OO Paradigm and UML

Object Oriented Programming

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Version 2.4.2
© Maurizio Morisio, Marco Torchiano, 2020

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 From procedural to object oriented programming paradigm

OBJECT ORIENTED PARADIGM

Programming paradigms
§ Procedural (Pascal, C,…)
§ Object-Oriented (C++, Java, C#,…)
§ Functional (LISP, Haskell, SQL,…)
§ Logic (Prolog)

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 Languages timeline

Global Structured prog Modules/ADT

variables Types Concurrency
Data Blocks Exceptions
structures
1st gen 2nd gen 3rd gen
Procedural HLL HLL HLL
FORTRAN ALGOL68 ADA
languages COBOL PASCAL MODULA2
ALGOL60 C

‘60 ‘70 ‘80 ‘90 ‘00

Object-oriented C++ Python
C#
SIMULA67 SMALLTALK EIFFEL JAVA
languages
ADA9X

Example - Receipt
§ Cash registers emit purchase receipts
§ A receipt is made up of items
§ Every item correspond to a product that
has a name and a price
§ Products’ info is stored in a price list
§ Any time a new product code is entered
the corresponding item is added to the
receipt
§ After the last item is entered, a list of the
items (with product name and price) are
printed together with the total sum.

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 Example: Shop Receipt
§ Input:
w 13
w 57
w 123
w 0 (end of receipt)
§ Output
Receipt:
ID13 : 16.62
ID57 : 9.73
ID123 : 0.06
------
Number of items: 3
Total: 26.41

Procedural (C)
float prices[MAX_LIST];
char* names[MAX_LIST];
int receipt[MAX_RCPT];
int n_items;
void add(int) {/* add item to receipt */ }
void print(){ /* print receipt */ }
void init() { /* initialize */ }
int read() { /* read item code */
int main(){
init();
int code;
while( (code = read()) ){ add(code); }
print();
}
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 Modules and relationships
Modules: Relationships
Data Call
Function (Procedure) Read/write

main()

read() add() print() init()

prices

names
receipt n_items

Problems
§ No syntactic relationship between:
w Arrays ( receipt, prices, names)
w Relative operations (add, print, init)
§ Lack of link between coupled arrays
(prices, names)
§ No control over size:
for (i=0; i<=20; i++){ prices[i]=0; }
§ No guarantee on initialization
w Actually performed?

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 Objects - Encapsulation
§ Bring together code and data
w E.g. add() + receipt + n_items

Interface
main()

Receipt
read() add() print() init()

prices

names
receipt n_items

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Objects – Information Hiding

§ Hide object information from external
modules
w The only way to access data within an
object is through its interface

foo()
main()

Receipt
✕
read() add() print() init()

prices

names
receipt n_items

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 Objects
§ Tie related data elements
w E.g. prices + names

Interface
main()

Receipt
read() add() print() init()

prices PriceList

names
receipt n_items

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Objects
§ Represent semantically consistent
elements that map to problem-
domain concepts
w E.g., items and products

main()
Products
Receipt
read() add() print() init()

prices PriceList

Items names
receipt n_items

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 Classes
§ Represent high level concepts
w Often taken from problem domain
§ Are instantiated into Objects
w Define common features of Objects
§ Are related to each other
w Define links and communication patterns
among their instances
§ Can be defined by specialization
w Specific classes inherit from general ones

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Classes

Is related to a
Receipt PriceList

Contains several Contains several

Item
Product
Refers to a

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 Object-Oriented approach
§ Defines a new component type
w Object (and class)
w Both data and functions accessing it are
within the same module
w Allows defining a more precise interface
§ Defines a new kind of relationship
w Message passing
w Read/write operations are limited to the
same object scope

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Why OO?
§ Programs are getting too large to be fully
comprehensible by any person
§ There is a need for a way of managing
very-large projects
§ Object Oriented paradigm allows:
w programmers to (re)use large blocks of code
w without knowing all the picture
§ OO makes code reuse a real possibility
§ OO simplifies maintenance and evolution

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 An engineering approach
§ Given a system, with components and
relationships among them, we have to:
w Identify the components
w Define component interfaces
w Define how components interact with each
other through their interfaces
w Minimize relationships among components

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Procedural vs. OO

Procedural
Subprogram
#1 Main Subprogram
Program #2

Data Subprogram
#3 Subprogram
#4

Subprogram
#5

Object #1

Object Oriented Data

Object #2
Main
Program
Data

Object #3

Data

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 Interface
§ Set of messages an object can receive
w Each message is mapped to an internal
“function” within the object
w The object is responsible for the
association (message à function)
w Any other message is illegal
§ The interface
w Encapsulates the internals
w Exposes a standard boundary

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Interface
§ The interface of an object is simply the
subset of methods that other
“program parts” are allowed to call
w Stable
Interface
Object
method
Other
Rest of method
the method Fields of
parts
Program
method The Object
method
method method

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 Encapsulation
§ Simplified access
w To use an object, the user need only
comprehend the interface. No knowledge
of the internals are necessary
§ Self-contained.
w Once the interface is defined, the
programmer can implement the interface
(write the object) without interference of
others

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Encapsulation
§ Ease of evolution
w Implementation can change at a later
time without rewriting any other part of
the program (as long as the interface
doesn't change)
§ Single point of change
w Any change in the data structure means
modifying the code in one location, rather
than code scattered around the program
(error prone)

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 Classification of OO languages
§ Object-Based (Ada)
w Specific constructs to manage objects
§ Class-Based (CLU)
w + each object belongs to a class
§ Object-Oriented (Simula, Python)
w + classes support inheritance
§ Strongly-Typed O-O (C++, Java)
w + the language is strongly typed

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The Object-Oriented Paradigm

UML AND MODELING

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 UML
§ Unified Modeling Language
§ Standardized modeling and
specification language
§ Defined by the Object Management Group (OMG)
§ Graphical notation to specify, visualize,
construct and document an object-oriented
system
§ Integrates the concepts of Booch, OMT and
OOSE, and merges them into a single,
common and widely used modeling
language

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UML
§ Several diagrams
w Class diagrams
w Activity diagrams
w Use Case diagrams
w Sequence diagrams
w Statecharts

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 UML Class Diagram
§ Captures
w Main (abstract) concepts
w Characteristics of the concepts
– Data associated to the concepts
w Relationships between concepts
w Behavior of classes

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Abstraction levels
Concept
Entity
Abstract Class
Category
Type
Instance
Item
Concrete Object
Example
Occurrence
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 Class
§ Represents a set of objects
w Common properties
w Autonomous existence.
w E.g. facts, things, people
§ An instance of a class is an object of
the type that the class represents.
w In an application for a commercial
organization CITY, DEPARTMENT,
EMPLOYEE, PURCHASE and SALE are
typical classes.

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Class - Examples
Class Diagram0
pkg

Employee City

Sale Department

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 Object
§ Model of a physical or logical item
w ex.: a student, an exam, a window
§ Characterized by
w identity
w attributes (or data or properties or status)
w operations it can perform (behavior)
w messages it can receive

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Communication Diagram1 201
sd Communication Diagram1

Object

DAUIN : Department

John : Employee

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 Class and Object
§ Class (the description of object
structure, i.e. type):
w Data (ATTRIBUTES or FIELDS)
w Functions (METHODS or OPERATIONS)
w Creation methods (CONSTRUCTORS)
§ Object (class instance)
w State and identity

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Class and object

§ A class is a type definition
w Typically no memory is allocated until an object
is created from the class
§ The creation of an object is called
instantiation. The created object is often
called an instance
§ There is no limit to the number of objects
that can be created from a class
§ Each object is independent. Interacting with
one object doesn't affect the others

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Class Diagram0 2013/10/03 powered by Astah
pkg
Communication Diagram1
sd Communication Diagram1

Classes and objects

Employee City

Sale Department

DAUIN : Department

John : Employee

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Attribute
§ Elementary property of classes
w Name
w Type
§ An attribute associates to each object
(occurrence of a class) a value of the
corresponding type
w Name: String
w ID: Numeric
w Salary: Currency

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 Attribute – Example
4a-Attributes

pkg
2017/03/09 powered by Astah

Course
- Code : String
- Year : int

Employee
- Salary : Currency City
- Name : String
- Inhabitants : int

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Method
§ Describes an operation that can be
performed on an object
w Name
w Parameters
§ Similar to functions in procedural
languages
§ It represent the means to operate on
or access to the attributes

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 Method - Example
Class Diagram0
pkg

Employee
- ID : int
- name : String
- salary : double
+ printName() : void
+ getSalary() : double

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Message passing
§ Objects communicate by message
passing
w Not by direct access to object’s local data
§ A message is a service request

Note: this is an abstract view that is

independent from specific
programming languages.

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 Messages
Communication Diagram0
sd Communication Diagram0
2014

1: printName()()

DAUIN : Department John : Employee

2: printName() Jane : Employee

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Association
§ Represents a logical link between two
classes.
§ An occurrence of an association is a
pair made up of the occurrences of the
entities, one for each involved class
w Residence is an association between the
classes City and Employee;
w Exam is an association between the
classes Student and Course.

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 Associations
Class Association Class
Student between classes Course

Link
between objects

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Association - Examples
2-Associations

Student Course
Attend

Works_in

Employee City
Residence

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3.a-Recursive associations 2013/1

Recursive association-Samples
pkg

Friend

Student

Supervise

- manager

Employee
- employee

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Link
§ Model of association between objects

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 Multiplicity
§ Describes the maximum and minimum
number of links in which a class
occurrence can participate
w Undefined maximum expressed as *
§ Should be specified for each class
participating in an association

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Multiplicity - Example

0..4
Max
Min

A car can mount none,

up to four wheels

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 Multiplicity - Example

0..1

A wheel can be mounted

on none or at most one car

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Multiplicity
§ Typically, only three values are used:
0, 1 and the symbol * (many)
§ Minimum: 0 or 1
w 0 means the participation is optional,
w 1 means the participation is mandatory;
§ Maximum: 1 or *
w 1: object is involved in at most one link
w *: each object is involved in many links

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 Multiplicity
3-Multiplicity

Order Invoice
Sale
1 0..1

Person City
Residence
0..* 1

Tourist Trip
Reservation
1..* 0..*

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Operational interpretation
SID Name Surname Birthdate CID Title CFU
S2345 John Smith 1990-4-12 C001 Information Systems 8
S12344a-Association+Attributes
Jane Brown 1991-7-11 C002 Advanced Programming 10
2018/10/02 powered by Astah
S5678 pkg
Mario Rossi 1991-11-5 C003 Calculus 10

Student
Course
- SID : String
- CID : String
- Name : String
- Title : String
- Surname : String Attend 0..1
0..* - CFU : float
- Birthdate : Date

C001 C002 C003

Works_in
S2345 X
S1234
Employee X City

S5678
- Name : String X
Residence
- Name : String
- Salary : Currency - Inhabitants : int

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 Aggregation
§ B is-part-of A means that objects
described by class B can be attributes
of objects described by A

A B

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Example
Car Engine
1
power

4 Tyre
1
CD player

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 Essential guidelines
§ If a concept has significant properties and/or
describes types of objects with an
autonomous existence, it can be represented
by a class.
§ If a concept has a simple structure, and has
no relevant properties associated with it, it is
likely an attribute of a class.
§ If a concept provides a logical link between
two (or more) entities, it is convenient to
represent it by means of an association.
§ Any operation that implies access to the
attributes of a class should be defined as a
method.

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Example - Receipt
§ Cash registers emit purchase receipts
§ A receipt is made up of items
§ Every item correspond to a product that
has a name and a price
§ Products’ info is stored in a price list
§ Any time a new product code is entered
the corresponding item is added to the
receipt
§ After the last item is entered, a list of the
items (with product name and price) are
printed together with the total sum.

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Class Diagram0 2020/03/08

pkg

Example - Classes

Receipt PriceList

Product
Item
- price : float
- name : string

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Class Diagram0 2020/03/08

pkg

Example - Associations

Receipt PriceList
based on

contains contains

Product
Item
- price : float
refers to - name : string

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1/1
 Class Diagram0 2020/03/08

pkg

Example - Multiplicity

Receipt PriceList
based on
0..* 1
1 1

contains contains

0..*
0..*
Product
Item
- price : float
refers to - name : string
0..* 1

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Class Diagram0 2020/03/08

pkg

Example - Methods
Receipt
PriceList
+ add(code : int) : void based on
0..* 1 + find(code : int) : Product
+ print() : void

1
1

contains contains

0..*
0..*
Product
Item
- price : float
- name : string
+ getPrice() : float refers to
+ print() : void 0..* 1 + getPrice() : float
+ print() : void

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1/1
 Example – Messages (Add)
Communication Diagram0 2020/03/08

sd Communication Diagram0

main 1: add(code:int) : void

2: find(code:int) : Product

receipt : Receipt price list : PriceList

3: create()

P1 : Product
P2 : Product
item1 : Item
P3 : Product

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Communication Diagram1 2020/03/08
sd Communication Diagram1

Example – Messages (Print)

main 1: print() : void

receipt : Receipt price list : PriceList

2: print() : void
4: getPrice() : float

5: getPrice() : float P1 : Product

P2 : Product
item1 : Item
P3 : Product

3: print() : void

1/1
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 INHERITANCE

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Inheritance
§ A class can be a sub-type of another class
§ The inheriting class contains all the
methods and fields of the class it inherited
from plus any methods and fields it defines
§ The inheriting class can override the
definition of existing methods by providing
its own implementation
§ The code of the inheriting class consists
only of the changes and additions to the
base class

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 Specialization / Generalization
§ B specializes A means that objects
described by B have the same
properties of objects described by A
§ Objects described by B may have
additional properties
§ B is a special case of A
§ A is a generalization of B (and possible
other classes)

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Generalization

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 Set-Specialization
Inheritance 2015/07/22 powered by Astah
Person
- First : String
- Last : String
- SSN : String

Employee Student
- Salary : Currency - ID : int

Person
Employee
Student

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Inheritance terminology
§ Class one above
w Parent class
§ Class one below
w Child class
§ Class one or more above
w Superclass, Ancestor class, Base class
§ Class one or more below
w Subclass, Descendent class, Derived class

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 Why inheritance
§ Frequently, a class is merely a modification
of another class. In this way, there is
minimal repetition of the same code
§ Localization of code
w Fixing a bug in the base class automatically
fixes it in the subclasses
w Adding functionality in the base class
automatically adds it in the subclasses
w Less chances of different (and inconsistent)
implementations of the same operation

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Example of inheritance tree

High DIT makes Living species
code hard to
understand

Animal vegetal

Human being
DIT
Flower

salesman Customer

Flower seller

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 Twitter (simplified)
§ A registered user can
w Post a tweet
w Follow another user
w Reply to a tweet
w Add a like to a tweet

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Example
Reply

Original

Citation

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Class Diagram0 2019/10/02

pkg

Optional Recursive Associations

citation of

0..* - citator

0..1 Tweet
- original
- text : string
- cited - timestamp : int 0..1

- reply 0..*

reply to

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Optional Recursive Associations

Tweet
reply
response to

original

citation of

citation

1/1
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 Optional Recursive Associations
The model allows this (wrong)
Tweetwhere a tweet is
configuration
at the same time both a
response and a citation reply
Response to
Citation of
original
other
Citation of

citation

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Class Diagram1 2019/10/02

pkg tot_exc Specialization

Tweet
reply to citation of
- text : string
1 - timestamp : long 1

Total, exclusive

Reply Simple Citation

0..* 0..*

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 Specialization
Tweet Simple
Reply

reply Citation

original

citation

84

Class Diagram2
Partial Specialization
pkg par_exc

Tweet
1 1
- text : string
- timestamp : long

reply to citation of
partial, exclusive

Reply Citation
0..* 0..*

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 Partial Specialization
Tweet
Citation

reply

original

citation
Reply

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Essential guidelines (II)

§ If one or more concepts are special
cases of another concept, it is
convenient to represent them by
means of a generalization.
§ When distinct classes may play the
same role w.r.t. an association to a
given class it is common to represent
this commonality by generalization
w Inheritance includes also associations

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 Modeling strategies
§ Top-down
w Start with abstract concepts and perform
successive refinements
§ Bottom-up
w Start with detailed concepts and proceed
with integrating different pieces together
§ Inside-out
w Like bottom-up but beginning with most
important concepts first
§ Hybrid

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Model quality
§ Correctness
w No requirement is misrepresented
§ Completeness
w All requirements are represented
§ Readability
w It is easy to read and understand
§ Minimality
w There are no avoidable elements

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 References
§ Fowler, M. “UML Distilled: A Brief
Guide to the Standard Object Modeling
Language - 3rded.”, Addison-Wesley
Professional (2003)

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