1 , f J) oJi,H ' () 111 , 14 11 1,.f 1,l
J
1•:1t:l1, otl lv111~ 1 ,11 I h1 11,p
J I f I
'I 101 , H H· J1• Jy• 111 .,,, j 11 1h1•, l,ofl1J111
,,. ~h11w11 by <011l11H1ott!i (or :,o hd) ~1111• ;111C I I I10 o,. · · o I 11· H 1,1 I H H 11 ,w11 ,y 11,11, 11
11111· 111 lig- .3 11 (c). Ir 1s do11hl1• l:1y1•r w111di11~

(b) lh.\/11/mll'rl W11Hlrn;.: . If 1h1· cond11c:to1·t1 plac,•d rn ti l!V<: 1·:tl Hl<,I.H 1111 d 1: 1 1, 111 • pol,, 1 Ill • w,11d111i,: 1
:irn

k1111w11 .,.,, d1.\l11l111INI 111111rl111,.: 'J'h1• w11JC I rn~ lll:t,Y IH! J>,11 '• II .Y (J ,. L'
' t 1,1 '(IIIJJl<•f<•lyd1Hf1•tl,11f1•d
, ·,. · :11· 1 ·111d111~ly I Iii
,.,1 0 1.,, ;11 ,. :.pn·:1d ov,•r only a pol't ICJll of' ,t ,,,. ovc:t· f h,, <rn ti re· a n11a t,111·<J Ht1rf:tc:1 i. 'l'ho11~d I i I r1 •ii 11, "H I I11• 111d 111, 11
1•1111' 11 v••t 1s 1110:-.f commonly c•111pluy1•d u11<• to itl-1 arwnif'old :1dvru1tagoH.

AJv11ntugcs. (i) Tlw haa·mo111c 0111(i:I nr<i 1·oducecl :rnd AO Lho wavofom1 iH iioprov<:d .
(i,) Cc•rt:1in d1sfortin~ hnrmonicr-1 c:in ho altogotho1· l!]irninatod.
(ii,) The distributed winding diminiAhcH armHLure l'Mtction and 1u·matlu·u rc•nc:la,11:1•
(ill) Higher current dcnRiLy iu qrn copper can Le adopted due to CV<!H difitribttl.1<111 of, ,,ppl'I' owr t lw
s urface of armature ro1rnlting in oven disLributio11 of copper losR and, thc•mfr1rn , 1111 • ff wJ1 •11f, 111,l111g
(11) The cor<' i1:1 better utiliHcd as a number of small slots evenly Rpar,od arn omploy1•d
(i) Lap Winding. FuJJ pitched lap winding for a '1 -))olc, 12-slot, 12 cond11c1m· (one co11d11<'l11r p1·1 · Nl111)
alt1•an::itor is shown 111 fig. 3. 12 (a). Tho hack 11i tch of tho winding iR equal Lo the II um IH•r of c·ond ucfo, 1-i p1..•t
pol,, i., .. - ;J :incl fro111. pi Leh iA oqual tu back pitch mi11us 0110. Tho winding iA compl<!Ieel pc•r pa II l)f' pol,, :i l
I ftc•11 c1J1lllc•c1cd in 1wricH, ilf:I r-ihowu in the fig11l'c. 111

~ "-,
4 5 (i

,.,
Sin;.:/,. Lay,,,f,<11, \l'i11d111.g
Fig a.J2(u)
:,;, 11c/11 n11011s Ge11e1 otors 0 ,. ~\It l I .II0/01 S 'I) 1

(11) ll'me ff111di11l!.

~
\\':wn I
• ,- \\ \111 II\~ fo
4
I:!-..;lot. 1:! l'Ond net or (oiw lU l ' " pnl,,
Ill \lC'lOI 1'1'I R\ 1 1)
, .. rnator 1-.. :-hown 1n fi ..,.. '·, . l ''- (\))
'fl \I' h,ll''k' )· 1II
1
,111d front pitch. P.tch 1:- l'qu ,l t) \ 1 1r.,
' I ll\1111 ll'I I\( l illltl1t
1ur-. 111•1 po IP. ,
(111) LCJll<'l.'11// 1, cl
•
s,, ·
1/ \\ Ill lltl,~\lll\11'1111)1
/ ,,

or~piralwmtlmglo\',\ t-1h>k l~-sh, 1' I" 111 1H l\ll lPI

(on1• cond uc101· Pt 1 , h l) ., lt l'l n., 1O\ 1, l
· ·" hl\\ I\ Ill 111•
.3 l :! (Cl. "

Jn tin~\\ m,lm!!' tlw 1'tHls' •\l•'' \ it· \ l l 11.l' l°\' l\ l

pitche -.. ;he o_utcr coil 1ntch 1s 5. the nnd<lll' roil
pitch 1s 1 ~,nd rnner coil \Htch 1s ont".

•
L:1p wmdmgs
•
h:n·e their widt:>st Li 1.::~ld so f' ap-
Si11glc I oycr \I'm< \\ 11 ""'
plication m the_ stators of most high-speed s,·n-
Fi~ ..1.12 (I,)
chr(lnou..; maclune::-. waYe windings are ideal ·for

7 8 9 - - - - - - - - - - . . 10 11 12

7
Single Layer Spiral Winding
Fig. 3.12 (c)

the rot.ors of wound-rotor induction-type motors ' ''

'' ''
and concentric or spiral windings are used most '
frequently in slow speed, large diameter alter-
nators :

2. Po/yph use Al'mature Winding. Terms t

usNl frequently 111 L:onnection with poly-phase
wi1uhu~s am:
Coil Group. It is the product of number of ,, ,, I
''
phases and numbe1· of poles i.e. coil group ,,, ,, I
I

''
"1
'♦
=Number of poles x number of phases.
Balanced Winding. If the number of coils per
iii p1111111a • a whole number, the winding is known T, 1
ii
'• eo·
r70 ~ L, I

0 1' 7
windi11.g. Each pole contains equal ....
Shel/011 'Two Phase' \fi11di11"
-of different phases in such a case. Fig. 3. 1:J (Cl)
 t\J

,1!i11pll1l1uf1111h 111I I 1q I i f, 1I I ,,,, ' '"'' 11' J', 1' 11''

1
ll
\
' " " ~ ~~\\\11 I"'",, 1
I
1111hlll\ In l\dl \1 111 h,itl ,, ,' "'Ill 1Ulp11111l~ f II HO fl ~. j I It, ,I, ,I"' ,I 1111 ' 1
"- ~,,. t
1:10,,\.,t,111\ eaph,,,l,,t)1 1h1 1t 1111 I1' \ " I' I I I' Ihd ht1lf•li ,lo11hl111,,,,., l 1111 w111• I 11,v, ''I I ,v,,,.
II I I I I IJ ,1 ,. JI,, Ji' I Ji, I I '

F,~ ,1 t,1 lr) h,1\\ M111,,,,, l'h 1,111 11 ' '' "
p\rntH\
111 ,. 111 11 .l,d,1,w 11 11111 lllff , J,, 1,I, ul
1

\\\ "'"'"'n,t,,,t,h"1111l11111, 1h,, ,,,ll~I''' .,1,,11u111l1d,,i110,.1,,1, ,,,~,,du,t,t, ,,,u,,J, ,,,1J•J11v,,,,

"I'"''
,J, II," 1 _. J,i I it, ,

I I I '\ ra le101 ,1,n, I

\e),,,,,lll\ish 'ft1l,11h,,111, u\ 11 t. 111 ' 1 1ulll11wl11ill111· ul,, ,w11l,,f1~'l l'J(,J1,i, 1'1'/ 1' i>'' t
1 111 1 111
t \ l' ,t,1 pit ·h l',, ,1pt "''' l ,, f I l II I I IJJ t J,, 'JJ 1111 ' I t 1' 11 ,,I 111
I Ill II N
111
"\I
th l\\t l\l
J ,ti 111111 1111!1, ,111 '""' #j/ 1 /IHI,,,,,,,,
\ \ I
l'hi!lhl'''''f "m,hn1 '"'"''''''" 1 l l1t11l I
II• "" /lu, h wl 11111 111,,,.,1,,,,N,,J1v,J,1J'/J,-. i ' I IJ
1111,t 1, 11 , , 1
(llhl~ t\l\,t ,-,,,h,, •'ii 1h11 l\\l \ \\I •I '"' I
1 ,1fj)i,1W IIII I p

\\ \\hllllN I
\\ll1l,,, th,, \11\1\ ,111,ltl 11111 ,t • Wh1 111 I hn I wo I 11il ,u ,l, 1,1 1111 """K fl I,,,,,,,,,
Ii ',,,J ,,f :, 11}1 •1u l.
Mill f\t, h nu.I .~h, ,, I I '11,•h H,,,i/11111,' Ii ' 111 It ,111w II ,111 /11/I ,,11, /, ll/lt1,h111/, :u , }1,, m J w Iw: ', J~(,I J
1~0 ,,li"dl'II',\ l !'l\l ,,,,, II•'Ill,,,,~ 11\1 111 I ' th•' "'"''
1 lln
I Iii 1111d111 11 ''"'"· , 1,,, ,,, 11111 " '"' JI Ill I,,, JI. v,mJIr l J,f, 'J
I l 11\il 1l1 .l1 1 ,,, 1 ,,, I ell
lln~ (\ p11 ,,t " 1111 "' ►'" \I'll' , ' I , 1140'' Ill phrt rln, Ind Ili•P 11il IIH ,,,.,,,,,,1' f J " ' i !.I', JJ ;1 m 1y t J1:,t, I' f, ~,
\m,h•1 ~ p,,t,, 'l'lw "'''",' ,,,\ ,,, 111 •1 .1,11,11 ,,, 1-1
"iV\1\t. 1-thmlt wt 11111t I• ,,., r1 h,1w11 111 llij ,I
"' \\ he'll the• ('1Hl I'
Pl \ \1 111 ,1111111 Willi 11\~ Hi •II
I 01 1111111
, ,
I HO O=====---="-=-----== •~=·- -----<=+
1

i'lN'h 1r.,l ~p h'cl ,lc-i.r111l:l, 1,11 (1 ,,, I\\111 I.II ti ,oi l,1 ,1 Im 11llllK
,
II
c-omph'li' ('\'tl 1,f(lw wm,Hn1t nn1 l11 t01 t 111111 IHO 01111 ' 1:"11 ' 11 1 o===-== ------ - - - - - - - - - - ~
~p!H'" tfoi.t't't'~ ~p:nt , t1"' wm, Imw tfl Illlll w• 1 1,111/r<1,•f101111I,
Jur,•h u 111rli11;:. tu thi,1typool\viiulrnw, lh,i 1ocl11nod ''~1 1 !
fl'il(, ,1./4
m N\th rml sicfo i:11 not 111 ph1H111 , no tho 1•11N11H11ol, 11 1111 ~,. . . , ,
th~ phn~or :1mu 1if rn,hw, 11 t ,1ntf'it i11 tho C'oil t1ido,1, ';hu:h HI ~t li~hl,Jy. fomJ ~hu~, U1 1,,Jr ~ntl,mt.t1e, · um c.rnnr
rn,lurPd 1,mfin 14hort 1ntch w1111lin" i1-1 loHH t 111111 U111I, 111dw;11d 111 Juli JJJl.d, wmrJm~ und,,r the ;tCIJ,, vwd.it r ~
Th~ n,l\'I\ nt 11~1'1' of :dulrt •t>i t ,·h wind iHKH 111•0 :
(t) Wnwfonn of tlrn inclncocl 01111' iH irnpl'ovod und tho di Htorf,jn~ }wrm,mJ<., ,.. ~,n b1J r 1~dur...(:d or tut a
i'limia\f\t11d .
(ir) Coppnr ,~ ~nv1Hl in tho coil ,i111IH 1hw t,o loHH HJHlJl.
(iir) Thcnrulul't n lll'tl of 11rn wiudiHK iii rod ncocl cl 110 to loHHOr fongth ,>f CCJJl ond1J aa w,.d} ;,ti, }{:Bo'.:r mu ·ual
induct nI\('<' b,,t.woon t hc>HO con<luctorH which Ji<, in ttlotli containing alb'J ccmd uctora of !:tth~r of th€
otlwr two phn~oi-1.
(ill) Frnct ionnl nmulHJJ' of Hlol.H pol' polo cnr1 ho 11twd which in turn ffj<lucea the tr;oth npplr:s.
M l\1Clchnnicnl strt,ngth of tho coiH1:1 incror.u-Jod.
hit~gral Slot cmd /i'mctional Slot W1:1ulings. Whoo tho· number of slots p,}r pol(; per phase, m is an
intc-gcr, thl\ winding ii-1 cnllocl tho int,wer slot whiding but whon the number of alot& per p<Jle per phase
m is n frnrtionnl nnmbor tho winding itt 1•oforrod to Uij fmctional Blot winding. Of course in both cases
tho numhC'r of slots pm· phnRo muHt bo whole number BO that each phase has the same number of coils
Frnct_ion~l slot ~in,ling iA prncticnblo only with doubJo layer arrangeme nt. It limits the number of
pnra! 10~circmti:i nvnilnhlo, bocn111:10 phnf:lo group undor Bovoral po1o8 must be connected m senes before
n _mut. 18 formocl nnd tho winding roponta tho pattorn to givo a second unit that can be put m parallel
with the first.

8
d Though tho frnctionnl slot win<lin,,J mny appear to be 1·1ttle comp 1·1cate d it· h as certain
· tee b mcal 1
vanta~lesbas wc_ll as 03 88
in manufacturing. Since the number of armatu re slots chosen need not
necessar1
for which yth e an mtegra 1 multiple of ti10
I • t'
equipment. ;hea:~:~i\ ~~
ranp II in the case of Y h
.
: ~h~:g · I
num 11,~r of polos, ono may choose a part1cu b f I
ar num er o s ots
goa~ is nvailablo. Thia resulle in saving in coat o~ drawings and
effectiv?ly employed where the number of poles vanes over a wide
u.d coat of copper is re8J.:c drono_us machine~. Further mmf harmonics, leakage reactance of windings
lllortv end connections. ce owing to chording, which is must in case of fractional slot winding and
LI. Draw the developed diaira r,
layer ■hort pitch wlndl Th m or the followini di11tributed ac winding: 3•pha,;e , 4-pole, 24-
tandnall for each ph::;. 8 winding 11 chorded by one 11ot pitch. Indicate c1ear1y the ',ta.rt'
 Sy11chro1wu~ G"rlRrutors or Alternator 8 205

S<Jlution: Numh(lr <Jf phasfls 3

Numlwr of pol,•e, J> 1
Numb,•r of slots 21
NmnhPr of, mis N11111h111 of Rio ts (sinco wrncJing JS ,J,,ublo layer)
2'1 >< I 24

Number of slo1s pm pol<>, n = -244 =6

Numbc>r of c01l groups = No. of poles x No. of phases = 4 ~ 3 = l2
Number of coils/group Number of coils = 24 - 2
=
Number of coil group 12
Smee the division gives a whole number as quotient, each group will have the number of coils repre-
sented by this whole number. It means each coil group will have two coils.
Smee each coil is having equal number of coils, so the winding is balanced.
Phase angle between adjace nt slots = 1800 = 1800 =30 electrical space degrees.
n 6
Smee the pole pitch is 6 slots per pole so for full-pitched winding the pitc4 of each coil would have been
6 slots i.e. if one side of the coil were in slot no. 1 then the other side would have been in slot no. 7 But since
this winding is s hor t-pitched and chorded by one slot pitch, therefore , pitch of the coil is
6 - 1 = 5 i.e. if one side of the coil is in slot no. 1, then other side should be in slot no. 6.
Developed diagram of the winding is shown in fig 3.15.
3.6. WI NDING FACTOR
The product of pitch factor KP and distribution factor Kd is referred to the winding factor
i.e. ~ = KP Kd. .. (3.2)
The pitch factor and distribution factor are explained below.
3. 6.1. P itch Factor. In a short pitch winding the induced emfs
m the two sides of the coil are not in phase, as discussed in Art
3.5, hence t heir resultant given by the phasor sum is always E
less than their arithmetic sum. The ratio of phasor sum of
induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of induced emfs per
coil is known as coil pitch tac.tor, coil-span facu;r or simply pitch
factor <K, or~. It is always less than unity.
' Let the coil have a pitclishort by an angle ex electrical
space degrees from full pitch and induced emf in each coil side
be E.
Now if the coil would have been full-pitched, then total
induced emf in the coil would have been 2 E." E
Fig. 3.16
If the coil is short-pitched by ex electrical space degrees the
resultant induced emf, ER in the coil is phasor sum of two voltages cx0 (electrical) apart
i.e. ER = 2 E cos ~

f:
il s1·de ems = 2 E cos a2 _
P1'tch fa cto r, KP = Ar'Phhasor .sumo f co 'd
c a
- cos -2
f il
1t me tic sum o co s1 e em s f: 2E ·.. (3 ·3)
If the coil span is reduced by one slot, then the phase angle ex between the 1hduced-; mfs in the two sides
of the coil ia given as
180°
a = - - where n is the number of slots per pole.
n
factor given b~ equation (~.3) ~s fo~ the fundamental co~po~ent of emf. The flux wave m ay
d harmomcs also, which give nse to the corresponding time harmonics in the gen erated
Jtam,.onic component of the flux wave, may be imagined as produced by 3 P 1
the functarn,.ntal component. In view of this, the chording angle for the rth ha~~~~
 ' /\I 1,,,

,ith,h1ml;1nwntll,11Hp,1Hul u11llh11•d hl1111l•1•lt ,tl,li 111••

I l I 11 1111 1 I .' I ,,, ,,lt II It t" "

.\\ l lb.' ,,,,hh'\',,l (1\ 'l'' I \ \1'1 \11
ft
0 \.'l
1
---.-~..:- tllY<..'ri,'\;t',,{"ll,\h'l~ tht'lh1rdhnll\\'1\\1'1 1 1lllll\ll•t 111•1•1( It, 111 "11
.•... . , , .• , . , ' ' n ' , \ ~ ' { h \ H .. fi.'l\i\'1"' Ht'\\l'( \\l\\h'tl,• 1·111111: 1w111d111. tit
' : - 1 ....,..... ,. 11 I11 1 1 I111
· · . ..... . th
, • • • •t · H',i l'l\1"1 h,,nn, 1 n,r :, In nlPl'I 111~: 1 1111 1 • ,
21\t: :a...;r'( :,1.._,,1 '- \.u\. '- \. '- \,
·. _ • ,· ., .... , , ,tf ·l\.·•·tr1,·.\l) l'- HW~\ \\~(•fol. I , 11 l:l\'l'; tht• pd hf I I II
-n - , .... , _ "" '--' 1, .. v\ 1,'--, .._ ,, '- l
fa;~i:u:;~-- .,l O -l - ·1.~· -ird .Hh\ ~lth h,u·mtmi-.·~ .rnd O "1.l~l f, 1l ,th 111,l I llt Ii 11111{•111
! !_..t'~ ~. · ..
-· - • ,\.- · , l·· ..
..... ~....._ · • ·, r·,, l"' 1n 1..l, 11-.'". --tu:
• , l '- 1 ...._, L'- '-= '-
,·,1 n 1~ w1·1l•d 11 1 ~\\1 1 1111·,· • inl 111d Pl Ii (1
_s.1, '-- ,

,;:____ · .. lli' --· •., ; ., •.••·,

~ U-tl ...... t.: \.
\,•t;.•'ll 3th ,Uhl ,-th h.u·nwnl1.' l'\11(.; l'r n'd11n 1 d ll\ ll',l!tl ltll" 11 I'' .
li.,...._c-, .. "" _.,....._ "'...._ ' :""
1
J.6-2. :) 1s,;: 1bu:.i0n Factor. A~ dll'l',hl:· :::t.H('ll. it .tll dt\.' rt1 tl ,,Hh 1fl pf ,lllY 1 11t' ph 1·
1
~ll!:c:...€c..: :..:: .:·-..:: ::;~~. :-~~e Wlii.dinf 0bUli1c~i 1:3 knt.''' n .l~ \·,111\Tllil\1/ni ll'/ltc/111 ·: 1rnl I h · lt i ti
1
r-y_l::,d c..::.. ..;-:..,tb.::.:.t?;..r.: :3-;:.:i 0f the emfa 1ndu(ed m .lll t ht' n 1 tl:- ,if l'lll' l'h.t8t' \H11h,, t 1H' ptd ·
Bi:- m s-.::.er £.).:: 2:.1in ..l better" .1n:> ~h.1pl' th._, t't11l~ ,\rt' lll1 t ,'l1 m·,, 11 f 1-.l 1t d 11r Ii 1111 eh l'I l 111 r,11 1

.:.:::;~b'.lteJm .i ii:1.ii:~t1rc~::::-2t'5 ,c .:.0rm.~,:<,rp\.-li.<P~ mHl\'1· ,,.H.-h r,1k. 'l'IH' w111d1111: ~11 t1 li1 1111 I 1.
i·.s - .: :.. .:i :. -· ti :-.g ..::..nd. m .=;u..:li" md.ing: the ('Cil~ l' h.tl:-1,' n rt.' d,sp l,irt'd fn1111 t'lr h ,it h<.- r hy I r- ·, 11
Tu2 ~2::;♦.::: ~ ~=-at the ccfu indu..:ed in the c-oil Hdcs of 0,w p h,1s,' m tlw .,d 1tlrP11 l ,dot q 111HlN { 11 · p ))
1

:..:: :--;::..:;s, n-:~ e.ad.i oilier but d. i..ft~r by ;:u1 ·,mgle l'llual to l he angul,\r d1~pl.\et'nw11t lll t ht· :l it.
:-e::;-;:.::.;.::.: e~ .::: all me o:nh ofone pha~e uudt>r one polt' W\.H1lrl be tlw ph 1~t11· ~nm t1f I ho 111d tvHlu d 1 I
a::.:: -ill h:: :c55 th_3.n diat ;.f a:U the coil sidt:-s 0f ouc ph.1~t' undl'I' 01111 ptik Wl'l'l' bunrhetl 111 c111 • .I 1
T n:.--.:.:; I :·;c:; _-:; ·w.scr s~ •·; c··: ';L ~ ... '"S t'h1.ll(t:'d j,i all the l"1.lz/ s d, ~, rii111 ft'd i ,, tl II II;,,' ,r, (}j .I ,t . Iii I . }
·s
i - e ·c, ( t= ari(. ",t;i~ s~ ··: o,-: ·..t e .. , ;·,..i ucc:d ~or to thl· n:su ltl111 f t1/rm /s in d11c't ·d 111 ult nll I : un, ·11 t,
· ..,:..e,.. :re JXJ ·e' ~.s :.:•.o:i ·i a.s ;J"t:mi th f~1ctt.1r tl{l, l or dist n t,u I iun /lldPr (/{if)
. El\lF induced lH d.1~t rilrntl·,l wmd111 ~
or l:li;smb unon factor. K,.i = ~:-=:::,--,------
E11F induc1.'d if the windu1g ,nn1ld h,Wl' hl'l'tl (
Phasor sum of rnmponl'nt pmf!-1
= Arithmetic sum of component l'mr~
The distr.butiou (or breadth) factor is always loss than
uruty.
Let number of slots per pole = 11
and number of slots per pole per phase = m
'
Induced emf in each coil side = E C
Angular displacement between the slots.
180°
P=-
The . . . 11
emfs mduced m different coils of one phase under onP
are represented by side AC, CD. DE, EF, ... which arC' equal
tude (say each equal to E) and differ in phase (s,w by
each other. ·
rs are drawn on AC, CD, DE. EF ... they would
n pomt (say at 0). The point O would be the
the circle haV1Dg AC. CD, DE, EF ... as tlu. chords 3

die emfs mtluced in the coils in different slots.

m each coil side E = AC= 2 OA sin Jl

2 l• I .
1 I I7
 Synchronous Generators or Alternators 207

At;tlunot ic sum III x 2 x OA .. 111

.,
1!2
The resultant emf inducerl in one 1wt nr vroup of one phiuH:i wnulrl he 1ho phnsor sum n rl'prcscntcd by
the phasor AB shown m fig ~- 17.

:. The l'<'Sultnnt mnf, gH AB ,,I, x OA e,n mil

7
Phns01· su111 of 1•0111po11m,1a omfs
and distribuhon fal'tO\', hd
Adthmeli<' 8 um of rompo11011ts omfe

2 )( OA ·
am !!!l!. _,, sin ml!,
--2._
= 2 . (3 6)
m x 2 >< OA sin i m sin ~
mP is also known as the phase spread and is spread in electrical degrees or radians.
The distribution factor I\i given by equation (3.6) is for the fundamental component of emf. If the
flux distribution contains space-harmonics, the slot angular pitch p on the fundamental scale would
become r Pfor the r th harmonic component and thus the distribution factor for the r th harmonic would
• be
. rmp
_ sm
2 ... (3.6)
Kd r -------
,d!
,n sin
2
Example 3.3. The coil span for the stator winding of an alternator is 120° (electrical). Find the chording
factor of the winding. [B. T.E. A.P. Elec. Engineering II, Nov; 1996)
Solution : Chording angle, ex = 180° - coil span= 180° - 120° = 60°
a 60° ·
Chording factor, Kc = cos = cos = 0.866 Ans.
2 2
I
Example 3.4. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36-slot, 4-pole, single layer 3-phase winding.
[Nagpur Univ. Elec Machines-I, 1993)
36
Solution : Number of slots per pole, n =
4 =9
Number of slots per pole per phase, m =
Number of phases
n = !3 = ·3

180° 180°
Angular displacement between the slots, P = -n- =- -
9
= 20° (electrical)

. ,nA . 3 X 20°
Slll
S lll-1-'_
Distribution factor, Kd = - __ 2~ -- 2 0 _ 1 sin 30°
msin~ msm
20 - 3 sin 100 = 0.96 Ans.
2
Example 3.5. An 8-pole, 3-phase, 60° spread, double layer winding has 72 coils in 72 slots. The coils are short-
pitched by two slots. Calculate the winding factor for the fundamental and third harmonic.
[Electrical Machines-II Madurai Kamarajar Univ. Nov; 1995; Mananmanian Srmdaranar Univ.;
Nov; 1996]

Solution Number of slots per pole, n =

72 = 9
8
phase spread 60
Number of slots per pole per phase, m = n x -----::_._ = 9 x - =3
180 180
 AC Machines

1800 @'.' _ 200 (electrical)

Angulnr d1~plnromont b otworn tho slots , P 1
•
n O
l t 180 (9 - 2)
oo"><
l0 coil epnu in torm s of so s = 9
= 140°
Coil spnn = Num lJor of-
-
slot s per po le
0

Cho rdin g nnglo, ex t 80" . coil span - 1800 - 1400 = 40

For tho t\md amo ntal com pon ent
, 3 X 20"o
. E:1! __ sm 2
sm
2 =0.9 6
Di~ tribu hon factor, Kd =- . -P . -20°
3 sm
msm
2 2
40°
Cl - cos - - = 0.94
Pit.ch factor, KP -~ cos 2 - 2
•K -0
Winding factor, Kw = Kd x P - · x 0.94 = 0.9 Ans .
96
For the thir d harm onic com pon ent (i.e.
r = 3)
. rm~ : 3 x 3 x 20
sm -- sm 2
Dist ribu tion factor, Kds = · . 2,~ = si'n = 0.66 6
3 x 20°
msm 2 3 2

Pitc h factor, K~s = cos 2r 0. ·= cos

3 X 400 - 0 5
2 - .
Winding factor, Kw = Kd3 x K P3 = 0.66 6 x 0.5
.
=033 3 Ans .
3

3.7. EM F EQU ATI ON

Let zp = Number of conductors in seri es per pha
se
P = Number of poles
ct> = Use ful flux per pole in
web ers
N = Rota tion al spee d in rpm
and /= Freq uenc y. in herz an d.1s equ a1 to NP
The flux cut by any conductor while pass ing from 120
the cent re of one inte r pola r gap to t~e cent
tho nrxt is cl> webers and since duri ng the
movement, the emf wav e com plet es half r~ of
cycle i.e. the tune
tnkl'n 19 } seconds, therefore, the aver age
1 rate of cutt ing the flux,

5!i
dt
=-~ -
1/2 / = 2/$ Wb/s
Hence average emf indu ced in each conducto
r = 2 / cl> volt s
Average emf per phas e, Ea/ pha se = Num ber
of cond ucto rs in seri es/p hase arra nge d in
one slot i
pole x aver age emf indu ced per con duc tor

For dist ribu ted winding the aver age = Z x 2 / cl> = 2 T x 2 / cl> = 4 cl> f T volt s
valu e of emf per pha se will be Kd tim es the •: Z = 2 T (tur ns)
abo\re valu e
i.e. Eau I pha se = 4 Kd 4> f T volt s
For abort pitch win ding the true aver age valu e of
emf per pha se will be K tim e abo ve valu
p
e
Ea/ pha se = 4 Kd KP cp / T volt s
and E,na /pha se = Form factor, K, x E jph ase =
,_ IIDIIIC>ldal wave of emf, K = 1. 11 0 4 K, Kd K q, f T volt s
1 P
:. E,.,,., / phase = 4.44 Kd KP ♦ fT volt&
... (3.7)
 S_, -?chro11ous Generators or Alternat.ors 209

If the alternator is star-connected, as is usually the case, the line voltage is /3 times the phaeo value.
. So line induced emf, EL = ../3 x 4.44 Kd KP~ f T volts ... (3.8)
For full -pitched and concentrated windings • I{1• = t and Kd 1
E~a~ple 3. 6. T_h e a rmat ure of a 1-p baso oltornator I• complf'to l y wound with 100 1ln1Jlc-turn coll•
distribu t ed uniform ly. The induced cm( tn onc h t u rn 11 2 v. WhRt 111 the umr induced In tho whole
w inding w ith a ll 100 co il s connected in 1crle1?
[l\ladu,a; KamaraJnr Umu /~Ire M"rhmes -lf, Nou; 1996)
S ol u tion: In case of smgle phase winding. the number of slots por polo per phnao,
m = number of slots per pole, "
and dtstnbution factor 1s giYen as
· mP . x 180°/n 180"
I~ = _s_in_ -_ ::_
2 = sm 11,
2 A. = -n-
•.• m = n and ..,
m sin f n x sin lS~ /n

sin 90°
=--- ·: 180° =7t radians and for very small a ngle sin ~ =8 in radians
n x~
2n
1 2
= 1t l 2 = n
E..\ IF induced in the whole winding = Number of turns x induced emf in each t urn x Kd

= 100 x 2 x -2
1t
= -400
1t
or 127 .32 V Ans.

Example 3.7. A 3-phase, 8-pole, 750 rpm star-connected alternator has 72 slots on the armat ure. Each slot
b..as 12 co.aductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots. Find the induced emf between lines, given the
flux per pole is 0.06 Wb. [Bharathidhasan Univ. Elec. Machines-II, Nou.; 1996)
Solution : Flux per pole, <I> = 0.06 Wb

Frequency, / = PN
120
= 8 x120
750
=·50 Hz
Number of conductors connected in series per phase,
z = Number of conductors per slot x number of s lots
P Number of phases ·
= 12 X 72 = 288
3

Number of turns per-phase, T =T

Z
=
288
2 =144
Number of slots per pole, n = 872 =9
N umber of slots per pole per phase, m =3n =39 = 3
180° 180°
Angular displacement between the slots, ~ = ~ = - 9 - = 20°

. 20°
. . . - sin mp/ 2 - sm 3 x 2 -
Distribution factor, Kd - m sin J} 12 - . 0 - 0.96
3 sm 20
2
 N \ 01 l'AGF \~A\ FJ ORM 1

ll '-- 1ll the out JlUf volt age wavcfo1 Ill 310 the non• mus01d.al
wu'U'•c•TnrTT>

1 1 thl' fo1 egorng a1 f 1cle, ond (u) varia t1on rn re]uctanc o

Ole

pi essaon ofHnnnonics. ln case ofsalieutpolc machines if the au-gap 1 mad

th mnchme. the field produced will be sinusoidal. However, 1t suffices tom ea
l nt1·e toward the pole tips, as shown in fig 3.6. An approximate of smu 01da fi
, ske\.\ mg the pole faces.
11cal rotor machines, the length of air-gap is uniform throughout, therefore, to ha e fie d of
fi nu the mmf of the field winding is made to vary as nearly sinusoidal as possible. Tius IS
\ 1::.tnbunng the winding in slots.
· ma be mentioned here that on account of saturation in iron parts, the sinusoidal field form cannot
ned m sahent pole machines even if the air-gap length is varied sinusoidally or in cylindnca rotor
e-.. €\ en u the mlllf distribution in space is made sinusoidal. An ideal sinusoidal field form 1.s \re1-y
dueve. and therefore, harmonic emfs will be induced in the winding. The redeeming feature is
rruonics can be easily eliminated from the output voltage waveform by properly de.s1gnmg the
,g-s The "·anous methods for elimination of harmonics from the output voltage are:
D stn·buting the armature winding as already explained in the foregoing Arts.
S wrt-chording the armature winding by making the coil span less than a full pole-pitch. as
al.read)1 explained in the foregoing Arts.
u.1 Skeu;uig the poles usually through one slot-pitch.
(n Fractional slot winding:- Higher order harmonics can be drastically reduced by using fractional
slot wmding. The flux pulsations can be reduced by having number of slots per pole arc as an
integ€r pluR U2.
Cu) Larger air-gap le11gth causes the increase iu reluctance which will reduce the harmonics.
:1. l 1. LEAI<AG E REACTA N CE
When current flow~ through the stator conductors, the flux is set up, a portion of this flux does not c1 oss the
air-gap. but completes its pat h in the stator, as shown in fig 3.21. Such a flux. 1s known ab the leakage {fox.
This leakage flux 1s proportional to stator (or armature) current, since the magnetic path it covers 1s not
normally ~arnrated . It also depends on the phase angle between the stator current and voltage applied
across the ~rator. The leakage flux sets up an emf of self inductance leading the load curre n t I by rr./2 a nd
proportional to load current I in magnitude. Hence armature winding is assumed to possess leakage
reactancP XL such that the voltage drop due to it, IXL is equal to an emf set up by leakage flux. A part of the
generated emf is used up to overcome this leakage reactace drop in addition to ar~ture resistance drop.
,:.e. Generate4 emf= ~hasor sum of terminal voltage, armature resistance drop
, ___ ..,_ ___ _
____ ...,_L~A_KA§s_F,!:UX

1 --- ► --- I
I --+---1•1 E
111 - - - - I IXL
,11 0 0 •,• I
• 11 _ ◄- _ 11 I I
I I I I I
,, 0 0 , 1 IZ5 ,
I - _ _., · - - · I I

0 0
.. I
- ◄ - - -
0
- -4 -
0 -
 pnasor ruagram lllustrating this f. . ~e ;/ " .. ,, • 'T"o\ne -r J l\V <
act 18 shown in 6 3 22
s.12. ARMATURE REACTION g . .
1nadcmachine, the armature mmf(
.
,. 5 to distor .
t th e arr-gap flux and to ampere-turn
h . 8) ar.t on Ul e ma gnotJC cm:m t of the macbmc m such a way
~ d e of t hi s armature reactio c dango1t.s m ,\• gm·1u d o. For n given nrmnturo current. the directaon an d
IJllgnitu
of DC Machines. In an alternator : e~~iid 0 •~ tl~o posi tion of hr us hca. ns a lready discussed m chapter 3
m1itude and direction of the ar' omc,~ \Rt s imilnr r onrlihons oxi11t. For n given armature current. the
1Jl 8 1:1- mature r on •f • f d
IIlachine but depends on the pha 8 l' · c ion cnnnot rlt,11c nrl on tho brush pos1Uon, as m case o a c
;., the s~tor winding by the field• ~.uds'p 1a co m ont of tho atnt,Jr cu no n t I w,th respect to the emf E mduoed
- ,~m mg fl\\x
In an alternator the phase du~plac " 0 n lent or·P 11neo anglo it, hotwcon current I and tho emfE can be within

the limits of ~ 2
S 9 $ .±.!!.
2
We -vwill consider three cases (i) \\ h en "' • when the power factor of load 18 umty (ii) when
.., -- 0 1.0.
,: : +; Le. when the power factor is zero and lagging and (iii) when~= - 1t i.e. when the power factor of the
2
load is zero and leading.
(a) At Unity Power Factor. The distribution
of the stator currents and fluxes of an alternator
with zero phase displacement between current I
and emf E (i.e. when pf is unity}, assuming the
rotation of the poles to be clockwise, is shown in fig
3.23 (a). The crosses(+) and dots(·) appearing in (a)
the conductor cross-sections indicate the ♦ +

instantaneous direction of the emfs induced and ♦ +

currents :flowing-cross indicating the inward di- tI

rection and dot indicating the outward direction. ,
The maximum of the fundamental wave of the field ·
\
-
.... - -- ....,._ - - - - /

will be opposite to the pole centres, and.at the same

points the conductors have their maxi~um induced
emf; with cp = 0 the conductors carrying the maxi-
mum current will also be at the same. poiiits, as
shown in the figure. The armature reaction mmfis .(bJ
directed perpendicular to the main field mmf, as in
case of a de machine with brushes on the neutral
axis. This causes the distortion of the flux due to
main field and asymmetrical distribution of the
flux density under the pole shoe. The 1:lux density Armature Reaction.At Unity Pou·er Fciclor
under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat, , Fig. 3.23
while under the leading pole tips it decreases. The
axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction nnnf in a direction oppo.....-ute to
that of rotation of the rotor. ·
Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect. .
(b) At Lagging Zero Power Factor. The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle

♦ =+ ; radians i.e., for a purely inductive load is shown in fig 3.24 (a). The cunent maximum will be shifted

in space by an angle ~ from the emf maximum, which coincides with the cenu·es of the poles. This shift will
 AC Murl1u1",.
:HB
____ _...------, ,----
. . of rotatio
. n, b('Ctt\ll !C ,-' ___ .,. ___ '.l-' - ' - - - - - - - -
be opposi te to the d1rccho11 . l wavl" rotate s ----.. I :~ _ ----I~ I ---~--
the fundam ental armat ure roact101 --' !'if ---,1 '-i \:P.
It LMF } - \;;J_ ~ -• .- ?;\
ste1> with the field poles. w}u I<' w hrn 4> == • 2l 1·
I. n
CURRI '11~
W. -- _,_
I
1-
I 1. - •
I
J - L .J - - -
>✓- · --,II - - -

cunen t wave lags behmcl tho cmfwn vo lIY,u1 ong • l (a)

2!. The field create d by t l10 ann •·ttu1,o l'"UChO

,- II
d
,,&. · field flux an I I I
't' to the mam i
mmfw ill be Ill oppt>t-i l /
will. therefor('. haw au· w IIy demag,,et1si11geffect.
___ .,,,. ,I ,,~ -- ,, ~----
I
I
I
, ____ ___
I I
./

Powe r Facto r. The

'~---- ..... ----
(c) At Leadi ng Zero d fluxes with phase ARMATURE
,list nbur1o u of curren ts an MAIN FLUX
. /_ FLUX

i.e. f;01 . a }JUrely capaci

:r .
an(Tle O = - -:;- tive load is ..... , --
~3 25 ( ) The curren t maxm lb)
· •
• "" . · nu n will 1•
::.hown m fig . ~ from the emf maxim um,
be shifted to the nght der the pole centre s,
which remam s as befo~e un . erefore, have a
d the armat ure react10n will, th . fi Id
:.~olly magne tizing effect on the mam e .
For any power factor cos 't'th ofload
. . , the arma-t , At Zero
Arma ture Reac t ion . Powe r Facto,- (Laggi1Lg)
rure react1.0n has cross- . magn etizm g compo. nen . Fig. 3.24
propo rtiona l to I . cos 't'th a nd. dema gnetiz ing
component propo rtiona l to I sm cp, and. is taken ,.--- -~-- -- .... , ----
' ..-------, I ,
ve for laggin g power and - ve for leadm g power
T

E ----- --'-i'
.----, ., I I - - - - - - --~-~ -I- - ---- - -
1 t\r ' I f I
~ '- -
__ _
- ?;\ ----, - 1 - - 4'- - - - "T - 7.,. - - - i':'\
MF
1 ~ ':!-!
factor. CU RRENT
T11e phaso r sum of the fu n dam ental arma- -~--- -!-.... ,-
---~ ----- LLJ ____ - - -
_T_T ~-
ture \\·indipg and field winding mmf waves con- (a)
.c;ti tu tes, in a synch ronou s mac h m
· e' the mmf cre-.
atrng the result ant magnetic flux. + +

:J.1 :t SYNC HRON OUS IMPE DANC E + +

I I I I
3. rn. I. Sync hrono us Rcact ance. The emf set~p II \ - - -__-_;
, ____
, ___ _
\'
\ , ____ ...,. _
___ __,, I
due LO armat ure reacti on mmf F is ~lway~ m
0
quadr ature with the load curren t I and is propo r-
tional to it. Thus itis equivalent to an emfmcluced
in an inductive coil and the effect of arma ture
reaction can, therefore, be considered equiv alent (b)
to reactance drop IXu where X is the fictiti ous
0
reacta nce \vhich takes care of the arma ture
reaction effect. The armat ure windi ng posse sses .
a certai n leakag e r~acta nce XL, as menti oned in
Art 3.11. rI'he sum of leak.age reacta nce XL and
fictit10us teacta ncc X0 is called the synchronous
reacta11ce. ArriJ,atu.re Reaction At Zero Pou:er Factor (Lea.di1ig)
Fig. 3.25
i.e. XS = XL+ xa ... (3.10)
:1.13.2. Effecti \'e Rcsi s tan cc. 'I'he effective resistance oft.he arma
ture winding is somewhat. greater than
th, conductor resistance, called the de resistance, as measured by direc
t current. This is due to additional
loss. over the purely I" R loss, inside and sollletimes outside the condu
cto1·, owing to altern ating current. •
The mam sources of 11,.. additional loss are (i} eddy c1111:ents in the su1~·01
111di11g material: (ii) magnetIC
hysteresis
condu c10r u~clf.
ii) tl1e surro
· unding materiaJ:.ancl (iii) eddy cune nts or unequal curre nt clistrihution
in the
 Synchro11011.s Genemtors or Alternators

In many cases it is sufficiently nccurnt o to monH1u-o tho nrm nturn n•sistrinr.o by cl1rnct cul'rcntthmld 8
increase it to a fictitious value , cnlled tho <'//<'rfi ue r rsiR fn n c<?, H,. which is lnrg(• cmough to take- oin• of '' C'
additional losses. Effective resist a nee , R,. en 11 vn ry wulii ly f'l'om l .2o to l .7r, or morn ti m,•s I h" rlc rneu:1t:1 nee,
depending upon design .
3.13.3. Synchronous lmpcdnnl' l' . Wlwn 11111 "ly nr.1111111111\fl ron <:f n111.n X11 u1 r:omhi11,,cl with the armature
effective resistance R,,, the quantity ol>tninml iHrnllml thP s_y11 r hrn11011 R 1111/H'"""''J,
i<•. z~ n ,. , J xH .ca. 11>
Armature winding effective resistance R,, in alternators rn usually very smHII in u,mp;1rHi,,n tr, syn•
chronous roactance Xs, and therefore, synchronous impedance Z8 mAy be assumed e <JtHtl t,, the H:,mchronous
reactance for many purposes.
3.14. ALTERNATOR ON LOAD 1~
If the excitation of an:,altemator is adjusted to give normal voltage at no-load and t hen a load ,ipph,~d.
rhe terminal voltage of the alternator cha nges, even though the speed is kept constant. The voltage ,3,.1all,
falls, but in c(\!rtain circumstances it may rise even.
The change in terminal voltage of an alternator with the change in load supplied by it is due to the
following three reasons :
(i) Voltage drop on account of armature effective resistance. ✓
(ii) Voltage drop on account of armature leakage reactance. ✓
(iii) Voltage drop on account of annature reaction. ✓
L 3.14. 1. Phasor Diagram. Let the effective armature resistance of an alternator be Re, leakage react an ce
XL and voltage drop due to armature reaction be equalto voltage drop on account of fictitious reactance X0 •
All the values are refen-ed to phase values.
r The phasor diagrams for inductive,. purely resistive and capacitive loads are shown in figure 3.26 (a ),
3.26 (b) and 3.26 (c) respectively. All these phasor diagrams apply to one phase of a 3-phase machine.

·1
I.Xs
, L

V ,

(a) At Lagging PF (b) At Unity PF (c) .At Leading PF

Phasor Diagra,ns For a Loaded Alternator
Fig. 3.26'

Let the terminal voltage per phase be V volts and load current h
cos (j). The voltage drop due to anna ture effective resistance _p er p . ase be I a~peres a nd power fa ctor
dtop due to leakage reactance IX and volt·agc cli·o1) cl t , I Re will be m phase wit h curren t. I. the volt age
·I • L ' ue o armature reacti IX ·11 b ·
w1t_1 t.1le load current I. The terminal voltage V differs from H t . . 1 1 on a w1 e m quaclra ture
~:tc1.tation voltage, Eo by the phasor sum of above voltage ,~~·o ern~m~ ~o tage on no-~oad, also called the
nnpedance. ps , .e. s' where Z s is the synchronous

. Total voltage drop on load =IR + j (IX +IX ) _ I [R .

. ,. L u - e + J (XL+ X )] = I Z
and voltage 011 no-load E = O + I 0
v z8 ° s •.. (3.12)
... (3. 13)
 AC Madw,.es

220

3.14.2. Equivalent (lrcuit. \i\~ hen thP a lt ~~·- +n--- - i

· nator is operatm . g on-no l oa d (, e t lw rolo1 1s
· · .
r~tatiug and energized nnd ~lator is ~1H•:1: ~ UJ
11. <J
,· . ·ted) i· ts circuit diagram is shown m fig 11. a:
cHCUl ~ rE wr ::>::,
3.27 (a). Each phase generates nn em . o 1 . Vlo
<J Vl
0
The equivalent circuit of an altc1 nn t o1
Pllase · • f
for one phase is shown lll ig. 3 .27 (b) . At no- .
1oa d . the terminal voltag·e Vt per phase is ROTOR CIRCUIT
d elllf E per
equal to excitation or genera e o (a) Circuit Diagram
phase i.t!. V = Ea· · · f
The er phase equivalen t c1rcmt o an
altern~tor on
~ load may be represented as
given in fig 3.27 . .
. 3 L d Characteristic . Wlule the
3. 14. . oa . + V
exciting current a nd the speed rema1~ con~ "-' Ea
s t an t , t
he terminal voltage of an alternator
h nges with the change in the 1oa or anna-
~u~ current, as akeady mentioned above. The
. lationship between the terminal voltage ,
d
l
1e . . k (b) Equivalent Circuit Diagram
V and load cmrent, I O:. an alternator 1s ·no~n
Xs
as its load characteristic. The curves showmg ~---A-------, Xa
variation of terminal voltage V with load cur-
rent I for constant excitation (or no-load volt-
age Ea) for three different power factor loads
are given in fig 3.28. The curves are plotted + C

in terms of percentage values because general "-' Ea V c§

..J

operating conditions can be illustrated better

in this way. .
Normally the ten ninal voltage falls with
the increase in load current, but when the
power factor is leading one, the load chara~- (c) Alternator On No-Load
teristic curve may rise at fii·st. Each curve IS Fig. 3.27
nearly straight at the beginning but tends to .
droop because, with the increase in load current, the angle of lag between current and emf, owmg to the
original field , increases. · . . . . .
The highest current is obtained when the alternator termmals are short-c1rcmt ecl, the value bemg

• 1,riven as I = Eo amperes where E is no-load terminal voltage and Z8 is the syn.c hronous reactance. All
~- z. . 0

curves meet at the short-circuit point.

In modern alternators, the steady sh.o rt-circuit current is not much greater t han full-load rated
cunent. This is purposely arranged to prevent excessive current in the event of a short-circuit.
The synchronous impedance can be determined from open-and short-circuit test s , as will be dis-
cussed in the following article (Art 3.15).
3.14.4. Effect of Variation of Power Factor On Terminal Voltage (Load Current, Excitation
and Speed Remaining Unchanged). On changing the power factor from leading to lagging one, if the
load current, excitation and speed are kept constant, the terminal voltage falls . Since when the power
factor is leading (highly capacitive load) the effect of armature flux is to help the main flux, hence to
ge11e1-ate more emf but when power factor is lagging (highly inductive load) the effect of armature flux is
to oppose the main flux, hence to generate less emf. Thus at lagging power factor the terminal voltage
falls ti."Om that on leading power factor mainly owing to decrease in generated emf.
 s

· d s l1ort-circu it cunent
S ustame Phase voltage
= ----- 11,000/✓
-"'-- _ ___ ._
__ 3 =6,319 A Ans.
Zs - 1.005
3.23. LOSSES AND EFFICIE NCY
Just as in case of generato rs, tho input to tho alt.cmato n, is not readily measured . The direct measure
ment
of efficiency by actually loading is accompa nied by the difficulties of providin g the necessar y power
and
finding suitable load. Efficiency is, thereforo, <lctp~•minocl by measurin g the losses of the machine .
The losses in an alternato r nre :
1. Electric al losses that include fiolcl loss, nrmnturn winding loss and brush contact loss. .
The copper loss in the field circuit i8 obtained by adding the I 2 R loss of field winding and the electnc~
1 1
loss of the field rheostat or, more simply, by multiply ing the excitatio n voltage by the field cun-ent. TblS
loss is constant for any given voltag·e and power factor, but varies with these two. The maintena nce o.fr~ted
voltage at low lagging· pf needs compara tively large field current. and gives the maximum field (or exe1tat1o
n)
loss.
The annatur e copper los::; in the stator windings is determin ed on the basis of the armat ure resis-
tance. Whether the ohmic or the effective resistanc e should be used, depends upon the treatmen
t of the
stray load loss.
The electrica l loss at the brush contacts, between the brushes ancJ, slip-ring s, is usually quite small
and is often neglected .
2. Core loss is due to eddy cu·r rents and hysteresi s caused by the flux resulting from the combine
d
rotor and sta'tor fields. Such loss occurs in pole facei and armature teeth and core. This loss is assumed
to
be independ ent ofload, but varies with the excitation, if the excitatio n is to be varied with load and with
the
change in power factor, then this loss changes also. It is equal to the difference of power required to drive
the
alternato r with and without the field excited.
3. Friction and windage loss includes ventilatio n loss (power-re quired to circulate the cooling air),
and loss clue to bearing and brush friction. Since the speed is constant , so this loss for a particula l' machine
remains constant . It is equal to the mechanic al power required to drive the alternato r at rated speed
with
no excitatio n.
4. Load or stray power loss is due to armature leakage flux which causes eddy cu1Tents and hysteresi
s
in the iron surround ing the armature conductors in addition to the addition al core loss caused by distortio
n
of the magnetic field under load conditions. It may, however, be included in the efficiency calculati
on by
using the effective value of the armature resistanc e instead of the de resistanc e (See Art 3.15).
After determin ing the fore-going losses, the efficiency may be determin ed from the following relation
:
Percent .
. efficiency, Tl =
[i - k
kw losses ]
va ou t pu t x p f + k w l osses x 100 .. ·(3 ·31)
3.26.1. Determ ination of Losses. A simple and quite accurate method of determin ing the losses
is by
using a calibrate d de motor for drivi_ng· th~ altern~to r. The motor need be large enough to supply only
the
losses of the alternato r. The motor 1s calibrate d m the sense that all its losses have been determin
ed in
different conditions of operation, so 'that its output is readily determin ed. If possible, de motor and alternato
r
should be direct coupled; if belted, correction is necessar y to account for the belt loss.
1. The generato r is run at rated speed without excitatio n. The power input to the alternato r
or power
output of the de motor gives friction and windage loss (bearing, brush and windage loss) .
2. Now t~e generato r is run at rat~d speed with field excitatio n. The addition al power output of the
moto! 1s a measure of cor~ loss i.e. ~he core loss is equal to the difference of motor output required
to d11.ve the alternato r with and without the field excited. The excitatio n should be that at which
the alternato r normally operates.