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Mathematics Special B Relations Notes

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12 views7 pages

Relations

Mathematics Special B Relations Notes

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booitym06
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4 RELATIONS Consider the set A = {1;2;3:4;5} Now if we work with the relation < Is 2 <1 true? No and we write 2 £1 Is 4 <5 true? Yes and we can leave it as 4 <5, ‘Thus we get cases where the statement « 4. ‘Then 1P2 is false for 1+ 2=3 % 4 thus we write 1P2 2P3 is true for 2+3 = 5 > 4 thus we write 2P3. ‘Thus we use the notation that if Ris any relation between two elements a and b from a set then we write Rb if the statement is true and aRb if not true. Consider now some more examples of relations on different sets, 1 set Z; Ry defined aR e>a—b>2 2 set Z; Rp defined aRyb <> a= 2 ‘Then: 28,0 (for 2-0 = 24 2) wr 072) BR2 352) 2R,5 -32) 0R20 (for 0=2.0) 4R22 (for 4=2(2)) yt (Gor 24 2(4) Now certain properties of relations play an important roe. Definition 20 (reflerive): A relation R on set S is said to be reflerive if'Va € $,aRa. Remark 38 When is something not reflexive? “(Va € $,aRa) = 3a € s,aRa Thus R is not reflezive if you can find an element in the set which is not related to itself under R. Ezample 16 A=(1;2;3;4} R defined: aRbeva=b Then R reflexive for any a € A a=a and hence aRa holds for alla € A. Brample 17 B={1;2)34) P, defined: aPsboatb>1 aPyb atb>2 Then P, is reflerive for aPya true for alla € B. But Py not relezive for UPa1 as 1+1 42 Beample 18 Zp defined by apb <> ab divisible by 5 eked a- (Note: divisible by 5 and the equivalent 3k EZ 3 5k) Is p reflexive or not? We must either prove/show apa Va € Z or give a counter example (je an ‘example to show not true) but let @€ % then a—a=0=5-(0) thus opa and as a was an arbitrary we have Va € Z , ape. ‘Thus p reflexive qr Example 19 Z +defined by: asbeab>1 Is reflerive? No for consider 0.€ Z but 0-0=0 7 1 thus 096 Definition 21 (symmetric): A relation Ron set A is said fo be symmetric if aRb => bRa Remark 39 note the above means that for all aRb true; then so must bRa be true. Thus not symmetric ‘means 2aRb true but bRa not true (ie. 3aRb with ba). Example 20 A=({1;2;3;4} Ry defined akyb < a+b >2 Re defined aFgb 2 Ry is symmetric for if aRyb then a+b > 2 but then b+a>2 and hence bRa must also hold. Ro not symmetric for 4Ryl (as 4—1=3>2 but1KA (1-4 =-3 42) Remark 40 note for symmetric we don't have to have aRb true Va,b € A. In the above example 11 (ie. not reflerive) but Ry is symmetric. Example 21 Zp defined aph < a—b divisible by 5 p symmetric for: let apb then 3kEZ 3 a—b= 5k but then b—a = —(a—b) = 5(-K) thus b—a divisible by 5 and bpa true. Example 22.N — P defined aPb< $>1 Not symmetric. Counter example: 4P2 but 24 Is P reflexive? No! (can you think of a counter ecample?) Definition 22 (transitive): A relations R on set A is transitive if aRb,bRe + aRe. Remark 41 R not transitive? If you can find aRb,bRe but for which afte Example 23 A= (1;2;3:4;5} py defined ap.) a+b>3 pa defined apyb a= py not transitive for: 1p,3;3p,2 but 1g42 (note there are other counter examples) a transitive: let apgb and bpae then apab=a=6 boge=> b= but then a c= a=c and apye follows Example 24 Z — R-defined aRb < a ~b divisable by 5. R transitive for: let aRb and bRe. thus aRb = 3k €Z, a—b= 5k, bRe = hy EZ, b—c= bk, then a-c =(a-8)+(b-0) = Bk + 5kp ac =5{ki +h) ake Now certain relations have all three of the before mentioned properties (viz, reflexive; symmetric; tran- sitive) and play an important role in mathematics. We thus define. Definition 23 (equivalence relation): A relation R on set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive 18 Remark 42 When is a relation not an equivalence relation? Answer: when any one of the three properties reflevive, symmetric or transitive fails. Remark 43° Can you find an example of an equivalence relation? From the previous examples two such relations can be found. (1) R defined aRb + a=b (2) R defined on Z aRb <2 a—b divisible by 5. ‘We now consider an example of an equivalence relation on a set which is itself an ordered pair. Example 25 Let A=Z x (2 — {0}) Define p on A by (2;y)p(a;b) + 2b = ya ‘Show that p is (i) reflective (ii). symmetric (iii) transitive Solution 9 (i) reflective: Need show («su)plaiu) — W(aiy) € A=2 x (@—{0}) let (x;y) A then 2y=yx — (Z commutative.) thus: (2;y)e(ziu) (ii) symmetric: Need show (2; y)p(as) = (a:8}o(2iv) but if (2; y)p(a;b) — 2b = ya = ay = be > (D(a) (4) transitive Need show (2;y)o(a:8);(a:8)p(wsn) > (au)o(wir) thus we need show zr = yuo from given but (2,y)o(a,b) = 2b=y on (a) (a,8)p(w,r) = ar = bw ) but from (1) zb=ya>z=%2 (Note be Z— {0} hence can +) bwa=%8 (Noter €Z—{0}) thus (x;y)p(wir) the needed result ‘We now investigate the equivalence relation further and see how it results in partitioning of the set it is dofined on Definition 24 (equivalence class): Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A The equivalence class of a € A is defined as follows a={e: re Aa~a} Ezample 26 Consider R. defined on Z by aRb xb = ya. {(a;8) : (cn) p(as8)} {(a;8) : 26 = ya} = {(a%):a6Z; 4 © Z— {0}} a€Z,3 €Z— {0} } but we need $ to be integer ae Z—{0}} 2) 5 (—2 1) 5 (251) (452) 5 (6 3)..} Solution 10 fu) We now return to the theory of equivalence classes. ‘Theorem 11 Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A\ a~bed= oe Proof. = (we must show@ CB anda) ket rea ane (defo) but a~b (given) thus b~a (~ symmetric) but braan~zsb~2 (~ transitive) zed (def) thus TCD Similarly B.C @ (do yourself as exercise) Thus @ © aeTasa~a ~ reflexive . (def) (~ symmetric) ‘Theorem 12 Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A a¢bsanb=0 Proof. Recall the method to show a set is empty is the indirect method thus: assume ab 4 0 then 32 CNB thena~xib~ a butawz-a~a — (~ symmetric) but then b~ 2,2~a-b~a_—(~ transitive) . but then by previous theorem b=7: a contradiction to #5 (given) thus assumption incorrect and theorem jollows So we know if ~ is an equivalence relation, then the equivalence classes are either equal or disjoint, furthermore a € @ Thus we get that the equivalence classes of A form a partition for A (recall the definition of a partition of A) ‘We end off this section on relations by looking at. an equivalence relation which has already been inves tigated, but generalizing it. Recall on Z: R defined ab > a —b di generalize 5 to any positive integer value m. ble by 5 was shown to be an equivalence relation. We now Definition 25 (divisible): Let a;d €Z. We saya is divisible by d (and denote dla) if and only if there exists an integer k so that a= kd. (ie. dla + 4k € Z,a = hd) Definition 26 (modulo): Let m €N be fired, Let a,b€ Z. Then a is congruent to b mod m if and only if a—b is divisible by m. Remark 45 We denote: a is congruent to b mod m by a= binodm. thus a=bmodm +mla—b 23k Z,a—b=km Example 28 12=8mod2 for2\12~8 124 Tmod2 for2}12—7 Example 29 Find x33 3 amod7 amod7 @7|3-2 e3keZ, 3—2ak7 era3—KT kez 0 € (51; 853510; 17,245} Remark 46 Look for a pattern in the above set values of x. ‘Theorem 13° Let m EN fixed. Let R be defined in Z by: aRb<3a=b mod m Then R is an equivalence relation on Z a Proof. (i) Reflexive Let a€Z then (why: give reason) (ii) Symmetric Let aRb Thus a = bmodm => keZ>a—b=km but b—a= ~(a—6) =(-k)m b=amodm — (why: explain) bRa (ii) Transitive Let aRb; bRe then Shs 5 Sha 3 then a—e Note that modulo n will prove useful when we end the module with an very brief introduction to cryp- tography, 2 4.1 Exercise: Relations 1, Determine whether the following are true or false: Z — aRbesa+2b>3 (a) 2R2 (b) 2R1 - (©) -1R10 (4) R-1 (©) Ris reflexive (f) Ris symmetric (2) Ris transitive 2. Prove or give counter example to the following statements concerning N with R defined on N by OR @ 3k € Za—b= 2k (a) Ris an equivalence relation (b) 2 (©) Tn 3. Define R on N by ab 3k € Z,a = 10 (a) Prove R an equivalence relation on N. (b) Determine T and T70. 4, Let A=2 x Z and define P on A by (2;y)P(a;b) < 2+ =yta (a) Prove P an equivalence relation on A. (b) Determine (&—3). 5. Let ~ be an equivalence relation on A and a~b. Prove Ba. 6. Given: ald; dle. Prove ale. 7. Given: a|b ale, Prove: (@) alo+e) 7 (b) alte 8. Find the sunallest positive value of 2 satisfying # = 17 mod3, 9. Let amodm, Prove 2? =a?modm. 10. Find all the distinct equivalence classes for congruence modulo 4. To which of these classes found will 17 belong?

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