AS PER OBE & CBCS SCHEME OF

SAHYADRI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
An Autonomous Institution
MANGALURU

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

FOR VII SEMESTER - BE

1 Rotor blade
2 Hub
3 Rotor bearing
4 Nacelle
5 Gearing
6 Roller assembly
7 Generator
8 Tower

Prepared by

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHYH M

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 i SAHYADRI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
An Autonomous Institution
MANGALURU
N-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
(Effective from the Academic Year 2022 - 2023)
VII SEMESTER
Course Code 21ME742 | CIA Marks 50
Number of Contact Hours/Week (L: T: P: S) 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40L Exam Hours 03
CREDITS -3
COURSE PREREQUISITES:
® Engineering Physics
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
® To introduce the concepts of solar energy, its radiation, collection, storage and application.
o To introduce the concepts and applications of Wind energy, Biomass energy, Geothermal energy and Ocean energy as
alternative energy sources.
® To explore society’s present needs and future energy demands.
® To examine energy sources and systems, including fossil fuels and nuclear energy, and then focus on alternate,
renewable energy sources such as solar, biomass (conversions), wind power, geothermal, etc.
e To get exposed to energy conservation methods.
TEACHING - LEARNING STRATEGY:
Following are some sample strategies that can be incorporate for the Course Delivery
® Chalk and Talk Method/Blended Mode Method
@ Power Point Presentation
o Expert Talk/Webinar/Seminar
® Video Streaming/Self-Study/Simulations
® Peer-to-Peer Activities
® Activity/Problem Based Learning
@ Case Studies
® MOOC/NPTEL Courses
® Any other innovative initiatives with respect to the Course contents
COURSE CONTENTS
MODULE -1
Energy source: India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources, need for nonconventional energy | 8 Hours
sources, energy alternatives, solar, thermal, photovoltaic. Water power, wind biomass, ocean temperature
difference, tidal and waves, geothermal, tar sands and oil shale, nuclear (Brief descriptions); advantages and
disadvantages.

Solar Radiation: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial radiation, solar constant,
solar radiation at the earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar radiation data.
MODULE - 1T
Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic | 8 Hours
diagrams and principle of working.

Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage, thermal collection devices, liquid flat plate collectors, solar
air heaters concentrating collectors (cylindrical, parabolic, paraboloid), sensible heat storage, latent heat storage,
application of solar energy water heating. Space heating and cooling, active and passive systems, Principles of
solar pond
MODULE - 1T
Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collectors: General description, collector geometry, selective | 8 Hours
surface (qualitative discussion) basic energy-balance equation, stagnation temperature, transmissivity of the cover
system, transmissivity — absorptivity product, numerical examples. The overall loss coefficient, correlation for
the top loss coefficient, bottom and side loss coefficient, problems (all correlations to be provided). Temperature
distribution between the collector tubes, collector heat removal factor, collector efficiency factor and collector
flow factor, mean plate temperature, instantaneous efficiency (all expressions to be provided). Effect of various
 i SAHYADRI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
An Autonomous Institution
MANGALURU
parameters on the collector performance; collector orientation, selective surface, fluid inlet temperature, number
covers, dust.
Photovoltaic Conversion: Description, principle of working and characteristics, application
MODULE - IV
Wind Energy: Properties of wind, availability of wind energy in India, wind velocity and power from wind; 8 Hours
major problems associated with wind power, wind machines; Types of wind machines and their characteristics,
horizontal and vertical axis wind mills, elementary design principles; coefficient of performance of a wind mill
rotor, aerodynamic considerations of wind mill design, numerical examples.

Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their mechanics; fundamental characteristics of tidal
power, harnessing tidal energy, limitations.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, Rankine cycle, OTEC power stations in the world,
problems associated with OTEC
MODULE -V
Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal station with schematic diagram, 8 Hours
geothermal plants in the world, problems associated with geothermal conversion, scope of geothermal energy.
Energy from Bio Mass: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production, energy plantation, bio gas production
from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation, description of bio-gas plants, transportation of bio-gas, problems
involved with bio-gas production, application of bio-gas, application of bio-gas in engines, advantages.

Hydrogen Energy: Properties of Hydrogen with respected to its utilization as a renewable form of energy,
sources of hydrogen, production of hydrogen, electrolysis of water, thermal decomposition of water, thermo
chemical production bio-chemical production.
COURSE OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this course, the students will be able to:
Bloom’s
co
No. Course Outcome Description Taxonomy
Level
COl | To introduce the concepts of solar energy, its radiation, collection, storage and application. CL2
To introduce the concepts and applications of Wind energy, Biomass energy, Geothermal energy and
co2 5 CL2
Ocean energy as alternative energy sources
CO3 | To explore society’s present needs and future energy demands CL2
To examine energy sources and systems, including fossil fuels and nuclear energy, and then focus on
CO4 | alternate, renewable energy sources such as solar, biomass (conversions), wind power, geothermal, CL2
etc.
CO5 | To get exposed to energy conservation methods CL2

CO-PO-PSO MAPPING
Programme Specific
Cco Programme Outcomes (PO)
Outcome (PSO)
No.
4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
0[]0 [ee
|w
=

w|ww|we

co1
L |w

W]

co2
SIS

RIS

Cco3
w

Cco4
W

COos5 | 3 ] 3 2
3: Substantial (High) 2: Moderate (Medium) 1: Poor (Low)
 i SAHYADRI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
An Autonomous Institution
MANGALURU
ASSESSMENT STRATEGY
Assessment will be both CIA and SEE. Students learning will be assessed using Direct and Indirect methods:

::" Assessment Description Weightage (%) Max. Marks

1 Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) 100 % 50

Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) 60 % 30
Assignments 40 % 20
2 Semester End Examination (SEE) 100 % 50
ASSESSMENT DETAILS
Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) (50%) Semester End Exam (SEE) (50%)
. ) Assignment/
Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) (60%) Activities (40%)
1 [ 1l [ 1
Syllabus Coverage Syllabus Coverage Syllabus Coverage
40% 30% 30% 100% 100%
MI MI MI
MII Mil MII MiIl
MII MIII MIII
MIV MIV MIV
MV MV MV
Note: For Examinations (both CIE and SEE), the question papers shall contain the questions mapped to the appropriate
Bloom’s Level. Any COs mapped with higher cognitive Bloom’s Level may also be assessed through the assignments.
ASSIGNMENT TYPES WITH WEIGHTAGES

::' Assignment Description Max. Weightage (%) lz:::('s

1 Written Assignments 25% 05

2 Quiz 10 % 02
3 Case Studies 25% 05
4 Seminar/Presentation 15% 03
5 Peer - to - Peer Learning 10 % 02
6 Activity Based Learning 50 % 10
7 Project Based Learning 50 % 10
8 Field Work + Report 50 % 10
9 Industry Visit + Report 50 % 10
NPTE_L/’_M()OC Courses — Registration and Assignment 50% 10
10 Submissions
NPTEL Certification 75 % 15
11 Any other Innovative Assignments (CL4 and above) 50 % 10
Note: The assignments mentioned above may be provided appropriately to the students belonging to different bands
SEE QUESTION PAPER PATTERN:
e The question paper will have TEN full questions from FIVE Modules
e There will be 2 full questions from each module. Every question will carry a maximum of 20 marks.
e Each full question may have a maximum of four sub-questions covering all the topics under a module.
o The students will have to answer FIVE full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Non-Convention Energy Resources, B H Khan, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd. 3 rd Edition
2. Solar energy Subhas P, Sukhatme Tata McGraw Hill, 2 nd Edition, 1996
3. Non-Conventional Energy Sources, G.D Rai, Khanna Publishers 2003
 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

ENERGY SOURCES & SOLAR RADIATION Module-1

Contents:
Energy source: India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources, need for nonconventional energy
sources, energy alternatives, solar, thermal, photovoltaic. Water power, wind biomass, ocean temperature difference,
cothermal, tar sands and oil shale, nuclear (Bricf description:
xtra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial radiation, solar constant, solar
radiation at the earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar radiation data.

INTRODUCTION:
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work. If an object or organism does work (exerts a
force over a distance to move an object) the object or organism uses energy. Because of the direct
connection between energy and work, energy is measured in the same unit as work: joules (J). In
addition to using energy to do work, objects gain energy because work is being done on them.
Energy is the most important problem of the world, because of two reasons: First; the sources
are limited. Considering the relationship between the standard of living and the energy usage, the
situation is being worse year by year. Secondly; the processes to convert the fossil fuels are deeply

hazardous for the environment.

Fortunately, the energy flows that occur naturally and repeatedly in the environment can be
harnessed for human benefit. The ultimate sources of most of this energy are the sun, gravity and
earth’s rotation.
In renewable energy literature, the words “alternative” and “sustainable” are being used to
emphasize the possibility of using sources other than the fossil ones which will finish never.

Whatever they are called, “renewable”, “alternative” and “sustainable”, these energy systems are
planned as the parts of the solution to the energy problem by substituting the fossil sources with the
replenished ones.

ENERGY SOURCES:

* Based on usabil ty of energy

a) Primary resources: Resources available in nature in raw form is called primary energy
resources.
Ex: Fossil fuels (coal, oil & gas), uranium, hydro energy. These are also known as raw energy
resources.
b) Intermediate resources: This is obtained from primary energy resources by one or more steps
of transformation & is used as a vehicle of energy.
¢) Secondary resources: The form of energy., which is finally supplied to consume for utilization.
Ex: electrical energy, thermal energy (in the form of steam or hot water), chemical energy (in
the form of hydrogen or fossil fuels).

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Some form of energies may be classified as both intermediate as well as secondary sources.
Ex: electricity, hydrogen.
® Based on traditional use
a) Conventional: energy resources which have been traditionally used for many decades.
Ex: fossil fuels, nuclear & hydro resources

b) Non-conventional: energy resources which are considered for large scale & renewable.

Ex: solar, wind & bio-mass

* Based on term availability

a) Non-renewable resources: resources which are finite, & do not get replenished after their
consumption.

Ex: fossil fuels, uranium

b) Renewable resources: resources which are renewed by nature again & again & their supply is
not affected by the rate of their consumption.

Ex: solar, wind, bio-mass, ocean (thermal, tidal & wave), geothermal, hydro
® Based on commercial application
a) Commercial energy resources: the secondary useable energy forms such as electricity, petrol,
and diesel are essential for commercial activities. The economy of a country depends on its
ability to convert natural raw energy into commercial energy.
Ex: coal, oil, gas, uranium, & hydro.

b) Non-commercial energy resources: the energy derived from nature & used —directly without
passing through commercial outlet.

Ex: wood, animal dung cake, crop residue.

* Based on origin

Fossil fuels energy

O0OO0OO0OO0OO0

Nuclear energy
Hydro energy
Solar energy
Wind energy
Bio-mass energy
00O

Geothermal energy
Tidal energy
0O

Ocean thermal energy

0O

Ocean wave energy

0O

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

INDIA’S PRODUCTION & RESERVES OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY SOURCES:

Energy production and subsequently its’ availability immediately affects future output, imports,
exports and investment, all of which have a big impact on a country’s economy. Policy makers may
plan for global price shocks in energy commodities and make educated decisions by using
comprehensive and high-quality energy statistics, which can help them assess potential trade-offs.
Production in the context of energy statistics is the capture, extraction, or manufacturing of
fuels or energy information suitable for widespread application. There are two distinct categories of
production: primary and secondary.
The capture or extraction of fuels or energy in a usable form from natural energy flows, the

biosphere, and natural fossil fuel reserves inside the national territory is known as primary
production. The amount of inert stuff recovered from the fuels and the amount reinjected, flared, or

vented are not included.

The process of converting other fuels or energy, whether primary or secondary. into energy
products is known as secondary production. The amounts of secondary fuels lost during and after
production due to venting and flaring are included in the amounts of secondary fuels reported as

production.
8

644

¢ 520 ®cCoal
(Million Tonnes)
g 4 ® Lignite (Million Tonnes)

1g, ® Crude Ol (Million

& Tonnes)
018
0 e W Natural Gas # (Billion
R Cubic Metres)
-0.30
& W Electricity® (GWh)

-2.83
4
Fig. 1: Compound Annual Growth Rate of Production of Energy Resources
from 2013-14 to 2022-23 (P)

In 2022-2023(P), the country produced 893.19 million tonnes of coal, up from 778.21 million
tonnes in 2021-2022. A 14.77% rise has occurred. With the exception of 2020-21, the production
pattern during the last 10 years, from 2013-14 to 2022-23(P), has been steadily increasing at a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 5.20% (Table 1).

The amount of lignite produced in 2022-2023(P) has increased to 44.99 million tonnes, down
5.27% from the 2021-2022 figure of 47.49 million tonnes (Table 1).

On the other hand, the output of crude oil for FY: 2022-2023 (P) was 29.18 MT, a decrease of

1.72% from FY: 29.69 MT (Table 1).

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Regarding the financial year 2013-14, the compound annual growth rates (CAGRs) for natural
gas and crude oil are -0.30% and -2.83%, respectively. Table 1 illustrates the extraordinary rise of
Renewable Energy in India, with electricity generated from nuclear, hydro, and other renewable
energy sources having the highest CAGR of 6.44%.

2,000 16,000
. 14,000

For Coal )
Peta Joule ( Axis
+ > — T 12,000
% 10,000

< 1,000 8,000

g 6,000
4,000
2,000
0 0
> 20 SV o L ) A @
& d 15;‘ ¥ @ @ P

Lignite Crude Oil Natural Gas e Electricity * - Coal

Fig. 2: Trends in Product ion of Energy (in petajoules) by Commercial Sources in India
from 2013-14 to 2022-23 (P)

Production has been converted to Petajoules, an energy unit, to enable comparison and
aggregate of production by various energy sources. It is evident that there has been an 11.94% rise
in the overall production of energy resources, from 17,464 petajoules in 2021-2022 to 19,549
petajoules in 2022-2023(P).
Trend of Net production (for Sale) of Natural Gas in India during
FY: 2013-14 to FY: 2022-23(P)
BILLION CUBIC METRES

Fig. 3: Trend of Net production (for Sale) of Natural Gas in India

during FY: 2013-14 to FY: 2022-23 (P)
Net output of Natural Gas for consumption grew from to 33.12 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) in
2021-22 to 33.65 BCM in 2022-23(P) indicating an increase of 1.61%. In addition, the Net-

Production for Sale has increased by more than 2.88% from the previous FY. The Net-Production

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

for the sale of Natural Gas grew to 28.14 BCM during FY: 2022-23(P) as opposed to 27.35 BCM
during FY: 2021-22, following a gradual fall from FY: 201314 to 2016-17.

Fig. 4: Share of Total Energy Generated (in Petajoules) from different commercial sources in
India during FY: 2022 -23 (P)

Liquified Petroleum
Bitumen
2% Petrol/Motor Gasoline
16%
Petroleum Coke
Lubricants Naphtha
1% Fuel oil
3%
Kerosene
Light Diesel Oil o%
o% Aviation Turbine Fuel
6%

Total Production = 266.54 MT

Fig. 5: Production of Petroleum Products by type during 2022-23 (P)

The country's production of petroleum products increased by 4.81% to 266.54 MT in 2022-
2023(P) from 254.31 MT in 2021-2022. The largest portion of Petroleum Products produced in
2022-2023(P) was made up of High-Speed Diesel Oil (43%), with Motor Gasoline (16%) coming in
second as shown in figure 5.
With the exception of 2020-21, India has had consistent rise in gross power generation (from
utilities) across time. Over the last 10 years, from 2013-14 to 2022-23, the CAGR increased at a

pace of 5.18%(P).

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

x 100000
20
19
18 16.18
17
16 1484
15 1372 13.83 13.73
13.03
iA 1235
1117 1168
B 10.27
51
3
!
82
° 4
3
2
1

# A
0" x> A»
&
o \""0 M’? ,fi\’:& #’p ‘&‘:0' &0 og\

~ Utilities === Non-Utilities

Fig. 6: Trends of Generation of Electricity from Utilities and Non-Utilities in

India from 2013-14 to 2022-23 (P)

In India, the production of electricity is still primarily dependent on coal. Almost 75% of the
electricity produced in FY: 2022-23(P) came from steam. On the other hand, the RES (Renewable

Energy Resources other than Hydro) has increased by 19.54% in FY: 2022-23(P) over FY: 2021-22,

which is encouraging.

Table. 1: Year wise Production of Energy Resources in Physical Units

Year
Coal
(Million
Uit [ CradeOil | Natwrals # | ey
(Million (Million (Billion Cubic
Tonnes) Tonnes) Tonnes) Metres) (GIYR)
1 2 3 4 5 6
2013-14 565.77 4427 31.79 3541 2,34,595
2014-15 609.18 4827 3746 33.66 2.38.908
2015-16 639.23 43.84 36.94 3225 224,571
2016-17 657.87 45.23 36.01 31.90 2.41.842
2017-18 675.40 46.64 35.68 32.65 2,66,308
2018-19 72872 4428 3420 3287 2.99.465
2019-20 73087 42.10 3217 3118 3,40.579
2020-21 716.08 37.90 30.49 28.67 3.40.576
2021-22 77821 47.49 29.69 34.02 3.69.652
2022-23(P) 893.19 44.99 29.18 3445 4.11.512
Growth rate of
2022-23 over 14.77 -5.27 -1.72 125 11.32
2021-22 (%)

(P): Provisional
# For Natural Gas Gross Production is reported
* Electricity from Hydro, Nuclear and other Renewable energy sources (Utility)

(Figures 1 to 6 and Table | taken from the Source: Energy Statistics India 2024, Ministry of
Statistics and Program Implementation, Govt. of India.)

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

1) The average rate of increase of oil production in the world is declining & a peak in production
may be reached around 2015. There after the production will decline gradually & most of the
oil reserves of the world are likely to be consumed by the end of the present century. The

serious nature of this observation is apparent when one notes that oil provides about 30% of the
world’s need for energy from commercial sources & that oil is the fuel used in most of the
world’s transportation systems.

2) The production of natural gas is continuing to increase at a rate of about 4% every year. Unlike
oil, there has been no significant slowdown in the rate of increase of production. Present
indications are that a peak in gas production will come around 2025, about 10 years after the

peak in oil production.

3) As oil & natural gas becomes scarcer, a great burden will fall on coal. It is likely that the
production of coal will touch a maximum somewhere around 2050.
Finally, it should be noted that in addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are used
extensively as feed stock material for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As resources

deplete, the need for using fossil fuels exclusively for such purposes may become greater.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Advantages:

1) Coal: presently it is cheap.

2) Security: by storing certain quantity, the energy availability can be ensured for a certain

period.

3) Convenience: it is very convenient to use.

Disadvantages:

1) Fossil fuels generate pollutants: CO, CO2, NOx, SOx. Particulate matter. The pollutants
degrade the environment, pose health hazards & cause various other problems.
2) Coal: it is also valuable petro-chemical & used as source of raw material for chemical,

pharmaceutical & paint industries, etc. From long term point of view, it is desirable to
conserve coal for future needs.
3) Safety of nuclear plants: it is a controversial subject.
4) Hydro electrical plants are cleanest but large hydro reservoirs cause the following problems
v As large land area submerges into water, which leads to deforestation
v Causes ecological disturbances such as earthquakes
v Causes dislocation of large population & consequently their rehabilitation problems.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Advantages:
1) NCES are available in nature, free of cost.

2) They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, they are environmental friendly.
3) They are inexhaustible.
4) They have low gestation period.

Disadvantages:
1) Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from NCES is high, as in
general, these are available in dilute forms of energy.
2) Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena beyond

human control.
3) Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.

IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES:

The concern for environment due to the ever-increasing use of fossil fuels & rapid depletion of
these resources has led to the development of alternative sources of energy, which are renewable &
environmental friendly. Following points may be mentioned in this connection.

1) The demand of energy is increasing due to rapid industrialization & population growth, the
conventional sources of energy will not be sufficient to meet the growing demand.
2) Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution; there by their use degrade

the environment.
3) Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable & bound to finish one day.
4) Large hydro-resources affect wild-life, cause deforestation & pose various social problems,
due to construction of big dams.
5) Fossil fuels are also used as raw materials in the chemical industry (for chemicals, medicines,

etc.) & need to be conserved for future generations.

Due to these reasons, it has become important to explore & develop non-conventional energy
resources to reduce too much dependence on conventional resources. However, the present trend
development of NCES indicates that these will serve as supplements rather than substitute for
conventional sources.
)

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

ENERGY ALTERNATIVES

Solar energy

YRR
Hydro energy
Wind energy
Bio-mass energy

N
Ocean thermal energy

N
Wave energy

N
Tidal energy
N
AN Geothermal energy
Nuclear energy

SOLAR ENERGY

e Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction
that take place deep in the Sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The energy from

these reactions flows out from the sun and escape into space.
o The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. Its diameter is 1.39x10° KM, while that of the earth is
1.27x10* KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x10%° KM. The beam radiation received

from the sun on the earth is reflected in to space, another 15% is absorbed by the earth atmosphere

and the rest is absorbed by the earth’s surface.

o The power from the Sun received by the earth is approximately 1.8x10'' MW which is many
thousands of times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
sources. This makes it one of the most promising energy sources.
* Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other

forms of energy, such as heat & electricity. This energy is radiated by the Sun as electromagnetic
waves of which 99% have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4 micro meters. Solar energy
reaching the top of the Earth’s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46% of visible light,
46% Infrared radiation.
e The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our
country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy that
reaches the earth.

Merits of solar energy:

v' It is an environmental clean source of energy.

v Itis free & available in abundant quantities in all most all parts of world where people live.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Demerits of solar energy:

¥ It is a dilute source of energy because even in hottest region the radiation flux is available
only 1 KW/m? & total radiation over a day is 7 KW/m?. These are low values from the point
of view of technological utilization.
v 1t is required large collecting areas are required in many applications & these results increase

of cost.
¥ Solar energy availability varies widely with time, it occurs because of the day-night cycle &
also seasonally because of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, even local weather condition.

Solar applications:
¥ Solar heating
¥ Solar cooling
¥ Solar pumping
¥ Solar hydrogen production
¥ Solar green houses
¥ Solar distillation
¥ Solar cooking, etc.

METHODS OF SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

Solar Energy Utilization

1
[ 1
Direct Methods Indirect Methods
| |
[ | I I [ I |
Thermal Photovoltaic Water Wind Biomass Wave Ocean
power Energy Temperature
Differences

1) THERMAL ENERGY:
Thermal energy refers to the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium by virtue of its temperature. The average transitional kinetic energy possessed by free
particles in a system of free particles in thermodynamic equilibrium. This energy comes from the
temperature of matter.
Thermal energy is the total energy of all the molecules in an object. The thermal energy of an
object depends on the 3 things:
1) The number of molecules in the object.
2) The temperature of the object (average molecular motion).
3) The arrangement of the molecules (states of matter).

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

The thermoelectric effectis the direct conversion of temperature differences to

electric voltage and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different
temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature
difference. At the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the
material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side. This effect can be used to generate

electricity.

Potential difference Metal A 'O'—I

| ST & ~
Hot part Cold part Metal B

‘ Hot junction Cold junction

M

The term "thermoelectric effect” encompasses three separately identified effects: the Seebeck
effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect.

This is the one method of converting solar energy into the electrical energy. When the sun
radiations fall on the hot junction, it starts heating the junction and the energy starts moving
towards the cold junction and there is an induced voltage in the circuit as shown in the figure

above.

Advantages:
e Ttiseco friendly
e Renewable sources
e No/less pollution
e By using this possible to produce electricity
e Tts help full for oil refining Industry & home heating

Disadvantages:

e Producing greenhouse gases

e Collecting of energy is a big problem, it requires sophisticated technology hence cost is
more

Applications:
e Steam engines
e Gasoline engines

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

2) PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) OR SOLAR CELL:

Photovoltaics are best known method for generating electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of
light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an
electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexander-Edmond Becquerel in
1839. The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which
current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic

devices are some types of photodiodes.

N -
o . Metallic
:‘-. Solar Radiation - >
P, (Photon-light) Co/nduchng Strips

PV Cell Symbol

Solar Photovoltaics power generation has long been seen as a clean energy technology which
draws upon the planet’s most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source that is sun.
The technology is "inherently elegant" in that the direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs
without any moving parts or environmental emissions during operation. It is well proven, as
photovoltaic systems have now been used for fifty years in specialized applications, and grid-
connected systems have been in use for over twenty years.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar
cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for Photovoltaics include mono-
crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays
(array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the
manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass
sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected
together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiple
arrays.
Photons, or solar energy particles, make up sunlight. The energy contained in these photons
varies according to the wavelengths of the solar spectrum. Photons can absorb, travel straight
through, or be reflected when they hit a photovoltaic cell. It takes only the photons that are

absorbed to produce energy for electricity. Electrons are released from the material's atoms when
the substance (a semiconductor) absorbs sufficient solar radiation (energy). The front surface of

the cell is more sensitive to free electrons due to special surface treatment used during

manufacture, which causes the electrons to go towards the surface on their own. Holes are created

when electrons shift from their original positions. When many electrons, each carrying a negative
charge, flow toward the front surface of the cell, the ensuing imbalance of charge between the

cell's front and back surfaces provides a voltage potential resembling the negative and positive
terminals of a battery. Electricity flows when there is a connection between the two surfaces via an
external load.

Advantages:
o Compare to fossil fuels nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested
in the development of solar cells.
o It gives long duration period (operation).
e Operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.

Disadvantages:
e The initial cost for purchasing a solar system is fairly high.
e Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the solar
system drops.

e Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive.

® The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need.

Applications:
* Space craft.
e It can be applicable to either small or large power plants.
e These solar cells are used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals, highway
emergency call systems, rail road crossing warnings & automatic metrological station.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

3) WATER POWER (HYDRO POWER):

In ancient years hydro-power has been used for irrigation & the operation of various
mechanical devices such as water mills, saw mills, textile mills, domestic lifts, power house &

paint making.

Power derived from the energy of falling water & running water, which may be harnessed for
useful purposes.

Spiliway Headworks Surge

chamber

In hydro power plant we use gravitational force of fluid water to run the turbine which is

coupled with electric generator to produce electricity. This power plant plays an important role to

protect our fossil fuels which is limited, because the generated electricity in hydro power station is
the use of water which is renewable source of energy and available in large quantity without any
cost.
For construction of hydro power plant first we choose the area where the water is sufficient to
reserve and suitable to build a dam, then we construct the dam. The main function of dam is to

stop the flow of water and reserve the water in reservoir. Mainly dam is situated at a good height
to increase the force of water. Reservoir stocks up lots of water which is employed to generate
power by means of turbines. After that Penstock- the pipe which is connected between dam and
turbine blades and most important purpose of the penstock is to enlarge the kinetic energy of water
that’s why this pipe is made up of extremely well-built material which carries on the pressure of
water. To control the pressure of water means increase or decrease water pressure whenever
required, we use a valve.
Storage tank comes in picture when some reason the pressure of water in reservoir is
decreases then we use storage tank it is directly connected to penstock and use only in emergency
condition. After that we employ turbine and generator. Turbine is the main stuff, when water
comes through the penstock with high kinetic energy and falls on turbine blades, the rotor of the
turbine rotates at high speed. As we know that the turbine is a device that transfers energy of fluid

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

into mechanical energy which is coupled with generator, and generator converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy which we utilize at the end.
The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate & density of
water, the height of fall & the local acceleration due to gravity.

P=npQgh
Where, P — Power in Watts
I] — dimension less efficiency of the turbine
p —density of water in Kg/m*
Q — Flow in m*/sec
g — Acceleration due to gravity
h — Height of fall

Advantages:
e Hydropower plants have a higher economic lifetime.
e The maintenance cost of such sources of “green energy” is very small, since the equipment is
automated and does not require a large staff during power generation.

e Given that hydroelectric power plants do not burn fossil fuels, they do not directly emit

greenhouse gases.
e Basins constructed for the production of hydropower, can be used for other activities such as
water sports, aquaculture and irrigation, agriculture.
e Hydroelectric dams may even become tourist attractions, and prevent floods by storing excess
water.

* Energy obtained can be considered “clean” and “regenerative”.

Disadvantages:
* Huge projects also involve great risks- risk of rupture (bursting) of the dam.

* Construction of hydropower can lead to imbalances in ecosystems and landscape change, and
over time can be reduced river flow.
e Water accumulation can lead to thermal and chemical changes, in the depth of the reservoirs.
Deposits, sediment, reached bottom may encourage the developmental accumulation of algae
which under certain conditions can reducing the amount of oxygen and death of wildlife. Also,
great accumulations can cause local climate changes primarily due to water evaporation (fog).
e Erosion — sediment is retained behind the dam so that the banks downstream of dam’s
judgments are subject to erosion.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

4) WIND ENERGY:
The energy available in the wind over the Earth’s surface is estimated to be 1.6x107 MW. In
India, high wind speeds are obtainable in coastal arcas of Saurashtra, Western Rajasthan & some
parts of Central India.

Winds are caused from 2 main factors:

e Heating & cooling of the atmosphere which generates convection currents. Heating is
caused by the absorption of solar energy on the Earth’s surface & in the atmosphere.
e The rotation of the Earth with respect to atmosphere & its motion around the sun.
Wind energy which is an indirect source of solar energy conversion can be utilized to run wind

mill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. The combination of wind turbine &
generator is sometimes referred as an AERO-GENERATOR. A step-up transmission is usually
required to match the relatively slow speed of the wind rotor to the higher speed of an electric
generator. Data quoted by some scientists that for India wind speed value lies between 5 Km/hr to
15-20 Km/hr. Wind speed increases with height.

Mechanical interferance
Toloador
utilty grid
—Tm‘} __[Coupling}—| electrical =
= 1= - generator| 5
[ Control
m— signal Generatgr
Toraue L de
" [controtier <5—!

Nacelle Wind vane

High-speed shaft

Fig: components of wind energy conversion.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Only 1/3™ amount of air is decelerating by the rotors & 60% of the available energy in wind
into mechanical energy. Well-designed blades will typically extract 70% of the available energy in
wind, but losses incurred in the gear box, transmission system & generator could decrease overall
wind turbine efficiency to 35% or loss.
There are 3 factors determine the output from a wind energy converter,

1] The wind speed.

2] The cross section of wind swept by rotor.
3] The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system & generator or pump.

The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics. The wind mill
works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy.
Kinetic energy = K E = % mv?
Wherem=pAv
Available wind Power =P, = 1/8 (p = D> V*) in Watts

Power coefficient = Power of wind rotor/Power available in the wind

Factors lead to increase wind Energy conversion:

o Availability of high strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost rotor blades.
e Falling prices of power electronics.
e Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy.
* Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95%.

* Economy of scale, as the turbines & plants are getting larger in size.

e Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity factor.
Advantages:

e Wind energy is friendly to the surrounding environment, as no fossil fuels are burnt to
generate electricity from wind energy.
e Wind turbines take up less space than the average power station. Windmills only have to

occupy a few square meters for the base; this allows the land around the turbine to be used for
many purposes, for example agriculture.
e Newer technologies are making the extraction of wind energy much more efficient. The wind
is free, and we are able to use this free source of energy.

¢ Wind turbines are a great resource to generate energy in remote locations, such as mountain
communities and remote countryside. Wind turbines can be a range of different sizes in order
to support varying population levels.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. 17

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

¢ Another advantage of wind energy is that when combined with solar electricity, this energy
source is great for developed and developing countries to provide a steady, reliable supply of
electricity.
Disadvantages:
e The main disadvantage regarding wind power is down to the winds unreliability factor. In

many areas, the winds strength is too low to support a wind turbine or wind farm.
¢ Wind turbines generally produce less electricity than the average fossil fuelled power station,
requiring multiple wind turbines to be built in order to make an impact.

¢ Wind turbine construction can be very expensive and costly to surrounding wildlife during the
build process.
e The noise pollution from commercial wind turbines is sometimes similar to a small jet engine.

5) BIOMASS ENERGY:
Biomass is an organic matter derived from living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source
of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which are not used for food or
feed.
Biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after
converting it to various forms of bio-fuel. Conversion of biomass to bio-fuel can be achieved by
different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

To use biomass energy, the initial biomass maybe transformed by chemical or biological processes
to produce intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol & charcoal etc.
The average efficiency of photosynthesis conversion of solar energy into bio mass energy is

estimated to be 0.5% - 1.0%. Animals feed on plants, & plants grow through the photosynthesis
process using solar energy. Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the
generation of bio mass energy.
In simplest form the reaction is the process of photosynthesis in the presence of solar
radiation, can be represented as follows:

H0+CO; — CH.0+0;
CH>0 + 0y ———» CO»+ H>0 + 112 Kcal/mole
Bio-mass resources fall into three categories:

1) Bio-mass in its traditional solid mass: The first category is to burn the bio-mass directly & get
the energy.
Ex: wood & agricultural residue.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

2) Bio-mass in non-traditional form: In the second category, the bio-mass is converted into to
liquid fuels and it is used in engines.
Ex: ethanol & methanol.
3) The 3" category is to ferment the biomass an aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called bio-
gas (bio-gas contains 55 to 65% Methane, 30-40% CO:> & rest impurities i.c., H2, H>S, &

some Na).

Advantages:

e It’s a renewable source of energy.

o [t provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.
e Recycling of waste reduces pollution and spread of diseases.
e Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.
e The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
e The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower than fossil fuels.
Disadvantages:
e Itisdispersed & land intensive source.
e Low energy density.
e Labour intensive & the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial applications are
significant.

e Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.

e It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.

e Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over
whole year.

6) OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION:

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a marine renewable energy technology that

harnesses the solar energy absorbed by the oceans to generate electric power. The sun’s heat
warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, which creates the ocean’s naturally
available temperature gradient, or thermal energy.
OTEC uses the ocean’s warm surface water with a temperature of around 25°C (77°F) to

vaporize a working fluid, which has low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapor expands and
spins a turbine coupled to a generator to produce electricity. The vapor is then cooled by seawater
that has been pumped from the deeper ocean layer, where the temperature is about 5°C (41°F).
That condenses the working fluid back into a liquid, so it can be reused. This is a continuous
electricity generating cycle.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

The efficiency of the cycle is strongly determined by the temperature differential. The bigger
the temperature difference, the higher the efficiency. The oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s
surface and capture a large part of the sun’s heat in the upper layers, making them the world’s
largest solar collectors and energy storage system. Utilizing just a small portion of this energy, can
cover the global energy need.

Advantages:
e Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.

e Unlike other forms of solar energy, output of OTEC shows very little daily or seasonal
variation.
e Electric power generated by OTEC could be used to produce hydrogen.
e A floating OTEC plant can generate power even at mid sea and can be used to provide
power for off shore mining and processing of manganese nodules.
Disadvantages:
o Capital investment is very high.
e Due to small temperature difference in between the surface water and deep water,
conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4%.
e Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost makes
them uneconomical for small plants.

7) WAVE ENERGY:
Waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface winds to sea. The rate of energy

transfer depends upon the wind speed & the distance over which interacts with water.

The energy flux in waves is more than that available from solar, wind & other renewable

sources. The power in the waves is proportional to the square of its amplitude & to the period of
its motion. The energy stored is dissipated through friction at shore & turbulence at rates
depending on characteristics of wave & water depth. Wave energy in open oceans is likely to be

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. “

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

inaccessible. The resource potential near coastlines is estimated as in excess of 20, 00,000 MW.
Wave power is usually expressed in KW/m, repressing the rate at which energy is transferred
across a line of 1 m length parallel to the wave front.

Advantages:
e Wave energy has this advantage over solar or wind energy that the energy has been naturally
concentrated by accumulation over time and space and transported from the point at which it
was originally present in the winds.
* A much greater amount of power is concentrated in the waves than in the wind. We will find
that wave energy is 100 times greater than wind energy.
e [tisa free and renewable energy source.
e Wave power devices do not need huge land masses like solar energy and wind energy.
® These devices are almost pollution-free.
e No wastes or greenhouse gases are produced in the process.
Disadvantages:

e Trregularity of wave patterns in amplitude, phase & direction, which makes it difficult to
extract power efficiently.
e The power extraction system is exposed to occasional extreme stormy conditions.
e Peak power of deep-water waves is available in open sea, where is difficult to construct,

operate & maintain a system & transmit power to the store,

e The slow & irregular motion of wave is required to be coupled to be electrical generator
requiring high & constant speed motion.
e Devices needed for the harnessing of the wave energy are very complicated.

8) TIDAL ENERGY:
Periodic rise & fall of the water level of sea is called TIDE. These tides can be used to
produce electrical power which is known as tidal power. When the water is above the mean sca
level called flood tide. When the water is below the mean sea level called ebb tide.
The tides in the sea are the result of the universal gravitational effect of bodies like SUN &
MOON on the Earth. About 70% of the tide producing force due to the moon & 30% to the sun.
The moon is thus the major factor in the tide formation.

Classification of Tidal Power Plants:

1) Single basin arrangement
v" Single ebb-cycle system.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

v Single tide-cycle system.

v Double cycle system.

2) Double basin arrangement.

Single basin Tidal arrangement:

The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main equipment’s of a
power house. The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or between one
basin and the other in case of multiple basins.

TG - Turbine generator

The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin during

the low tide, as per operational requirement. These are gate-controlled devices. It is generally
convenient to have the power house as well as the sluice-ways in alignment with the dam. The
design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in either direction. If

reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be taken over at any time by the
same machine. The modern tubular turbines are so versatile that they can be used either as

turbines or as pumps in either direction of flow. In addition, the tubular passages can also be used
as sluice-ways by locking the machine in to a standstill. As compared to conventional plants, this,
however, imposes a great number of operations in tidal power plants. For instance, the periodic

opening and closing of the sluice-way of a tidal plant are about 730 times in a year.

Power house: The turbines, electrical generator and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main

component of a power house. Because of small heads available at the turbine inlet, large size
turbines are needed; hence, the power house is also a large structure.in general operating plants
use the bulb type of turbine of the propeller type, with revisable blades, bulbs have horizontal
shafts coupled to a single generator. The cost per installed kilowatt drops with turbine size, and
perhaps larger turbines might be installed in a future major tidal power plant.

Dam or Barrage: The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea and basin or between
one basin and the other in case of multiple basins. Tidal power barrages have to resist waves
whose shock can be severe and were pressure changes sides continuously. The barrage needs to

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

provide channels for the turbines in reinforced concrete. To build these channels a temporary
coffer dam in necessary, but it is now possible to build them on land, float them to the site, and

sink them into place. Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficiently high tidal range to
give a good head of water — the minimum useful range is around three meters. The best sites are
bays and estuaries, but water, can also be impounded behind bounded reservoir built between two

points on the same shore line. The location of the barrage is important, because the energy
available is related to the size of trapped basin and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is
built to the mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the smaller the tidal range. A balance must also

be struck between increased output and increased material requirements and construction costs.

Sluice ways: the sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the
basin during the low tide, as per operational requirement. These are gate-controlled devices.

Tidal power basins have to be filled and emptied. Gates are opened regularly and frequently

but heads very in height and on the side where they occur, which is not the case with conventional
river projects. The gates must be opened and closed rapidly and this operation should use a
minimum of power. Leakage, is tolerable for gates and barrages. Since we are dealing with

seawater, corrosion problems are actuated, they have been very successfully solved by the catholic
protection and where not possible by paint. Gate structures can be floated as modular units into
place.

Advantages:
® Tidal power is completely independent of the precipitation (rain) and its uncertainty, besides
being inexhaustible.
® Large area of valuable land is not required.
® When a tidal power plant works in combination with thermal or hydro-electric system, peak

power demand can be effectively met with.

* Tidal power generation is free from pollution.
Disadvantages:
® Due to variation in tidal range the output is not uniform.

® Since the turbines have to work on a wide range of head variation (due to variable tide
range) the plant efficiency is affected.
® There is a fear of machinery being corroded due to corrosive sea water.
® Itis difficult to carry out construction in sea.
® Ascompared to other sources of energy, the tidal power plant is costly.
® Sedimentation and silteration of basins are the problems associated with tidal power plants.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

® The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are located away from
load centres.

9) GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
Geothermal energy is energy coming out of the molten interior (in the form of heat) of the
earth towards the surface. Volcanoes, Geysers, Hot springs & boiling mud pots are visible
evidence of the great reservoirs of heat that lies within the carth.

Most Geothermal energy produces low grade heat at about 50-70°c which can be used
directly for thermal applications.

Occasionally, geothermal heat is available at temperature about 90°c & so electrical power
production from turbines can be contemplated.
Geothermal power plants generate electricity by utilizing heat from the Earth's interior. They
convert geothermal energy into electrical power through a series of processes. There are three
main types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Below is a
general explanation of how geothermal plants work:
Extraction: Geothermal fluid (either steam or hot water) is extracted from the Earth using
production wells.
Energy Conversion: In dry and flash steam plants, the steam drives a turbine connected to a
generator. In binary plants, a secondary working fluid is vaporized to drive the turbine.
Power Generation: The mechanical energy from the turbine is converted into electrical energy
through a generator.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Reinjection: After heat extraction, the cooled geothermal fluid is reinjected back into the Earth
through injection wells to sustain the resource.

o
Generator ==
W,
Electric Power
s Qs [ ]

Evaporator

Ground Level

Production 0 Re-Injection Well

Low-temperature Geothermal
Liquid-Dominated Resource

Geo-Thermal Sources:
1) Hydro thermal convective systems
v" Vapour dominated or dry steam fields.
v'Liquid dominated system or wet steam fields.
v Hot water fields
2) Geo-pressure resources
3) Petro thermal or hot dry rocks
4) Magma resources

5) Volcanoes

Advantages:
® [t is reliable source of energy.
® It is available 24 hours/day.

® Tt is available is independent of weather.

® It has an inherent storage future, so no extra storage facility is required.
® Geo thermal plants require little land area.
Disadvantages:
® Generally, energy is available as low-grade heat.
* Continuous extraction of heated ground water may lead to subsidence (setting or slumping
of land).

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. 25

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

® Geo thermal fluid also brings with it the dissolved gases & solute (as high as 25 Kg/m®)
which leads to air & land pollution.
® Drilling operation leads to noise pollution.
® Thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over long distances (longer than~30 Km).
® Corrosive & abrasive geo thermal fluid reduces the life of plants.

10) NUCLEAR POWER:

Nuclear energy is the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom. The energy released during nuclear

fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity.

Nuclear Fission: Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into two nuclei with smaller
masses. Fission means “to divide”.

Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear fusion is the combining of two nuclei with low masses to form one
nucleus of larger mass. Nuclear fusion reactions are also called thermonuclear reactions.

Working of a nuclear power station:

Concrete shielding

Hot coolant
—
Super heated Turbine Generator
steany

Waste steam

generator < Cooling

T i Condensor e il
Thermal
:shielding - Wntlir
B=
Feed pump.

The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is shown in figure above. It is power
generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as nuclear
power station. The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, control rods, steam
generators, steam turbine, coolant pump, feed pump, condenser, cooling tower.

The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in a steam power plant. The heat
liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating in

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows through the tubes of heat
exchanger and transfers its heat to the feed water on its way. The steam produced in the heat
exchanger is passed through the turbine and after the work has done by the expansion of steam in
the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the condenser.

The mechanical or rotating energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the generator
which in turn generates the electrical energy and supplies to the power cables through a step-up
transformer, a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the flow of
coolant, condensate, and feed water.

Advantages:

® Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO:). The
emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to

global warming is therefore relatively little.

® This technology is readily available, it does not have to be developed first.
® It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.

Disadvantages:

® The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.

® High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.

® The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource; its supply is
estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.
® Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred targets for terrorist attacks.

Tar sand or oil sands is an expression used to describe porous sandstone deposits
impregnated with heavy viscous oils called bitumen or simply deposits of heavy oils.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Tar -
sands water| steam] | Caustic
soda

Conditioning Nabiha

1@ S
:'; drum

Froth
Separation
tank
s
Synthetic
Fine mineral crude oil
matter & water

Fig: production of synthetic crude oil from tar sand

The above schematic diagram indicating the processes involved in producing synthetic crude
oil from tar sands made up of sand stone deposits containing bitumen.

The sands obtained from surface mining are first passed through a conditioning drum where
water, steam & caustic soda are added & slurry is formed. The slurry passes into a separation tank
where the coarse sand settles at the bottom & a froth of bitumen, water & fine mineral matter

forms on the top.

The froth is diluted with naptha & subjected to centrifugal action. As a result, fine mineral

matter & water is removed. After this, the naptha is recovered & recycled, & the bitumen obtained

is subjected to hydro processing & desulphurization to produce synthetic crude oil.

OIL SHALE

Fig: Oil shale

Oil shale (a sedimentary rock) refers to a finely textured rock mixed with a solid organic
material called kerogen.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHYHM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

aShale =

Crude oil Spent oil

Fig: Production of crude oil from oil shale

Oil shale is crushed, and can be burnt directly [like coal] & has a heating value ranging from
2000 to 17,000 KJ/Kg. It is used in this manner for generating electricity & supplying heat.
Alternatively, the oil shale can be converted to oil. This is done by heating crushed oil shale to
about 500 °c in the absence of air. Under the conditions, pyrolysis occurs & the kerogen is
converted to oil.
Demerits:
e The use of oil shale is the environmental degradation associated with surface mining & with
the disposal of large amounts of sand & spent shale rock which remains after the crude oil is
obtained.
* A large amount of energy is consumed in producing oil from these sources.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

SOLAR RADIATION

INTRODUCTION
Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion

reaction that takes place deep in the sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The energy
from these reactions flows out from the sun and escape into space.
Solar energy is sometimes called radiant energy. These are different kinds of radiant energy

emitted by sun. The most important are light infrared rays. Ultra violet rays, and X- Rays.
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. Its diameter is 1.39x10° KM. While that of the carth
is 1.27x10* KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x10% KM. The beam radiation received

from the sun on the earth is reflected in to space, another 15% is absorbed by the earth atmosphere
and the rest is absorbed by the earth’s surface. This absorbed radiation consists of light and infrared
radiation without which the earth would be barren.
All life on the earth depends on solar energy. Green plants make food by means of
photosynthesis. Light is essential from in this process to take place. This light usually comes from

sun. Animal get their food from plants or by eating other animals that feed on plants. Plants and
animals also need some heat to stay alive. Thus, plants are store houses of solar energy. The solar
energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our country for one
day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy that reaches the earth.

SOLAR CONSTANT
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion
reactions. Its diameter is 1.39x10° KM. While that of the earth is 1.27x10* KM. The mean distance
between the two is 1.50x10® KM. Although the sun is large, it subtends an angle of only 32 minutes
at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also a very large distance. Thus, the beam radiation
received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from its center
to its edge. However, for engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that the brightness all
over the solar disc in uniform. As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears

to be essentially equivalent to that coming from a back surface at 5762 k.

The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar constant. It is
denoted as ls.
This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s
direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Because of the sun’s distance and activity
vary throughout the year, the rate of arrival of solar constant is thus an average from which the
actual values vary up to 3 percent in either direction. The National Aeronautics and Space

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Administration’s (NASA) standard value the solar Constant is 1.353 kilowatts per square meter.

The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little through the year. Because of this variation,
the extra-terrestrial flux also varies. The earth is closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away
in the winter. This variation in the Intensity of solar radiation that reaches the earth. This can be
approximated by the equation
.
=1, {1+0033c0s 360n
3]
Where n is the day of the year.

SOLAR RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Solar radiation Scattered radiation

reflected back to space

x M/
Upper limit
of atmosphes

Scattering

Absorption
Earth’s atmosphere
Beam or
direct radiation Diffuse radiation
(Scattered radiation
reaching earth’s surface)

Earth’s surface R\ b;,

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in both
amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. In the first place. Part of the
radiation is reflected back in to the space, especially by clouds. Furthermore, the radiation entering
the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and Ozone, formed from oxygen,
absorb nearly all the Ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the

energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e. its direction has
been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmosphere molecules, and by dust particles.
Solar Radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called “Direct Radiation™ or Beam Radiation. Diffuse radiation is that Solar Radiation
received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the
atmosphere. Because of the Solar Radiation is scattered in all directions in the atmosphere, diffuses
radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky. The sum of the beam and diffuse radiation
flux is referred to as total or global radiation.

Dr. SHANKARAMURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Measurement of Solar Radiation & Module-2

Solar Thermal Conversion

Content
Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyranometer, shading ring, pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic diagrams
and principle of working.

Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage, thermal collection devices, liquid flat plate collectors, solar air
heaters, concentrating collectors (cylindrical, parabolic, paraboloid), sensible heat storage, latent heat storage,
application of solar energy water heating. Space heating and cooling, active and passive systems, Principles of solar
pond.

MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

Solar Radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer or a Pyrheliometer,
sunshine recorder is used for measuring sunshine.

1) Pyranometer

1. Black surface
2. Glass domes
3. Guard plate

4. Levelling screws
5. Mounting plate
6. Grouted bolts

7. Platform

A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or diffuse Radiation over a

hemispherical field of view. A sketch of the Instrument as Installed for the measurement of global
radiation is shown in figure. Basically, the pyranometer consists of a ‘black’ surface which heats

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature increases until its rate of heat gain by solar
radiation equals its rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and radiation. The hot Junctions of
a thermopile are attached to the black surface. While the cold Junctions are located in such a way
that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an EMF is generated. This EMF which is
usually in the range of 0 to 10 MV can be read, recorded or Integrated over a period of time and

is a measure of the global radiation.

The pyranometer shown in figure is used commonly in India it has its hot Junctions arranged
in the form of a circular disc of diameter 25 mm and is coated with a special black layer having a

very high absorptivity in the solar wave length region. Two concentric hemispheres, 30 and 50
mm in diameter respectively made of optical glass having excellent transmission characteristics
are used to protect the disc surface from the weather. An accuracy of about +2 percent can be

obtained with the Instrument.

The pyranometer can also be used for the measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the centre of a semi-circular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way
that its plane is parallel to the plane of the path of the path of the suns daily movement across the
sky and it shades the thermopile element and the two glass domes of the pyranometer at all times
from direct sunshine. Consequently, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received
from the sky.

Fig: shading ring arrangement for the measurement of diffuse radiation.

The construction of one type of shading ring is shown in figure above. ABCD is a horizontal
rectangular frame 35 cm X 80 cm with its long sides in an east-west direction. To the sides AB
and CD of the frame are pivoted two angle-iron arms EF and GH, 70 cm long with slots along
their length, carrying sliders SS, on which is mounted the semi-circular shading ring R. the arms
are pivoted about a horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the rectangular frame and
can be adjusted at an angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude of the station. The movement of

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

the ring up and down the arms allows for changes in the sun’s declination. The shading ring is of
aluminium, 50 mm broad, and is bent to a radius of 450 mm. the inner surface of the ring is

painted dull black, while the rest of the shading ring arrangement is painted dull matt white. To
the bottom of the frame ABCD is fixed a thick metal plate P with a circular slot so that the frame,
when fixed on a masonry platform with nuts and bolts, can be adjusted in its proper position by

rotation about a vertical axis. To the top of the frame is fitted another thick metal plate P' on
which the pyranometer is mounted.

2) Pyrheliometer
This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on a surface normal to the
sun’s rays. In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a
thermopile attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube. The tube is aligned with the
direction of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and alignment
indicator. Thus, the black plate receives only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse
radiation falling within the acceptance angle of the instrument.

angle
1. Tube blackened on inside surface
2. Baffles
3. Alignment indicator
4. Black absorber plate
5. Thermopile junctions
6. Two-axis tracking mechanism

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

3) Sunshine recorder

-— Platform

The duration of bright sun shine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder shown
in figure. The sun’s Rays are focussed by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a groove
in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine,
the image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the cord strip. Though the day as the sun
moves across the sky, the image moves along the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is
proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip. A photograph of the instrument is
shown in figure above.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION

Solar Collectors:
Solar collectors are the devices used to collect solar radiation. Generally, there are two types
of solar collectors. They are

1. Non-conventional type or Flat plate collector

2. Concentrating or Focusing collector.
In a non-concentrating type, the arca of the absorber is equals the area of the collector and

since the radiation is not focused, the maximum temp achieved in this type is about 100 °C.

On the other hand, in a concentrating type the arca of the absorber is very small (50-100 times)
as compared to the collector area. This results in less loss of heat and also since the radiation is

focused to a point or a line the maximum temp achieved is about 350 °C.

Principle of solar energy conversion:

The principle on which the solar energy is converted into heat is the “greenhouse effect”. The

name is derived from the first application of green houses in which it is possible to grow
vegetation in cold climate through the better utilization of the available sunlight. The solar
radiation incident on the earth’s surface at a particular wavelength increases the surface temp of
the earth. As a result of difference in temp between the earth’s surface and the surroundings, the
absorbed radiation is reradiated back to the atmosphere with its wavelength increased. The Coz gas
in the atmosphere is transparent to the incoming shorter wavelength solar radiation, while it is
opaque to the long wavelength reradiated radiation. As a result of this the long wavelength
radiation gets reflected repeatedly between the earth’s atmosphere and the earth’s surface resulting

in the increase in temp of the earth’s surface. This is known as the “Green House Effect”. This is
the principle by which solar energy is converted to thermal energy using collector.
In a flat plate collector, the absorber plate which is a black metal plate absorbs the radiation
incident through the glass covers. The temp of the absorber plate increases and it begins to emit
radiation of longer wavelength. This long wavelength radiation is blocked from the glass covers
which act like the CO: layer in the atmosphere. This repeated reflection of radiation between the
covers and the absorber plate results in the rise of the temp of the absorber plate.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHYHM A iate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR (FPC):

Solar radiation
Direct
\ \ \ \ Oifuss
<— Glass cover
[ Absorber
t— Tubes
1 carrying heat
transfer fiuid
Insulation

Fig: Flat plate collector

The constructional details of flat plate collector are given below
Insulated Box: The rectangular box is made of thin GI sheet and is insulated from sides and

bottom using glass or mineral wool of thickness 5 to 8 cm to reduce losses from conduction to
back and side wall. The box is tilted at due south and a tilt angle depends on the latitude of
location. The face area of the collector box is kept between 1 to 2 m?.

Transparent Cover: This allows solar energy to pass through and reduces the convective heat
losses from the absorber plate through air space. The transparent tampered glass cover is placed on
top of rectangular box to trap the solar energy and sealed by rubber gaskets to prevent the leakage

of hot air. It is made of plastic/glass but glass is most favourable because of its transmittance and
low surface degradation. However, with development of improved quality of plastics, the

degradation quality has been improved. The plastics are available at low cost, light in weight and
can be used to make tubes, plates and cover but are suitable for low temperature application 70-
120 °C with single cover plate or up to 150 °C using double cover plate. The thickness of glass
cover 3 to 4 mm is commonly used and 1 to 2 covers with spacing 1.5 to 3 ¢m are generally used
between plates. The temperature of glass cover is lower than the absorber plate and is a good
absorber of thermal energy and reduces convective and radioactive losses of sky.

Absorber Plate: It intercepts and absorbs the solar energy. The absorber plate is made of copper,
aluminium or steel and is in the thickness of 1 to 2 mm. It is the most important part of collector

along with the tube’s products passing the liquid or air to be heated. The plate absorbs the
maximum solar radiation incident on it through glazing (cover plate) and transfers the heat to the
tubes in contact with minimum heat losses to atmosphere. The plate is black painted and provided
with selective material coating to increase its absorption and reduce the emission. The absorber
plate has high absorption (80-95%) and low transmission/reflection.
Tubes: The plate is attached to a series of parallel tubes or one serpentine tube through which
water or other liquid passes. The tubes are made of copper, aluminium or steel in the diameter 1 to
1.5 cm and are brazed, soldered on top/bottom of the absorber water equally in all the tubes and

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

collect it back from the other end. The header pipe is made of same material as tube and of larger
diameter. Now-a-days the tubes are made of plastic but they have low thermal conductivity and
higher coefficient of expansion than metals. Copper and aluminium are likely to get corroded with
saline liquids and steel tubes with inhibitors are used at such places.
Removal of Heat: These systems are best suited to applications that require low temperatures.

Once the heat is absorbed on the absorber plate it must be removed fast and delivered to the place
of storage for further use. As the liquid circulates through the tubes, it absorbs the heat from
absorber plate of the collectors. The heated liquid moves slowly and the losses from collector will

increase because of rise of high temperature of collector and will lower the efficiency. Flat-plate
solar collectors are less efficient in cold weather than in warm weather.
Advantages:

« It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.
* Requires less maintenance.
Disadvantages:

« Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.

* No tracking of sun.
« Low water temperature is achieved.

Factors affecting the Performance of Flat Plate Collector:

e Incident Solar Radiation: The efficiency of collector is directly related with solar radiation
falling on it and increases with rise in temperature.

o Number of Cover Plate: The increase in number of cover plate reduces the internal convective
heat losses but also prevents the transmission of radiation inside the collector. More than two
cover plate should not be used to optimize the system.
e Spacing: The more space between the absorber and cover plate the less internal heat losses.
The collector efficiency will be increased. However, on the other hand, increase in space

between them provides the shading by side wall in the morning and evening and reduces the
absorbed solar flux by 2-3% of system. The spacing between absorber and cover plate is kept
2-3 cm to balance the problem.
e Collector Tilt: The flat plate collectors do not track the sun and should be tilted at angle of
latitude of the location for an average better performance. However with changing declination
angle with seasons the optimum tilt angle is kept ¢ = 15°. The collector is placed with south
facing at northern hemisphere to receive maximum radiation throughout the day.
e Sclective Surface: Some materials like nickel black (a= 0.89, &= 0.15) and black chrome (o=

0.87, &= 0.088), copper oxide (o= 0.89, e= 0.17) etc. are applied chemically on the surface of

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

absorber in a thin layer of thickness 0.1um. These chemicals have high degree of absorption
() to short wave radiation (<4pum) and low emission () of long wave radiations (>4um). The

higher absorption of solar energy increases the temperature of absorber plate and working
fluid. The top losses reduce and the efficiency of the collector increases. The selective surface
should be able to withstand high temperature of 300-400 °C, cost less, should not oxidize and

be corrosive resistant. The property of material should not change with time.
e Inlet Temperature: With increase in inlet temperature of working fluid the losses increase to
ambient. The high temperature fluid absorbed the less heat from absorber plate because of low
temperature difference and increases the top loss coefficient. Therefore, the efficiency of

collector gets reduced with rise in inlet temperature.

e Dust on cover Plate: The efficiency of collector decreases with dust particles on the cover
plate because the transmission radiation decreases by 1%. Frequent cleaning is required to get
the maximum efficiency of collector.

CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS:
These are the solar collectors where the radiation is focused either to a point (focal point of the
collector) or along a line (focal axis of the collector). Since the radiation is focused, the n of
concentrating collector is always greater than that of non-focusing or FPC. This is because of the
following reasons
e In case of focusing collector the area of the absorber is many times smaller than that of the
area of the collector. Where as in a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber equals area

of the collector. Hence here the loss of absorbed radiation is more compared to the
concentrating type.
e In a concentrating collector since the radiation is focused, its intensity is always greater than
that in the non-focusing type. Because of these reasons the concentrating collectors are always
used for high temp applications like power generation and industrial process heating.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS:

1) Parabolic trough collector

2) cylindrical parabolic
Line focusing
3) Mirror strip collector
4) Fresnal lense collector
.
1) Parabolidal collector
Point focusing
2)central tower concept

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Mirror boosting collector

Non-focusing type
Compound parabolic concentrator

Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC):

Optical axis
B i Aperture

<— Section of Section of

parabola B ! parabola A

Focus of . Focus of
parabola A ! parabola B

.~ Flatreceiver
' (absorber)

Fig: Compound Parabolic Concentrator

Compound Parabolic Concentrator consists of two parabolic mirror segments, attached to a

flat receiver. The segments are oriented such that the focus of one is located at the bottom end
point of the other in contact with the receiver. It has a large acceptance angle and needs to be
adjusted intermittently. Rays in the central region of the aperture reach the absorber directly

whereas, those near the edges undergo one or more reflections before reaching the absorber. The
concentration ratio achieved from this collector is in the range of 3-7.
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator:

Reflector
NNNSKERENRNAN NARNNSRNNNRN

Fig: Cylindrical parabolic concentrator

It consists of a cylindrical parabolic through reflector and a metal tube receiver at its focal line
as shown in figure above. The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase
absorption. It is rotated about one axis to track the sun. The heat transfer fluid flows through the
receiver tube, carrying the thermal energy to the next stage of the system. This type of collector
may be oriented in any one of the three directions: East-West, North-South or polar. The polar
configuration intercepts more solar radiation per unit area as compared to other modes and thus

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

gives best performance. The concentration ratio in the range of 5-30 may be achieved from these
collectors.

Paraboloidal Dish Collector:

Fig: Paraboloidal Dish Collector

When a parabola is rotated about its optical axis a Paraboloidal surface is produced. Above
figure shows the details of this type of collector. Beam radiation is focused at a point in the
paraboloid. This requires two axis tracking. It can have concentration ratio ranging from 10 to few
thousands and can yield temperature up to 3000 °C. Paraboloidal dish collectors of 6-7 m in

diameter are commercially manufactured.

Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator:

/ / X<—/——//~ Center of
/ curvature
y f y Y
Absorber

Spherical mirror

Fig: Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator

It consists of hemispherical fixed mirror, a tracking absorber and supporting structure, as
shown in Figure. All rays entering the hemisphere after reflection cross the paraxial line at some
point between the focus and the mirror surface. Therefore, a linear absorber pivoted about the
center of curvature of the hemisphere intercepts all reflected rays. The absorber is to be moved so
that its axis is always aligned with solar rays passing through the center of the sphere. This
requires two-axis tracking. The absorber is either driven around a polar axis at a constant angular
speed of 15 degrees/hour or adjusted periodically during the day. This type of concentrator gives

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

lesser concentration, owing to spherical aberration, than that obtained in Paraboloidal

concentrator.

Central Tower Receiver:

Sun rays
/ | / Receiver |
[

Heliostats

Fig: Central Tower Receiver

In central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the top of a tower. Beam radiation

is reflected on it from a large number of independently controlled; almost flat mirrors, known as

heliostats, spread over a large area on the ground, surrounding the tower. Thousands of such
heliostats track the sun to direct the beam radiation on the receiver from all sides. The heliostats,

together act like a dilute paraboloid of very big size. Concentration ratio of as high value as 3,000

can be obtained. The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and delivered at a
temperature and pressure suitable for driving turbines for power generation. The schematic view
of central tower receiver is shown in figure above.

THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

Thermal energy can be stored in well insulated fluids or solids. Thermal energy storage is
essential for both domestic water and space heating applications. Thermal energy can be stored
cither as sensible heat or latent heat. In sensible heat storage the temperature of the medium
changes during charging and discharging of the storage. In latent heat storage, the temperature of

the medium remains more or less constant, since it undergoes a phase transformation, i.e. the

transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour.

Sensible Heat Storage: In this type of storage there is no change in phase. The basic equation for
energy storage is given by O, =mC,(T, - T,)
Where, Q = Total thermal capacity
m = Mass of storage medium
C = Specific heat

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Heat stored per unit volume is given by

Where, Vs = Volume of the given storage container

p = Density of the storage medium

Thus, the ability to store heat depends upon the product of p and C,,.
Water is generally preferred for storing thermal energy at low temperatures, because of its low
cost and large heat capacity. Water can also act as heat transfer fluid for heat flow to and from the
storage, but the temperature range is limited. Most solar water heating and space heating systems

use hot water storage tank located either inside or outside the buildings or also underground. The
size of the tanks used vary from a few hundred litres to few thousand cubic meters. Water storage
tanks are made of variety of materials like glass and concrete. The tanks are insulated with glass

‘wool, mineral wool etc.

Heat transfer oils are used in sensible heat storage system for intermediate temperature ranging
from 100 °C to 300 °C. The main problem with heat transfer oil is that they tend to degrade with

time. Solid materials like rocks, metals, concrete, sand and bricks etc. can also be used for thermal
storage.

Latent Heat Storage: In a latent heat storage system, heat is stored in a material when it melts
and extracted from the materials when it freezes. The most suitable phase change material is
paraffin wax. Other materials are calcium chloride hexahydrate, magnesium nitrate hexahydrate,
ice, sodium hydroxide etc.

For latent heat storage the phase transition solid-liquid (melting) for storage charging and liquid-
solid (solidification) for storage discharging are most suitable. The storage capacity of a latent heat
storage is given by

Q=m[Cy(t, —t)+ I +C (1,0 —1,)] in J.

Where m = Mass of phase change material (PCM) storage medium

Cs = Specific heat of PCM storage medium in solid state (J/kg K)

C1 = Specific heat of PCM storage medium in liquid state (J/kg K)
hi = Specific melting enthalpy of PCM storage medium (J/kg)
tmin and tmax = Minimum and maximum storage temperature (°C)
tm = Melting temperature of PCM storage medium (°C)

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

The latent heat storage charging process comprises three stages

1) Heating of the phase change material in solid state.
2) Melting of phase change material at constant temperature for pure substance or in the range of
temperatures for mixed composition.
3) Heating of the molten PCM to the maximum temperature (tmax).

The latent heat storage discharging process proceeds in the opposite direction and includes
PCM cooling in the liquid state, PCM solidification and PCM cooling in the solid state. The phase
change processes of melting and solidification involve latent heat absorption or release.

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:

Direct thermal
application

I I 1
Water heating Space heating ‘ Agriculture and Industrial process ‘
heating

Electrical Power
generation
r — 1
Generation with hot| | Generation with Wind, OTEC, Tidal,
working fluid Photovoltaics Geothermal, Hydel etc

THERMAL APPLICATIONS:
1) Water heating
2) Space heating or cooling
3) Process heating

4) Refrigeration
5) Distillation

6) Furnace heating
7) Electric power generation
8) Cooking
9) Pumping

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

SOLAR WATER HEATER:

Cold water
Vent make up tank
A

Hot water outlet <—

| Insulated H
hot water H '
tank | !

"' o B e

Fig: Solar Water Heater

The details of the most common type of solar water heater are shown in Fig. a tilted flat plate

solar collector with water as heat transfer fluid is used. A thermally insulated hot water storage
tank is mounted above the collector. The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot water
tank and replaces an equal quantity of cold water, which enters the collector. The cycle repeats,

resulting in all the water of the hot water tank getting heated up. When hot water is taken out from
hot water outlet, the same is replaced by cold water from the cold-water make up tank, fixed above
the hot water tank.
The scheme is known as passive heating scheme, as water is circulated in the loop naturally
due to thermo-siphon action. When the collector is fixed above the level of hot water tank, a pump

is required to induce circulation of water in the loop and the scheme will be known as active (or
forced) solar thermal system. An auxiliary electrical immersion heater may be used as back up for
use during cloudy periods. In average Indian climatic conditions, solar water heater can be used

for about 300 days in a year. A typical 100 Liters per day. Rooftop solar water heater costs
approximately Rs/- 13,000 to 15,000 and delivers water at 60-80 °C. It has a life span of 10-12
years and payback period of 2-6 years. In other schemes the hot water from collector delivers heat

to service water through a heat exchanger. In this scheme, an anti-freeze solution may be used as
heat transport medium to avoid freezing during cold nights.

SOLAR PASSIVE SPACE HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS:

Solar energy is also used for heating or cooling a building to maintain comfortable
temperature inside. Passive systems do not require any mechanical device and make use of natural
process of convection, radiation and conduction for transport of heat. The use of passive
heating/cooling systems puts restrictions on the building design to make the flow of heat naturally
possible. Such a specially designed building is called "solar house".

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 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

The state of the, art for passive cooling is much less developed than for passive space heating.
Natural passive cooling may not always be sufficient to meet the requirement and at peak load
auxiliary means may also be needed, but it greatly reduces the load on the air-conditioner plant.

Damper — > ga-> Warm air-—

> Radiation———_
4
Convection
Soiar
radiation - 1;::;21
el Living space
(Trombe wall)
< Cold air <
z v fr=s
Reflector

Fig 1: Solar Space Heating

Active heating/cooling systems employ mechanical devices, e.g., pump, blower, etc. to

circulate the working fluid for transportation of heat, and therefore, special building design is not
necessary as required in the case of passive heating. Nevertheless, careful building design and

insulation is desirable and will be less expensive than additional heating/cooling load due to poor
design.
A solar passive space heating system is shown in Fig 1. The south facing thick wall, called

'Trombe Wall' is made of concrete, adobe, stone or composites of brick blocks and sand, designed

for thermal storage. In order to increase the absorption, the outer surface is painted black. The
entire south wall is covered by one or two sheets of glass or plastic sheet with some air gap
(usually 10-15 cm) between the wall and inner glazing. Solar radiation after penetration through
the glazing is absorbed by the thermal storage wall. The air in the air gap between the glazing and

the wall thus gets heated, rises up and enters the room through the upper vent while cool air from

the room replaces it from the bottom vent. The circulation of air continues till the wall goes on
heating the air. Thus, the thermal wall collects, stores and transfers the heat to the room. Heating

can be adjusted by controlling the airflow through the inlet and outlet vents by shutters. Opening
the damper at the top of the glazing allows the excess heat to escape outside, when heating is not
required.
Sometimes a reflective horizontal surface is also provided to make avail-able the additional
radiation for thermal storage. A movable insulation cover (not shown in figure) also sometimes
used to cover the glaze to reduce the heat loss from the storage wall to outside during night. In
some models the thermal storage wall is made up of water drums stacked over one another to

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

increase the thermal storage capacity. In another variation the thermal storage mass is provided
above a metallic roof of the building instead of a wall.

<— Glazing (south side)

Solar PEvE
radiation <

Living space \H

{[# sair i
,|
A |
Solar air +F Damper
heater <

2 <. Rock bed

storage
i air

Fig 2: Solar Space Heating with rock bed storage

In Fig. 2 another variation of solar space heating system is shown. Here, a collector cum rock
bed storage system is integrated with the apartment. During daytime when direct gain through the
glaze is sufficient, the hot air from the air heater (collector) is not allowed to enter the room. The
available thermal energy is stored in the rock bed to be used later, preferably during the night.
For natural cooling the first and best approach is to reduce unnecessary thermal loads entering

the building. For example,

o Direct sunlight entering the building, which can be reduced by use of sun breakers or shading
the window, walls, roofs, etc.,

e Conduction of heat through building elements, which can be reduced by proper thermal
insulation

o Infiltration of outside warm air, which can be reduced by proper sealing.

The techniques, generally used for passive cooling of the buildings include: (i) shading, (ii)

ventilation, (iii) evaporation, (iv) radiation, (v) ground coupling, and (vi) dehumidification.
Shading method prevents heating due to direct sunlight entering the house. In ventilation
method, warm air is driven out and cool outside air is sucked inside by utilizing the chimney
effect. Evaporation method is effective in dry regions, where cooling is maintained by utilizing the
internal heat to evaporate water. A pond may be used above a thin roof, to maintain cooling below
it. Desert cooler is another example of evaporative cooling. In radiation cooling, black plastic
water bags kept over a metal roof are exposed to the sky at night. Nocturnal radiation cools the
water during night. This water absorbs heat from the space below it and maintains it cool.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

During daytime the roof is covered by a thermal insulating sheet to prevent heating of water
due to solar radiation. Ground coupling system makes use of the fact that in summer the ground
temperature is always lower than the air temperature. The lower temperature of the ground can be
used for cooling a building by partially sinking it into the ground.

Airducted g
* i
o outside
N South
Solar -
radiation
T Living space

Warm air
/ M,
Fig 3: Solar passive cooling through Ventilation
Figure 3 shows the scheme for solar passive cooling through ventilation. This scheme utilizes

solar 'chimney effect', and is effective where out-side temperatures are moderate. Solar radiation is
allowed to heat up the air between the glazing and interior south wall. The heated air rises up and
ducted outside and the warm air from the room is drawn into this space due to natural draught thus
produced. As a result, cool outside air enters the room from the bottom air vent on the other side

of the room.

Fig 4: Solar passive cooling through Dehumidification

In dehumidification system, the moisture content of the air in the room is reduced, and cooling

is maintained by adsorption and evaporation. The east and west facing walls of a specially
designed house are provided with solid adsorbent materials and water baths. Air circulation is
maintained using 'chimney effect’ as shown in Fig. 4. In the morning when the east wall is heated
by solar radiation, the heated air rises up and ducted outside. Due to natural draught thus
produced, air is drawn inside from the west side. The incoming west side air first gets dried up by
solid adsorbent material, evaporatively cooled by passing over water baths and then enters the

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

room. The hot air going out through the east-facing wall regenerates the solid adsorbent material.
In the evening when the west wall is heated up by the sun, reversal of airflow occurs and the
functions of east and west walls reverses.

SOLAR INDUSTRIAL HEATING SYSTEMS:

Solar active heating systems are used for several industrial process heat requirements. The
process heat in various industries is generally supplied in form of (i) process hot water, (ii) hot air
and (iii) process steam.
Damper "
-
5 Aux. % Hot airi to
gheatotl] yistibution
Solar
radiation : = A
N | Rockbed | | bypass
- storage |
Air heater | 4 ——— Used hot
(collector) Exhaust AW air from
air L Heat distribution
(€] Y ‘lexchanger|
—t i~ i
Storage 3 way valve . hraen st
blower Blower

Fig 1: Hot air Industrial process heat system

A hot air solar heating system is shown in Fig. 1. Thermal energy is ported from collector
through hot air and utilized for process heat. The heat is stored in rock bed thermal storage to be
used later when solar energy is not available. Auxiliary heating augments the supply when the heat

supplied by collector or storage is not sufficient. The used air is passed through a heat exchanger
to recover the heat from the exhaust air to raise the temperature of fresh air entering the collector.
Pressure
regulating
valve
Steam
Pressurized Process
hot water steam
Flash
Concentration separator
collector
field

Feed
water
Collector Feed water
pump control valve

Fig 2: Solar Process Steam system

Figure 2 shows a solar process steam system. Pressurized water is circulated through
concentrating collector to prevent boiling. The high-pressure heated water is throttled and flash
separated in a flash separator. To maintain the necessary liquid level in the flash tank, boiler feed

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

water is injected into the pump suction. The saturated steam obtained from the flash separator is
recirculated through the collector field and distributed for use. A pressure regulator valve regulates
the pressure.

SOLAR COOKERS:
Thermal energy requirements for cooking purpose forms a major share of the total energy
consumed, especially in rural areas. Variety of fuels like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood,
dung cakes and agricultural wastes are being used to meet the requirement. Fossil fuel is a fast-

depleting resource and need to be conserved, firewood for cooking causes deforestation and cow
dung, agricultural waste etc. may be better used as a good fertilizer. Harnessing solar energy for
cooking purpose is an attractive and relevant option.

A variety of solar cookers have been developed, which can be clubbed in four types of basic
designs:
* Box type solar cooker
o Dish type solar cooker
e Community solar cooker
* Advance solar cooker.

Box type solar cooker: The construction of a most common, box type solar cooker is
schematically shown in Fig.

Reflector mirror

Glass cover

Cooking pot

Blackened
aluminium tray

Fig: Box type solar cooker

The external dimensions of a typical family size (4 dishes) box type cooker are 60 x 60 x 20
cm. This cooker is simple in construction and operation. An insulated box of blackened aluminium
contains the utensils with food material. The box receives direct radiation and also reflected radio-
4ort from a reflector mirror fixed on inner side of the box cover hinged to one side of the box. The
angle of reflector can be adjusted as required. A glass cover consisting of two layers of clear

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

window glass sheets serves as the box door. The glass cover traps heat due to the greenhouse
effect. Maximum air temperature obtained inside the box is around 140-160 °C. This is enough for
cooking the boiling type food slowly in about 2-3 hours. It is capable of cooking 2 kg of food and
can save 3-4 LPG cylinder fuel in a year. Electrical backup is also provided in some designs for
use during non-sunshine hours. Its cost varies from Rs. 1,500 — Rs. 2,500 depending on the type,

size, quality and electrical backup facility, etc. A more affordable, folding type model of solar
cooker, made of cardboard material is also developed.

SOLAR FURNACES:
Solar furnaces are ideal tools to study the chemical, optical, electrical and thermodynamic
properties of the materials at high temperatures. It is basically an optical system in which solar

radiations are concentrated over a small area.

It has two main components:
1) A concentrator

2) A single piece of a large sized heliostat or a System of large number of small heliostats.

Solar
Radiations

goy
*&g (" Heliostat Mirrror
— ==

TT7T77T77777 077777 7777777777 77777

Fig: Solar Furnace

The basic principle is shown in Fig. Large number of heliostats directs solar radiation onto a

Paraboloidal reflector surface. The heliostats are adjusted such that they direct the radiation
parallel to the optical axis of the paraboloid. For this purpose, accurate sun tracking is required.
The concentrator focuses the incoming rays at the target placed at its focus.
There is another possible configuration of solar furnace, where the optical axis is vertical. A
large heliostat directs the radiation upwards and the concentrator reflects it downward at its focus.
In this arrangement the un-melted portion of specimen forms a crucible to hold the melted portion
and is suitable for fusion studies.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Advantages:

o Heating without contamination

e Easy control of temperature
e Working is simple
* High heat flux is obtainable
« Continuous observation possible
* Absence of electromagnetic field.
Disadvantages:
e [ts use is limited to sunny days and that too for 4-5 hours only
e ts cost is high
e Very high temperatures are obtained only over a very small area

SOLAR DESALINATION:
Potable or fresh water (water with less than 500 ppm salt content) is one of the fundamental
necessities of life for a man. Industries and agriculture also require fresh water without which they
cannot thrive. Man has been dependent on rivers, lakes and underground water reservoir to fulfil
his need of fresh water. It is intimately associated with evolution of civilization. Due to rapid
industrialization and population explosion, the demand of fresh water has been increasing

enormously. With the standard of living, the average per capita consumption of water has also
increased. Due to climate changes and less rainfall in many parts of the world fresh water, which
was available in abundance from rivers, lakes and ponds, is becoming scarce. Also, the avail-able

resources are getting polluted due to discharge of industrial effluents and sewage in large
quantities. Thus, due to climate change, pollution and over consumption, at present more than

2,000 million people have no regular access to adequate safe water. In some villages, people travel
up to 30 km to collect fresh water. According to one estimate, about 79% of water available on
carth is salty, 20% is brackish (less salty water from well) and only 1% is fresh. Therefore,
conversion of brackish or saline water to fresh water through distillation process using solar
energy is a good idea where, plenty of saline water and sun are available.
In a plant supplying drinking water for animals working in nitrate mining and transport. The

conversion device is known as solar still. Modern developments in solar distillation have been
directed to the use of materials and designs for economic and durable construction with increased
output, to reduce the product cost. Several types of solar stills have evolved. However, only basin
type has been tried commercially on a large scale.
A simple basin type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled with saline or
brackish water to be distilled. The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm. It is covered with sloppy

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

transparent roof. Solar radiation, after passing through the roof is absorbed by the blackened
surface of the basin and thus increases the temperature of the water. The evaporated water
increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on the cooler underside of the glass. The
condensed water slips down the slope and is collected through the condensate channel attached to
the glass. The construction is schematically shown in Fig.

Solar radiation

Saline water
Condensed
water drops

Condensate
Thermal Overflow «— Brine <«— channel
insulation discharge
—
- Distilied
water

Fig: Simple basin type solar still

The still is erected in open area with its long axis facing East-West, direction. The still can be
fed with saline water either continuously or intermittently. The supply is generally kept at twice
the rate at which the fresh water is produced, but may vary depending on the initial salinity of

input water. The output of a typical solar still in Indian climate varies from 5.31/m? day (in
summer) to 0.91/m? day (in winter).

SOLAR THERMO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

It is possible to convert solar thermal energy to mechanical energy through heat engines using

Rankine cycle, Stirling cycle or Brayton cycle. The mechanical energy thus produced may be used
for applications requiring shaft power such as water lifting, cooling (through vapour compression

method), etc. or may be converted to electrical energy using alternator. Effective conversion of

solar thermal energy to mechanical energy is associated with many limitations;

Some of them are:
1) The efficiency of collector system decreases as the collection temperature increases while the
efficiency of heat engine increases as the working fluid temperature increases.
2) The conversion efficiency is low (about 9-18%).

3) A part of thermal energy is lost during transportation of working fluid from collector to heat
engine.
4) Solar collectors are generally more expensive than engines.
S) Very large area is required to install the solar collector system.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

6) Due to intermittent nature of solar energy, storage of thermal energy is also required, which
has its own problems like degradation of storage material with time.

SOLAR THERMAL WATER PUMP:

Some features of solar energy make its utilization attractive for irrigation water pumping.

These are:
e More irrigation water is required in summer when solar energy is available most
« Intermittent pumping is tolerable and can serve the purpose
e Surplus energy can provide pumped storage in the form of a pond.
Several solar irrigation pumps have recently been tested in many countries. While in lower
range (i.e. 200 W to 5 kW) solar photo-voltaic pumps are more successful, in higher ratings (i.e.,
in range 1-200 kW) solar thermal pumps become economical and offer superior performance.

—>

Water
for
irrigation

Freon - =
liquid Irrigation well

Fig: Solar thermal water pump

A schematic diagram of a typical Rankine cycle, solar thermal water pump is shown in Fig.

Solar collector system may consist of flat plate collectors, non-focusing type (stationary)
collectors or sun tracking concentrators. Water is used as heat transport fluid, and yields its heat to
a low boiling point organic working fluid (such as Freon R113, R12, Isobutane, etc.) in a heat
exchanger. Surplus heat is stored in thermal storage to be used later when the sun is unavailable.
The high-pressure vapours of the working fluid expand in the turbine, condense in the condenser
and return in the heat exchanger (boiler). A part of irrigation pumped water is diverted through
condenser for cooling purpose.

SOLAR VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION:

A cooling system based on vapour compression principle has the advantage that the system
apart from cooling can also be used in heat pump mode. In cooling mode, the system absorbs heat
from space to be cooled and delivers it to the ambient, which is at a higher temperature, whereas,
in heat pump mode, the system absorbs heat from the ambient and delivers it to a space, which is
at a higher temperature. A solar power-based vapour compressor cooling system is shown in Fig.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

< Solar loop ——i<— Rankine loop —»«—— Refrigeration loop —»

H Com
Hot i Freon Hnany
~a water i | vapour

~
- 38|§ g |8S8 Condenser

Expansion
E8 + 'g valve
S 2 Condenser
Solar Evaporator
collectors €
:Freon
“liquid
From/to space
to be cooled

Fig: Solar vapour compression refrigeration system

Here, solar power is first converted to mechanical power in the same way as explained above.
The shaft power thus produced, drives the compressor of a conventional vapour compression

refrigerator. A suitable refrigerant vapour is compressed and then condensed to a liquid, rejecting
heat to ambient. Now the pressure is reduced by passing it through an expansion valve, where it
gets evaporated at low pressure, producing a cooling effect. Thus,, the refrigerant absorbs heat in
the evaporator, from the space to be cooled and rejects it in the condenser.

SOLAR POND ELECTRIC POWER PLANT:

Solar radiation

Organic fluid (liquid)

Cooling tower

Fig: Solar pond electric power plant

A solar pond electric power plant is shown in Fig. The solar pond serves the purpose of a
large flat plate collector as well as thermal storage. In a large area brine pond approximately 1 m
deep, vertical gradient of salt concentration is maintained such that most concentrated and dense
solutions are at the bottom. Solar radiation penetrates through water up to the blackened bottom,
where it gets absorbed and increases the temperature near bottom. In spite of the temperature rise
of the bottom layers of the brine, its specific gravity re-mains higher than that at the top because of

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering. -

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

concentration gradient and thus, convection mixing is minimized. The bottom layers of the brine
reach 70-80 °C, while the top remains at 25 °C. The hot brine from the bottom is slowly
withdrawn in a laminar flow pattern from the pond and used to evaporate an organic working fluid
in a heat exchanger and returned to the pond. The organic working fluid produces mechanical
power in a Rankine cycle, which in turn generates electrical power using alternator.

CENTRAL TOWER RECEIVER POWER PLANT:

This power plant uses central tower receiver to collect solar radiation from a large arca on the

ground. The receiver mounted at the top of the tower, converts water into high pressure steam at
around 500 °C. This high-pressure steam is expanded in a turbine coupled with an alternator. The
electric power produced is fed to a grid. Thermal buffer storage is provided to continue operating

the plant for some time during cloud cover and a bypass is used for starting and shut down
operations. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig.

Solar radiation

Heliostat

Steam

Condensate Cooling tower

Fig: Central tower receiver power plant

SOLAR CHIMNEY POWER PLANT:

Solar chimney is much simpler but works with much lower efficiency as compared to central
tower receiver power plant. The circular field of heliostats is replaced by a circular area of land
covered with glazing. The central receiver tower is replaced by a tall chimney that houses a wind
turbine. The air under the glazing is heated by solar energy and drawn up through the chimney
driving the turbine coupled with a generator.

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES NCES

Warm Air

Chimney

Air Turbine
Solar Radiations

Transparent
Cover

Le
Electric Generator

Fig: Solar Chimney Power Plant

Dr. SHANKARA MURTHY HM Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering.