CT Scan

• known as computed tomography scan, makes

use of computer-processed combinations of
many X-ray measurements taken from
different angles to produce cross-sectional
(tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of
specific areas of a scanned object, allowing
the user to see inside the object without
cutting.
• A computerized tomography scan (CT or CAT
scan) uses computers and rotating X-ray
machines to create cross-sectional images of
the body.
• These images provide more detailed
information than normal X-ray images.
• They can show the soft tissues, blood vessels,
and bones in various parts of the body.
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 Can visualise
• head
• shoulders
• spine
• heart
• abdomen
• knee
• chest
• During a CT scan, you lie in a tunnel-like
machine while the inside of the machine
rotates and takes a series of X-rays from
different angles.
• These pictures are then sent to a computer,
where they’re combined to create images of
slices, or cross-sections, of the body.
• They may also be combined to produce a 3-D
image of a particular area of the body.
Block Diagram
 Why CT scan?
• A CT scan has many uses, but it’s particularly
well-suited for diagnosing diseases and
evaluating injuries.
• The imaging technique can help your doctor:
– diagnose infections, muscle disorders, and bone
fractures.
– pinpoint the location of masses and tumors
(including cancer).
– study the blood vessels and other internal
structures.
 Working
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X-ray CT scan
 Advantages of CT scan
• To overcome superimposition of structures.
• To improve contrast of the image.
• To measure small differences in tissue
contrast.
• assess the extent of internal injuries and
internal bleeding.
• guide procedures, such as surgeries and
biopsies.
• monitor the effectiveness of treatments for
certain medical conditions, including cancer
and heart disease.
• The test is minimally invasive and can be
conducted quickly.
 How Is a CT Scan Performed?
• Patient is given a special dye called a contrast
material to help internal structures show up
more clearly on the X-ray images.
• The contrast material blocks X-rays and
appears white on the images, allowing it to
highlight the intestines, blood vessels, or
other structures in the area being examined.
• Depending on the part of your body that’s
being inspected, you may need to drink a
liquid containing the contrast.
• Alternatively, the contrast may need to be
injected into your arm or administered
through your rectum via an enema.
• If your doctor plans on using a contrast
material, they may ask you to fast for four to
six hours before your CT scan.
• Patient should not possess any metals on his
body.
• After he lies on the table, Doctor leaves to the
control room.
• While the table slowly moves you into the
scanner, the X-ray machine will rotate around
you.
• Each rotation produces numerous images of
thin slices of your body.
• You may hear clicking, buzzing, and whirring
noises during the scan.
• The table will move a few millimeters at a time
until the exam is finished.
• The entire procedure may take anywhere from
20 minutes to one hour.
• Any movement can result in blurry pictures.
• Patient should hold breath for a short period
during the test to prevent your chest from
moving up and down.
• If a young child needs a CT scan, the doctor
may recommend a sedative to keep the child
from moving.
• Once the CT scan is over, the images are sent
to a radiologist for examination.
• A radiologist is a doctor who specializes in
diagnosing and treating conditions using
imaging techniques, such as CT scans and X-
rays.
Brain
small intestine mass in the middle
abdomen
Abnormalities in soft tissues
 Risks
• Though CT scans expose you to more radiation
than typical X-rays, the risk of cancer caused
by radiation is very small if you only have one
scan.
• Your risk for cancer may increase over time if
you have multiple X-rays or CT scans.
• The risk of cancer is increased in children
receiving CT scans, especially to the chest and
abdomen.
• Some people have an allergic reaction to the
contrast material.
• Most contrast material contains iodine, so if
you’ve had an adverse reaction to iodine in
the past, make sure to notify your doctor.
• Your doctor may give you allergy medication
or steroids to counteract any potential side
effects if you’re allergic to iodine but must be
given contrast.
• It’s also important to tell your doctor if you’re
pregnant.
• Though the radiation from a CT scan is unlikely
to harm your baby, your doctor may
recommend another exam, such as an
ultrasound or MRI scan, to minimize risk.
 CT image reconstruction
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• The term “computed tomography”, or CT,
refers to a computerized x-ray imaging
procedure in which a narrow beam of x-rays is
aimed at a patient and quickly rotated around
the body, producing signals that are processed
by the machine’s computer to generate cross-
sectional images—or “slices”—of the body.
• These slices are called tomographic images
and contain more detailed information than
conventional x-rays.
• Once a number of successive slices are
collected by the machine’s computer, they can
be digitally “stacked” together to form a
three-dimensional image of the patient that
allows for easier identification and location of
basic structures as well as possible tumors or
abnormalities.
• Unlike a conventional x-ray—which uses a
fixed x-ray tube—a CT scanner uses a
motorized x-ray source that rotates around
the circular opening of a donut-shaped
structure called a gantry.
• During a CT scan, the patient lies on a bed that
slowly moves through the gantry while the x-
ray tube rotates around the patient, shooting
narrow beams of x-rays through the body.
• Instead of film, CT scanners use special digital
x-ray detectors, which are located directly
opposite the x-ray source.
• As the x-rays leave the patient, they are picked
up by the detectors and transmitted to a
computer.
• Each time the x-ray source completes one full
rotation, the CT computer uses sophisticated
mathematical techniques to construct a 2D
image slice of the patient.
• The thickness of the tissue represented in
each image slice can vary depending on the CT
machine used, but usually ranges from 1-10
millimeters.
• When a full slice is completed, the image is
stored and the motorized bed is moved
forward incrementally into the gantry.
• The x-ray scanning process is then repeated to
produce another image slice.
• This process continues until the desired
number of slices is collected.
• Image slices can either be displayed
individually or stacked together by the
computer to generate a 3D image of the
patient that shows the skeleton, organs, and
tissues as well as any abnormalities the
physician is trying to identify.
• This method has many advantages including
the ability to rotate the 3D image in space or
to view slices in succession, making it easier to
find the exact place where a problem may be
located.
 Algorithms for image reconstruction
• Kernels
• Windowing
• Hounsfield UNIT
• Iterative reconstruction
• Filtered back projection
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• Magnetic resonance imaging or MRI scanning

uses magnetism, radio waves, and a computer
to produce images of body structures.
• MRI scanning is painless and does not involve
x-ray radiation.
• Patients with heart pacemakers, metal
implants, or metal chips or clips in or around
the eyes cannot be scanned with MRI because
of the effect of the magnet.
• Claustrophobic sensation can occur with MRI
scanning.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also
known as nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging, is a scanning technique for creating
detailed images of the human body.
• MRI is also used to examine internal body
structures and diagnose a variety of disorders,
such as strokes, tumors, aneurysms, spinal
cord injuries, multiple sclerosis and eye or
inner ear problems.
• It is also widely used in research to measure
brain structure and function, among other
things.
• The scan uses a strong magnetic field and
radio waves to generate images of parts of the
body that can't be seen as well with X-rays, CT
scans or ultrasound.
• For example, it can help doctors to see inside
joints, cartilage, ligaments, muscles and
tendons, which makes it helpful for detecting
various sports injuries.
CT
MRI
• During an MRI, a person will be asked to lie on
a movable table that will slide into a
doughnut-shaped opening of the machine to
scan a specific portion of your body.
• The machine itself will generate a strong
magnetic field around the person and radio
waves will be directed at the body.
• A person will not feel the magnetic field or
radio waves, so the procedure itself is
painless.
• However, there may be a lot of loud thumping
or tapping noises during the scan (it may
sound like a sledgehammer!), so people are
often given headphones to listen to music or
earplugs to help block the sound.
•
 CT vs MRI
• A CT Scan (or CAT Scan) is best suited for
viewing bone injuries, diagnosing lung and
chest problems, and detecting cancers.
• An MRI is suited for examining soft tissue in
ligament and tendon injuries, spinal cord
injuries, brain tumors, etc.

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• CT scans are widely used in emergency rooms
because the scan takes fewer than 5 minutes.
• An MRI, on the other hand, can take up to 30
minutes.
• An MRI typically costs more than a CT scan.
One advantage of an MRI is that it does not
use radiation while CAT scans do.
• This radiation is harmful if there is repeated
exposure.
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Block diagram of MRI scan
 How MRI works?
• Using a very powerful magnet and
pulsing radio waves, the detection coils in
the MRI scanner read the energy produced by
water molecules as they realign themselves
after each RF alignment pulse.
• The collected data is reconstructed into a two-
dimensional illustration through any axis of
the body.
• Bones are virtually void of water and therefore
do not generate any image data.
• This leaves a black area in the images. MRI
scanners are best suited for imaging soft
tissue.

• How MRI works

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• The human body is mostly water.
• Water molecules (H2O) contain hydrogen
nuclei (protons), which become aligned in a
magnetic field.
• An MRI scanner applies a very strong
magnetic field (about 0.2 to 3 teslas, or
roughly a thousand times the strength of a
typical fridge magnet), which aligns the proton
"spins."
• The scanner also produces a radio frequency
current that creates a varying magnetic field.
• The protons absorb the energy from the
magnetic field and flip their spins.
• When the field is turned off, the protons
gradually return to their normal spin, a
process called precession.
• The return process produces a radio signal
that can be measured by receivers in the
scanner and made into an image.
• Protons in different body tissues return to their
normal spins at different rates, so the scanner
can distinguish among various types of tissue.
• The scanner settings can be adjusted to produce
contrasts between different body tissues.
• Additional magnetic fields are used to produce 3-
dimensional images that may be viewed from
different angles.
• There are many forms of MRI, but diffusion MRI
and functional MRI (fMRI) are two of the most
common.
 Diffusion MRI
• This form of MRI measures how water
molecules diffuse through body tissues.
• Certain disease processes — such as a stroke
or tumor — can restrict this diffusion, so this
method is often used to diagnose them.
• Diffusion MRI has only been around for about
15 to 20 years, he added.
 Functional MRI
• In addition to structural imaging, MRI can also be
used to visualize functional activity in the brain.
• Functional MRI, or fMRI, measures changes in
blood flow to different parts of the brain.
• It is used to observe brain structures and to
determine which parts of the brain are handling
critical functions.
• Functional MRI may also be used to evaluate
damage from a head injury or Alzheimer's
disease.
• fMRI has been especially useful in neuroscience.
 Safety
• the procedure can have risks, and medical
societies don't recommend using MRI as the
first stage of diagnosis.
• Because MRI uses strong magnets, any kind of
metal implant, such as a pacemaker, artificial
joints, artificial heart valves, cochlear implants
or metal plates, screws or rods, pose a hazard.
• The implant can move or heat up in the
magnetic field.
• Several patients with pacemakers who
underwent MRI scans have died, patients
should always be asked about any implants
before getting scanned.
• The constant flipping of magnetic fields can
produce loud clicking or beeping noises, so ear
protection is necessary during the scan.
 Advantages of MRI over CT
• A CAT scan uses X rays to build up a picture.
• MRI uses a magnetic field to do the same and
has no known side effects related to radiation
exposure.
• MRI gives higher detail in soft tissues.
• One of the greatest advantages of MRI is the
ability to change the contrast of the images.
• Small changes in radio waves and magnetic
fields can completely change the contrast of
the image.
• Different contrast settings will highlight
different types of tissue.
• Another advantage of MRI is the ability to
change the imaging plane without moving the
patient. Most MRI machines can produce
images in any plane.
• Contrast agents are also used in MRI but they
are not made of iodine.
• There are fewer documented cases of
reactions to MRI contrast and it is considered
to be safer than X-ray dyes.
• For purposes of tumor detection and
identification, MRI is generally superior.
• However, CT usually is more widely available,
faster, much less expensive, and may be less
likely to require the person to be sedated or
anesthetized.
• CT may be enhanced by use of contrast agents
containing elements of a higher atomic
number (iodine, barium) than the surrounding
flesh. Contrast agents for MRI are those which
have paramagnetic properties.
• One example is gadolinium.
• Iodine use may be associated with allergic
reactions.
 CT over MRI
• CT is very good for imaging bone structures.
• Some patients who have received certain
types of surgical clips, metallic fragments,
cardiac monitors or pacemakers cannot
receive an MRI.
• The time taken for total testing is shorter than
taken by MRI.
• MRI cannot be done on patients who are
claustrophobic as the patient has to remain
inside the noisy machine for about 20-45
minutes.
• CT scan is cheaper than an MRI.
• An MRI scan can be used as an extremely
accurate method of disease detection
throughout the body and is most often used
after the other testing fails to provide
sufficient information to confirm a patient's
diagnosis.
• In the head, trauma to the brain can be seen
as bleeding or swelling.
• Other abnormalities often found include brain
aneurysms, stroke, tumors of the brain, as
well as tumors or inflammation of the spine.
• Neurosurgeons use an MRI scan not only in
defining brain anatomy, but also in evaluating
the integrity of the spinal cord after trauma.
• It is also used when considering problems
associated with the vertebrae or
intervertebral discs of the spine.
• An MRI scan can evaluate the structure of the
heart and aorta, where it can detect
aneurysms or tears.
• MRI scans are not the first line of imaging test
for these issues or in cases of trauma.
• It provides valuable information on glands and
organs within the abdomen, and accurate
information about the structure of the joints,
soft tissues, and bones of the body.
• Often, surgery can be deferred or more
accurately directed after knowing the results
of an MRI scan.
• MRI scan is a diagnostic tool that aids in
diagnosis of diseases and conditions such as
fractures, stroke, brain tumors, spinal injuries,
and soft tissue injuries.
• Patients with artificial heart valves, metallic
ear implants, bullet fragments,
and chemotherapy or insulin pumps should
not have MRI scanning.
 Biotelemetry Systems
• Biotelemetry is the measurement of biological
parameters over a distance.
– Heart beats
– Blood pressure
– Blood flow
– Body temperature
– Sugar content of blood
– Respiration
– Amount of blood
– Blood types
– Patient conditions
 Applications
• RF transmission for monitoring astronauts in
space.
• Patient monitoring where freedom of
movement is desired. (Exercise RCG)
• Patient monitoring in ambulance.
• Collection of medical data from home or
office.
• Monitoring animals in their natural habitat.
• Use of telephonic links for transmission of ECG
or other medical data.
• Special internal techniques such as tracing
acidity or pressure through gastrointestinal
tract.
• These methods indicate the need for systems
that can adapt existing methods of measuring
physiological variables to a method of
transmission of resulting data.
• Other names are biotelemetry or biomedical
telemetry.
• The means of transmitting the data from the
point of generation to the point of reception
can take many forms.
• Simplest application of the principle of
biotelemetry is stethoscope.
• Here the heart beats are amplified acoustically
and transmitted through a hollow tube system
to be picked up by the ear of the physician for
interpretation.
Microphone inside stethoscope
 Components of biotelemetry system
• Amplifier
• Oscillator
• Power supply
• ADC
• DAC
• Transducer
• Processor
 Working
• Biotelemetry can be applied to measure ECG,
EMG and EEG and physiological variables that
require transducers eg blood pressure, blood flow
and temperatures.

• The signal is obtained directly in electrical form in

bioelectrical measurements require external
excitation for the conversion of physiological
variables into variations of resistance, induction
or capacitance.
• The variations can be calibrated to display
pressure, flow and temperature.

• In biotelemetry, the measurements as analog

signals (voltage or current) in suitable form are
transmitted which are received and decoded as
actual measurements at the receiving end.
• ECG telemetry is the transmission of ECG, form
site of an emergency to a hospital where a doctor
can interpret, the ECG and instruct suitable
treatment for the patient.
• Patients with heart problem can wear ECG
telemetry unit on the job which relays ECG
data to the hospital for checking.
• ECG telemetry unit is also used for monitoring
when an athlete runs a race to improve his
performance.
• Telemetry is also used for transmission of EEG.
• It is generally used for mentally disturbed
children.
• The child wears specially designed the met
known as football helmet or superman’s
element which has built in electrodes so that
his EEG a can be motored for any traumatic
difficulty during play.
• Biotelemetry is also used for electromyogram
(EMG) for studies of muscle damage or partial
paralysis problem.
• Biotelemetry is commonly used in blood
pressure, blood flow and heart rate research
on unanesthetized animals.
• A biotelemetry system consists of transmitter
and receiver.
• Physiological signals are obtained by suitable
transducer which are amplified and subjected
to modulate the carrier waves for
transmission.
• The receiver receives the transmission and
demodulates to separate the signal from the
carrier waves to display or record the signal
 GSR

Galvanic Skin Response

• Our skin gives away a lot of information on
how we feel when we’re exposed to
emotionally loaded images, videos, events, or
other kinds of stimuli – both positive (“aww,
how cute”!) and negative (“yikes!”).
• No matter whether we are stressed, nervous,
fearful, psyched up, stoked, baffled, or
surprised – whenever we are emotionally
aroused, the electrical conductivity of our skin
subtly changes.
• One of the most sensitive measures for
emotional arousal is Galvanic Skin Response
(GSR), also referred to as Electrodermal
Activity (EDA) or Skin Conductance (SC).
• Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) is an older term
that refers to the recorded electrical
resistance between two electrodes when a
very weak current is steadily passed between
them.
• It is measured by connecting the electrodes to
a voltage amplifier.
• This voltage also varies with the emotional
state of the subject.
• Different GSR sensors allow different means of
transmission, and the choice of each will
depend on the kind of research you're
carrying out.
• Skin conductance is captured using skin
electrodes which are easy to apply.
• Data is acquired with sampling rates between
1 – 10 Hz and is measured in units of micro-
Siemens (μS).
• One of the most sensitive measures for
emotional arousal is Galvanic Skin Response
(GSR), also referred to as Electrodermal
Activity (EDA) or Skin Conductance
Arduino stress detector