Sr. Section Page no.

No
1 1-2
Introduction

2 3
Aim & Objective of Project

3 4-7
Fission

4 8-9
Fusion
5 10
Comparison
6 11-12
Current Research & Prospects
7 13
Summary
8 14
Bibliography

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 INTRODUCTION
 NCERT Definition:
Nuclear energy is the energy released during a nuclear reaction, either by fission
(splitting of heavy atomic nuclei, such as uranium or plutonium) or fusion
(combining of light atomic nuclei, such as hydrogen). This energy is harnessed
to produce electricity in nuclear power plants.
 Worldwide Definition:
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom, which can be
released through nuclear reactions such as fission, fusion, or radioactive decay.
It is utilized as a sustainable and powerful energy source, contributing to
electricity generation and other applications.

 Importance and Relevance of nuclear energy in modern society:

Nuclear energy plays a crucial role in modern society by providing a stable and
efficient source of power. Nuclear plants generate large amounts of electricity
without emitting greenhouse gases, making it a critical tool in the fight against
climate change. Nuclear energy offers a reliable alternative that can operate
continuously. Its ability to produce substantial amounts of electricity from a
small amount of fuel also makes it an attractive option for meeting the
increasing energy demands.
The relevance of nuclear energy contributes significantly to fields such as
medicine, agriculture, and scientific research. In medicine, nuclear technology
is used in diagnostic imaging and cancer treatments, helping to save lives and
improve health outcomes. Furthermore, nuclear research advances our
understanding of atomic structures, leading to technological innovations and
discoveries that benefit a variety of industries.

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Advances in nuclear technology are leading to the creation of safer and more
efficient reactors, such as small modular reactors (SMRs). These newer
technologies also promise to make nuclear energy more accessible to diverse
regions and settings. Furthermore, research into nuclear fusion, an area with
immense promise, could revolutionize energy production by providing a
virtually limitless, clean, and safe source of power. As these advancements
progress, nuclear energy continues to be a vital part of the global push toward
energy solutions.

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 AIM & OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
 To understand the principles, differences and applications of fusion and
fission

 To learn the mechanism of nuclear fusion and fission

 To compare the miscellaneous effects of fusion and fission energy

creation

 To make known the real-world application and implications for future

energy use.

 Fission:
1. Definition
2. Process
3. Chain reactions
4. Critical Mass and role of neutrons
5. Advantages and disadvantages

 Fusion
1. Definition
2. Process
3. Conditions
4. Challenges
5. Potential advantages and disadvantages

 To know about the current research in the world and prospects

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 FISSION
 Definition

Fission energy is the energy released when the nucleus of a heavy atom splits
into two smaller nuclei, along with the emission of neutrons and a significant
amount of energy. This process occurs when a heavy nucleus absorbs a neutron
and becomes unstable, causing it to break apart. The released energy comes
from the conversion of a small portion of the nucleus's mass into energy, as
described by Einstein’s equation E=mc2.

 Explanation of process

Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of a heavy atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei, accompanied by the release of neutrons and a
significant amount of energy. The process is initiated when a neutron collides
with a heavy nucleus, causing it to become unstable and split.

The energy released in fission reactions comes from the mass defect, where a
small portion of the original nucleus's mass is converted into energy, as
described by Einstein's equation: E = mc2

A common example of a fission reaction involves uranium-235 (235U92), widely

used in nuclear reactors. When a uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it
becomes uranium-236 (236U92), an unstable isotope. This instability causes the
nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei (fission fragments), releasing additional
neutrons and energy.

The fission reaction of uranium-235 can be represented as:

U92 + 1n0  141Ba56 + 92Kr36 + 3 1n0 + Energy

235

where:

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 235
 U92 is uranium-235,
1
 n0 is a neutron,
141
 Ba56 is barium-141,
92
 Kr36 is krypton-92, and
 3 1n0 represents the three additional neutrons released.

 Chain Reactions

A chain reaction occurs when the products of a fission reaction, particularly

neutrons, initiate further fission reactions in another fissile nuclei. This process
can sustain itself under the right conditions, making it fundamental to nuclear
reactors and weapons.

 Stages of a Chain Reaction

1. Initiation:
A neutron strikes a fissile nucleus (like 235U92), causing it to undergo
fission and release:
o Two or more smaller nuclei (fission fragments),
o A few free neutrons, and
o A large amount of energy.(200 MeV)
2. Propagation:
The free neutrons released from the first reaction collide with other 235U92
nuclei, inducing further fission reactions. Each reaction releases more
neutrons, sustaining the process.
3. Multiplication:
The process continues as more neutrons are released, leading to an
exponential increase in fission reactions if uncontrolled.

 Controlled chain reaction:

In a nuclear reactor, materials like control rods (made of boron or
cadmium) absorb excess neutrons to keep the chain reaction steady
ensuring manageable energy production
 Uncontrolled chain reaction:
In a nuclear bomb, no mechanisms are in place to limit the reaction. The
rapid, exponential growth of fission reactions results in an enormous
release of energy, causing an explosion.

For a chain reaction to sustain itself, a critical amount of fissile material, known
as the critical mass, is required. Below this mass, too many neutrons escape
without causing further fission, and the reaction dies out.

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  Subcritical Mass: Too small; reaction cannot sustain.
 Critical Mass: Just enough to sustain a steady reaction.
 Supercritical Mass: Excess material causes rapid reaction growth.

If no is the number of initial neutrons and k is the neutron multiplication factor

(average number of secondary neutrons causing further fission per fission
event):

nt = no • kt

Where:

 nt is the total number of neutrons after t generations of fission,

 k > 1: Reaction is supercritical (explosive growth),
 k = 1: Reaction is critical (steady),
 k < 1: Reaction is subcritical (dies out).

Starting with one neutron (no = 1), if k = 2 (each fission produces two neutrons
capable of inducing further reactions), then after t = 3 generations:

n3 = 1 ⋅ 23=8 neutrons

This exponential growth illustrates the potential energy amplification of a chain

reaction, whether for peaceful purposes in a reactor or destructively in a bomb.

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Fission

1. High Energy Output

2. Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions

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3. Reliable Power Supply
4. Small Fuel Volume
5. Reduces Dependence on Fossil Fuels

1. Radioactive Waste
2. Risk of Accidents
3. High Initial Costs
4. Finite Fuel Resources
5. Security and Proliferation Concerns

FUSION
 Definition

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Fusion energy is released when two light atomic nuclei, such as hydrogen
isotopes, combine to form a heavier nucleus, such as helium. This process,
which powers the Sun and other stars, occurs under extreme conditions of high
temperature and pressure, causing the nuclei to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion and fuse.

 Explanation of the process and conditions

Fusion requires extremely high temperatures (millions of degrees) and pressure
to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between positively charged nuclei.
Steps in the Fusion Process
1. Heating and Ionization:
Hydrogen isotopes are heated to extremely high temperatures. At these
temperatures, atoms reach plasma state and nuclei have enough kinetic
energy to overcome their electrostatic repulsion.
2. Nuclei Collision:
When the deuterium and tritium nuclei collide at high speeds, they fuse,
forming a heavier nucleus, typically 4He4 and a free neutron.
3. Release of Energy:
During fusion, a small amount of mass is converted into a large amount
of energy.

The fusion reaction of deuterium and tritium can be represented as:

2
H1 + 3H1  4He4 + 1n0 + 17.6 MeV
4. Energy Transfer:

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In experimental fusion reactors, the released energy is absorbed by the plasma
or surrounding materials to be harnessed for power production.
Fusion requires extreme conditions of high temperature and pressure to
overcome the Coulomb barrier, allowing them to fuse. These conditions are
difficult to maintain on Earth. Hence, fusion energy is currently an area of
active research and development.

 Challenges

1. High Temperature and Pressure Requirements

2. Plasma Containment
3. Energy Input vs. Output
4. Material Durability
5. Tritium Supply
6. Magnetic Field Instability
7. Scaling Up
8. Cost
9. Public and Regulatory Acceptance

 Potential Advantages

1. Abundant Fuel Supply

2. No Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3. High Energy Output
4. Inherent Safety
5. Minimal Radioactive Waste
6. Sustainable and Renewable
7. Low Environmental Impact
8. No Risk of Meltdown
9. Reduced Nuclear Proliferation Risks
10. Long-term Energy Security

Comparison
Criterion Fusion Energy Fission Energy
Energy Higher energy output than fission. High energy output, but

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 Output Fusion reactions release less than fusion. Fission
significantly more energy per can generate large
reaction, making it a much more amounts of energy from a
powerful source of energy. It has small amount of fuel,
the potential to meet global making it highly efficient
energy demands more for electricity generation.
sustainably. However, it is still
limited in comparison to
the theoretical energy
potential of fusion.
Waste Produces minimal radioactive Produces radioactive
Product waste (short-lived). The by- waste (long-lived). The
products of fusion, such as waste products from
helium, are not hazardous. Fusion fission include highly
does produce some neutron- radioactive isotopes that
activated materials, but their can remain hazardous for
radioactivity decays much faster thousands of years.
than fission waste.
Availability Fuel (uranium/plutonium) is Fuel (deuterium and
of fuel limited and needs mining. tritium) is abundant, with
Uranium is a finite resource, and tritium posing technical
current methods of extraction and challenges. Deuterium
refining can be environmentally can be extracted from
damaging. seawater, making it
virtually unlimited.
Safety Risk of nuclear accidents and No risk of nuclear
Concerns radiation release (e.g., Chernobyl, meltdown, but requires
Fukushima). While modern high temperatures and
reactors have safety features, the pressure for containment.
potential for catastrophic Fusion reactions safer
accidents remains, with long- because they do not
lasting environmental and human produce chain reactions,
health consequences. and any malfunction
simply stops the reaction.
Applications Energy, nuclear weapons, naval Energy, space
propulsion. propulsion, hydrogen
production.

CURRENT RESEARCH AND PROSPECTS

The field of nuclear fusion energy has seen rapid advancements recently, driven
by both government initiatives and private companies. A major project making

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headlines is the I.T.E.R (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) in
France, which aims to demonstrate the feasibility of nuclear fusion as a large-
scale and carbon-free source of energy. ITER's Tokamak reactor design is based
on magnetic confinement, where plasma is heated to extreme temperatures
using powerful magnetic fields to keep it stable while fusion reactions take
place. ITER's goal is to achieve a self-sustained reaction that produces more
energy than it consumes, potentially paving the way for clean energy on a
massive scale. It is expected to begin producing significant results by the 2030s.

In the UK, J.E.T (Joint European Torus) continues to push forward with fusion
research. J.E.T holds the record for the most energy produced in a fusion
reaction, and recent upgrades to the facility aim to improve the efficiency of
fusion reactions even further. In 2023, J.E.T set new records, demonstrating the
growing potential of fusion energy (69 Mega Joules)

China has also made significant strides in fusion energy research. The country’s
fusion researchers are working to boost the output of fusion reactors and have
made advancements in superconducting magnetic technology. China’s East
Tokamak, which operates at high temperatures, has reached new milestones,
contributing to global efforts to achieve viable fusion energy

Another critical project is the STEP (Spherical Tokamak for Energy

Production), a UK-based initiative. STEP will focus on developing a compact
and efficient fusion power plant capable of producing electricity in the next few
decades. The project aims to be a step towards making fusion commercially
viable.

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In addition, the rise of AI and machine learning is enhancing fusion research by
optimizing reactor designs and improving the accuracy of simulations for
plasma behaviour. AI is also being applied to the management of fusion power
plants, predicting operational conditions, and helping to mitigate the risks
associated with running these reactors.

As for private sector efforts, companies like Commonwealth Fusion Systems,

Helion Energy, and General Fusion are nearing the construction phase of fusion
facilities and have outlined plans to demonstrate fusion power by the mid-
2020s. These efforts, combined with international cooperation and cutting-edge
technologies like AI, point towards a future where fusion energy is a core part of
the global energy mix

Fusion energy is undoubtedly at a turning point, with various countries and

companies contributing to this exciting field. However, challenges like plasma
confinement, cost-effectiveness, and energy conversion efficiency still need to
be solved before fusion can become a practical, scalable energy source.
However, the developments of 2023–2024 show that fusion energy may soon
move from the realm of theoretical physics into real-world application.

SUMMARY
Nuclear energy, derived from either fission or fusion, holds the potential to
revolutionize the global energy landscape. Fission energy is currently the
primary method. Fission reactors are already in operation worldwide, offering a
substantial energy output. However, they come with long-lived radioactive

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waste produced, safety risks, and the reliance on limited uranium supplies.
Despite these challenges, fission remains a critical player in the global energy
In contrast, fusion energy is still in the experimental phase but offers immense
promise. Fusion reactions produce far more energy than fission, with the key
benefit of producing little to no radioactive waste. Fusion is also incredibly safe,
with no risk of catastrophic meltdowns. However, the technical challenges
remain significant. Government Project are working towards proving the
feasibility of controlled fusion, while private companies like Commonwealth
Fusion Systems and Helion Energy are developing alternative approaches.

Looking ahead, fusion energy is positioned to be the superior long-term solution

due to its safety, sustainability, and nearly unlimited fuel supply. Additionally,
the integration of AI into fusion research is accelerating progress by improving
plasma containment and optimizing reactor efficiency. Fusion has the potential
to revolutionize how we think about energy production and the growing
involvement of China, the US, and other countries indicates a global consensus.
In conclusion, the challenges of fusion are considerable but not insurmountable.
Given the rapid advancements in fusion research and the extensive international
collaboration, I believe that fusion energy will eventually surpass fission as the
primary energy source.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT

2. YouTube

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3. WIRED.com

4. Fusionforenergy.europa.eu

5. Scitechdaily.com

6. Weforum.com

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