Fall 2021

ELECTRIC MACHINES LAB MANUAL

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, WAH CAMPUS

LAB INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. ABDULLAH SHOUKAT

UPDATED ON: 23-09-2021
 List of Experiments

S.No. Experiment

1 Introduction, Precautions and calibrations of lab equipment.

a. To determine the turns ratio of a single phase transformer.

2
b. To determine the polarity of a single phase transformer.

To determine the voltage regulation & efficiency of single phase transformer at

3
resistive, capacitive and inductive loads.

To conduct the open circuit & short circuit tests of Transformer & to calculate efficiency
4
without loading the Transformer

To determine the phase difference between the voltages of transformer connecting in

5
various star & delta connections.

6 To study External characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

7 To study External characteristics of DC Series Motor

8 To study External characteristics of DC Compound

9 To study open circuit characteristics of Shunt DC Generator

To conduct the Load Test On an Induction Motor

10

a. To Observe the behavior of Synchronous Motor.

11 b. To Observe the relationship between field current and Armature current (Stator
current).
a. To study the behavior of Synchronous Generator.
12 b. To Observe the Voltage regulation of Synchronous over different loads.

To Synchronize The three phase alternator with National grid.

13
 Experiment No 1
Introduction, precautions and calibration of lab equipments.
Objective: To become familiar with electrical
machine lab equipments.
Introduction:
Electric machine theory is primarily based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Types of Electric Machines:
There are two types of Electric Machines.
1. Static electric Machines e.g. Transformer
2. Rotating electric Machines e.g. Motor, Generators.
We will talk about three domains in the theory of electric machine.
1. Electric domain
2. Magnetic domain
3. Mechanical domain
Rotating Machines:
There are two types of rotating machines.
1. AC Machines
2. DC Machines
AC Machines:
There are two types of AC Machines.
1. Synchronous Machine.
2. Asynchronous Machine or induction machine.
Two parameters of motor are
1. Torque
2. Speed
Dynamometer is a torque, force, Power measuring device.
Tachometer is speed measuring device.
Types of Magnets:
There are two types of Magnets:
1. Permanent magnet
2. Electromagnetic magnet
Advantage:
We can control the strength of the magnetic field.
Types of Rotors:
There are five types of rotors.
1. Squirrel motor rotor.
2. Three phase wound motor.
3. Reluctance motor rotor.
4. Three phase synchronous rotor.
5. DC Machine rotor.
Safety Precautions:
1. Avoid making lose connections.
2. Reading should be taken carefully without parallax error.
3. Avoid series connection of voltmeter and parallel connection of ammeter.
4. Please do not touch live part.
5. Don’t work bare footed.
6. Don’t carry unnecessary items with you during performance.
7. Before connecting any leads or wires, make sure the power is switched off.
8. The main power is not allowed to switch on, unless the instructor allow you.
9. Machine should be turned off during calculations.
10. Group leader is responsible for any damage or if any equipment is misplaced.
Calibrations:
1. Lab volt software should be inter phased between two computers (cable should be connected from
data accusation part of computer).
2. Make sure that 24V low power supply is on and respective LED on data acquisition interface and
prime mover.
3. Make sure that torque, speed and reference point are connected to torque input, speed input and
reference point.
4. Make sure that the continuous refresh icon in the software must be on.
5. Make sure that the node of the power supply is on minimum connection.
6. Make sure that belt is connected when needed and disconnected when not in use.
 Experiment No 2
Objective:
a) To determine the turns ratio of a single phase transformer.
b) To determine the polarity of a single phase transformer.

Apparatus:
• Single Phase Transformer
• Single phase AC Power Supply
• AC Voltmeters
• Connecting Leads
• Data Acquisition interface Software
a.Turns Ratio Test Of A Transformer

Discussion:
Voltage ratio test of a transformer is performed to find the turn ratio of the transformer. Turns ratio of a
transformer tells us that whether the transformer is step-up or step-down.

Polarity test of a transformer is performed to determine the polarity of the two windings of transformer so
that we can connect the two windings in series or in parallel and also two transformers in series or in
parallel. The correct polarity must be determined first in order to connect the transformers/windings in
proper arrangement either in series or in parallel.

Procedure:
Connections are made as shown in the diagram. The primary side is connected to single phase variable AC
voltage supply and voltmeter (Vp) in parallel. The secondary side is also connected to voltmeter (Vs) in
parallel. Note down the readings in table 2.1 as indicated by the voltmeters Vp and Vs.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 2.1 Turns ratio test of Transformer

Supply is switched on with the minimum 0 position. Vary the supply voltage and note down the readings in
the table.
 Sr. E1 E2 N2/N1
No (V) (V)

1 171.81 90.18 0.52

2 202.9 106.41 0.52
3 213.81 112.1 0.52
4 157.2 82.52 0.54
5 119.47 62.74 0.52
Table 2.1 Results of turn’s ratio test of Transformer

b. Polarity Test Of A Transformer

Procedure:
Connect the H.V winding to an AC source. The rated voltage is applied to the primary and primary terminals
are marked as A1 and A2. The secondary winding terminals are marked as B1 and B2. A wire is connected
across A2 and B2 and a voltmeter connected across A1 and B1.

Circuit Diagram:

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2 Polarity test of Transformer

If it measures the difference of V1 and V2 it mean A1 and B1 have same polarity as in figure 2.2 (a). The dots
are on same side. If voltmeter measure the addition of V1 and V2 it means A1 and B1 are of opposite
polarity as in figure 2.2 (b) the dots are on opposite side. Place 3 voltmeters; one at primary side and other at
secondary side and the third as connected in figure 2.2

Take the first reading and write down the value indicated by the voltmeters in table 2.2(a).
 Sr. No EP ES E3

1 53.84 55.86 1.78

2 105.5 109.5 3.58
Table 2.2 Results of Polarity test of Transformer

What you observed?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

The polarities are same or different?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Repeat the process by connecting the circuit as shown in figure 2.2 (b) and record your results in table 2.2

What you observed?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

The polarities are same or different?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Why we check the polarity of T/F?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

A T/F having primary voltage of 50V and primary current of 2A, if the secondary current is 4A what will be
its secondary voltage?

Write conclusion of the complete experiment

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
 Experiment No 3
Objective:
To determine the voltage regulation and efficiency of a single phase transformer
on a) Resistive Load
b) Inductive Load
c) Capacitive Load

Apparatus:
• Single Phase Transformer
• Single phase AC Power Supply
• AC Voltmeter
• AC Ammeter
• AC Wattmeter
• Resistive Load
• Inductive Load
• Capacitive Load
• Connecting Leads
• Labvolt data interface Software

Voltage Regulation Test of a Transformer

Discussion:
The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output voltage from no-load to
fullload. And since power factor is a determining factor in the secondary voltage, power factor influences
voltage regulation, is defined by equation.

No load Voltage – Full load voltage

VR (%) = x100
Full load voltage

Procedure:
• set up the transformer loading circuit shown in Figure 3.1. Make sure that all switches on
the Resistive, Capacitive, and Inductive Load modules are open, and connect meter inputs
E1, E2, I1, and I2 as shown in the figure. Different load values will be used to examine
how the secondary (load) voltage changes as transformer loading changes.
 Figure 3.1 voltage regulation of Transformer circuit with resistive load

• Turn on the power supply and vary the voltage upto the rated value of transformer.
• Adjust the switches on the Resistive Load module to successively obtain the resistance values given
in Table 3.1. For each resistance value, record the measured values. When all values have been
recorded, turn the voltage control knob fully counterclockwise, and turn off the Power Supply.

• Record your results in table 3.2 for resistive load.

 Sr. Load E1 E2 I1 I2 P1 (W) P2 (W) Regulation Efficiency
No (A) (V) (V) (A) (A) (%)
No 213.8 112.17 0.03 0 1.82 0.01 0 00
load
1 0.05 213.5 111.2 0.03 0.02 4.59 2.74 0.83 60
2 0.1 213.3 110.3 0.04 0.05 7.41 5.84 1.67 78
3 0.15 214.2 110.0 0.05 0.07 10.2 8.13 1.93 79.7
4 0.2 214.3 109.0 0.07 0.1 13.34 11.1 2.82 83.2
5 0.25 214.1 108.3 0.08 0.13 15.99 13.54 3.4 84.67
6 0.3 213.9 107.5 0.09 0.15 18.66 16 4.16 84.74
7 0.35 214.06 106.89 0.1 0.17 21.24 18.34 4.7 86.34
Table 3.2 Voltage regulation of Transformer on resistive load

Draw a graph between I2 and Voltage regulation

 • Repeat the process after connecting Inductive load at secondary of the transformer.
Sr. Load E1 E2 I1 I2 P1 (W) P2 (W) Regulation
No (A) (V) (V) (A) (A) (%)
1 0.05 0.03 0.02 4.59 2.74 0.83
213.53 111.23
2 0.1 0.03 0.05 7.41 5.48 1.61
213.39 110.36
3 0.15 0.05 0.07 10.2 8.13 1.8
214.27 110.06
4 0.2 0.07 0.1 13.34 11.1 2.77
214.03 109.06
5 0.25 0.08 0.13 15.99 13.54 3.4
214.01 108.32
6 0.3 0.09 0.15 18.66 16 4.1
213.94 107.57
7 0.35 0.1 0.17 21.24 18.34 4.7
214.06 106.89
Table 3.3 Voltage regulation of Transformer on Inductive load

Draw a graph between I2 and Voltage regulation

• Repeat the process after connecting capacitive load at secondary of the transformer.

Sr. Load E1 E2 I1 I2 P1 (W) P2 (W) Regulation

No (A) (V) (V) (A) (A) (%)
No 0.03 0 1.84 0 0
Load 214.81 112.66
1 0.05 0.04 0.03 2.29 0.4 0.11
214.81 112.53
2 0.1 0.04 0.05 2.13 0.73 0.25
214.46 112.37
3 0.15 0.05 0.06 2.8 0.84 0.33
214.67 112.28
4 0.2 0.05 0.05 2.79 0.82 0.47
214.33 112.12
5 0.25 0.08 0.11 3.93 1.5 0.70
214.45 111.87
6 0.3 0.09 0.12 4.22 1.76 0.78
214.89 112.08
7 0.35 214.85 111.78 0.11 0.15 5.08. 2.28 0.75
Table 3.4 Voltage regulation of Transformer on Capacitive load
 Experiment No 4
• To study the open circuit test and short circuit test of Transformer To calculate efficiency of
Transformer without loading.

Apparatus:
• Single phase Transformer
• Connecting leads
• Single phase AC Power Supply
• AC Voltmeter
• AC Ammeter
• AC Wattmeter
• Connecting leads
• Labvolt Data Acquisition interface software

Discussion:
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output power. An
electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or friction losses) are absent in it.
A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to
losses in a DC machine, except that transformers do not have mechanical losses.

These two transformer tests are performed to find the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer and losses of
the transformer. Open circuit test and short circuit test on transformer are very economical and convenient because
they are performed without actually loading of the transformer. Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is
performed to determine 'no load loss (core loss)' and 'no load current I0'. The circuit diagram for open circuit test
is shown in the figure below.
Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV) winding is connected to its normal
supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are connected to the LV winding as shown in the figure.
Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal rated value of the LV side with the help of a variac.
When the applied voltage reaches to the rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments are
taken. The ammeter reading gives the no load current Io. As Io itself is very small, the voltage drops due to this
current can be neglected. The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). But, as the other side of transformer
is open circuited, there is no output power. Hence, this input power only consists of core losses and copper losses.
But as described above, short circuit current is so small that these copper losses can be neglected. Hence, now the
input power is almost equal to the core losses. Thus, the wattmeter reading gives the core losses of the transformer.
The two components of no load current can be given as,

Iμ = I0sinΦ0 and Iw = I0cosΦ0.

cosΦ0 (no load power factor) = W / (V1I0). ... (W = wattmeter reading)

From this, shunt parameters of equivalent circuit parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer (X0 and R0) can be
calculated as

X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw.

(These values are referring to LV side of the transformer).
Hence, it is seen that open circuit test gives core losses of transformer and shunt parameters of the equivalent circuit.
The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on transformer is as shown in the figure below. The
LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere (V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the
HV side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV side and increased from the zero until the ammeter reading
equals the rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated current.
The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current. (I SC). The voltage applied for full load current
is very small as compared to rated voltage. Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected. Thus,
the wattmeter reading can be taken as copper loss in the transformer. Therefore,
W = Isc2Req
(Where Req is the equivalent resistance of transformer)
Therefore, equivalent reactance of transformer can be calculated from the formula
Zeq2 = Req2 + Xeq2.
Hence, it is seen that the short circuit test gives copper losses of transformer and approximate equivalent resistance
and reactance of the transformer.
1. Core Losses:
Core losses occur in the core of transformer it depends upon the type of material which is used for core.
There are two types of core loss in transformer
a) Eddy Current Losses:
In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux.
When this flux links with secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also
gets linked with other conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer,

which will result in

induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy current.
Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat. b) Hysteresis Losses:
Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the
volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density.
 2. Copper Losses:
Copper loss is due to Ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary winding is
I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding
respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively. It is clear that Cu
loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in
transformer varies with the load.
Procedure:
• Make connections for open circuit test as shown in figure 4.1.
• Make connections for short circuit test as shown in figure 4.2.
• For open circuit test load the transformer gradually from 0V to maximum supply voltage.
• For short circuit test load the transformer gradually and carefully until the ammeter reading indicates
the rated value of current of transformer.

ATTENTION!!!!!!!

NOTE: Do not load the transformer above its rated current, the windings will be burnt

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 4.1 Open Circuit Test

Figure 4.2 Short Circuit test

 Sr. No E0 I0 (A) P (W)
(V)

1 110.2 0.02 1.54

Table 4.1 Open circuit test results

Sr. No Esc Isc P (W)

(V) (A)

1 33.17 0.24 5.45

Table 4.2 Short circuit test results

Calculation of efficiency without loading the transformer

Sr. Load Core Copper losses = Total losses = Output Input Power = Efficiency
losses 2
No (fraction of load) Copper+ Core Power Output+ total ( )
(W) * Copper losses losses (W) losses (%)
(W) (W) (W)
1 ¼ F.L 1.59 0.34 1.98 13.75 15.98 87
2 ½ F.L 1.59 1.36 2.59 27.5 30.45 90
3 ¾ F.L 1.59 3.06 4.65 41.25 45.39 87.5
4 F.L 1.59 5.45 7.04 55 62.64 86.5
5 5/4 F.L 1.59 8.51 10.1 68.75 78.85 86.2
 Experiment No 5
Objective:
• To observe the phase shifts between three phases
• To observe the phase shift between the voltages of transformer connected in a) Y to Y
connection
b) Delta to Delta connection
c) Y to delta connection
d) Delta to Y connection Apparatus:

• Three Phase Transformers

• Connecting Leads
• Three phase AC Supply
• AC Voltmeter
• Labvolt Data Acquisition Software

Introduction:
Many three-phase transformer configurations are possible when connecting the primary and secondary
windings of a three-phase transformer bank. Each configuration presents different characteristics.
When connecting a three-phase transformer bank in a circuit, it is therefore important to determine
which characteristics are advantageous to the circuit, and to choose the appropriate three-phase
transformer configuration accordingly. The four most common three-phase transformer configurations
are wye-wye, delta-delta, wye-delta, and delta-wye configurations.

Voltage, current, and phase relationships of the four common three-phase transformer configurations

The most determining characteristics of each three-phase transformer configuration mentioned in the
previous section (i.e., the wye-wye, delta-delta, wye-delta, and delta-wye configurations) are their
respective voltage, current, and phase relationships between the primary windings and the secondary
windings. The following three sections discuss these relationships for each threephase transformer
configuration. Note that, as wye-wye and delta-delta configurations have similar voltage, current, and
phase relationships, both configurations are covered in the same section. Also note that, in the
following sections, the turns ratio of each transformer in the three-phase transformer bank is assumed
to be equal to 1:1. This allows observation of the effects each configuration has on the voltage, current,
and phase relationships of the three phase transformer bank, independently of the turns ratio.

Wye-wye and delta-delta configurations

When a three-phase transformer bank is connected in either a wye-wye or a delta-delta configuration,

the voltage, current, and phase relationships between the primary windings and the secondary windings
are identical to the relationships found in a conventional single-phase power transformer. This means
that the values of the line voltages and currents at the secondary are equal to those of the line voltages
and currents at the primary (neglecting transformer losses). Also, the line voltage sine waves at the
secondary are in phase with the line voltage sine waves at the primary. The same is true for the line
current sine waves at the secondary with respect to the line current sine waves at the primary.

Wye-delta configuration

When a three-phase transformer bank is connected in a wye-delta configuration, the values and phases
of the line voltages and currents at the secondary are different from those at the primary. Thus, in a
wyedelta configuration, the value of the line voltages at the secondary is equal to that of the line
voltages at the primary divided by . Conversely, the value of the line currents at the secondary is
equal to that of the line currents at the primary multiplied by . Furthermore, the line voltage sine
waves at the secondary lag behind those at the primary by 30°. The same is true for the line current
sine waves at the secondary with respect to the line current sine waves at the primary.

Delta-wye configuration

When a three-phase transformer bank is connected in a delta-wye configuration, the values and phases
of the line voltages and currents at the secondary are different from those at the primary. Thus, in a
delta-wye configuration, the value of the line voltages at the secondary is equal to that of the line
voltages at the primary multiplied by . Conversely, the value of the line currents at the secondary is
equal to that of the line currents at the primary divided by . Furthermore, the line voltage sine waves
at the secondary lead those at the primary by 30°. The same is true for the line current sine waves at
the secondary with respect to the line current sine waves at the primary.

Uses of three-phase transformer banks

Three-phase transformer banks are used in three-phase ac power circuits for basically the same reasons
as single-phase power transformers in single-phase ac circuits, i.e., to step-up or step-down the voltages
in the circuit and to provide electrical isolation between the primary windings and the secondary
windings. However, the special properties of certain three-phase transformer configurations presented
in the previous sections allow three-phase transformer banks to be used in a few additional
applications. The primary uses of three-phase transformer banks in three-phase ac power circuits are
summarized below.

1. Three-phase transformer banks allow the voltages in the three-phase ac power circuit to be s
tepped-up (i.e., to be increased) or stepped down (i.e., to be decreased).

2. Three-phase transformer banks provide electrical isolation between the primary windings and
the secondary windings.
3. Three-phase transformer banks connected in a wye-delta or in a delta-wye configuration
allow the number of wires in the three-phase ac power circuit to be decreased from 4 to 3, or
increased from 3 to 4, respectively.
 4. Three-phase transformer banks connected in a wye-delta or in a delta-wye configuration
allow the incoming line voltages and currents to be phase shifted -30° or 30°, respectively.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 5.1 Four different connections of 3-phase Transformers

Procedure:
• Connect the transformer’s primary and secondary windings according to the circuit diagram.
Connect the voltmeters and connect the ac supply and set it to 50 volts.
• Open the phase analyzer in the Lab volt software and record the results.

• Repeat this method for all 4 types of connections.

Results:
Y to Y Connections

Delta to Delta Connections

Y to Delta Connections

Delta to Y Connections
 Experiment No. 6
Objective:
• To study the external characteristics of DC Shunt Motor.

Apparatus:
• DC Motor/Generator Module
• Prime Mover/Dynamometer Module
• DC Variable Supply
• Lab Volt Data Acquisition Interfacing module
• Connecting Leads Discussion:

• Principle of Operation of DC Motor:

A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The principle of
working of a DC motor is that "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force"

The shunt wound dc motor falls under the category of self excited dc motors, where the field windings are
shunted to, or are connected in parallel to the armature winding of the motor, as its name is suggestive of.
And for this reason both the armature winding and the field winding are exposed to the same supply voltage,
though there are separate branches for the flow of armature current and the field current.

External Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

The three important shunt characteristic curves are
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)
2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)

3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)

Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):
We know that in a DC Motor Ta ΦIa. In this the flux Φ is continuous by ignoring the armature reaction,
since the motor is working from a continual source voltage.

Therefore the curve drawn between torque Vs armature current is a straight line transitory through the origin.
The shaft torque(Tsh) is a smaller amount than armature torque. From this curve it is proved that to start a
heavy load very large current is requisite. Hence the shunt DC motor should not be started at full load.
Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristic:

At normal condition the back E.M.F Eb and Flux Φ both are constant in a DC Shunt motor. Hence the
armature current differs and the speed of a DC Shunt motor will continue.Whenever the shunt motor load is
increased Eb=V-IaRa and flux reduces as a result drop in the armature resistance and armature reaction. On
the other hand, back e.m.f reduces marginally more than that the speed of the shunt motor decreases to some
extent with load.
Speed Vs Armature Torque:

This curve is drawn between the speed of the motor and armature current with various amps. From the curve
it is understood that the speed reduces when the load torque increases.
With the above three characteristic it is clearly understood that when the shunt motor runs from no load to full
load there is slight change in speed. Thus, it is essentially a constant speed motor. Since the armature torque
is directly proportional to the armature current, the starting torque is not high.

Procedure:
• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram:
 • First of all set the prime mover/Dynamometer module mode on Dynamometer.

• Set the torque at 0 Nm. For this we have set the torque knob at 0 position (anticlockwise) on
Dynamometer.
• Set DC 220V at supply and adjust the field resistance rheostat at the position where motor’s rpm are
1500.

Observation:
Sr. T IA N
No
N.m (A) rpm

1 0
2 0.1 0.14 1520
3 0.2 0.15 1475
4 0.3 0.16 1465
5 0.4 0.16 1467
6 0.5 0.16 1449
7 0.6 0.17 1407
8 0.7 0.17 1411
9 0.8 0.17 1381
10 0.9 0.17 1387
11 1 0.17 1356
12 1.1 0.17 1312
Graphs:

Torque Vs Armature current:

Speed Vs Armature Current:

Speed Vs Armature Torque:

 Experiment No. 7
Objective:
• To study External characteristics of DC Series Motor.

Apparatus:
• DC Motor/Generator Module
• Dynamometer
• DC Variable Supply
• Labvolt Data Acquisition interface software
• Connecting Leads Introduction:

The series motor is a motor in which the field electromagnet is a series winding connected in series with the
armature as shown in Figure 7-1. The strength of the field electromagnet, therefore, varies as the armature
current varies. Figure 7-1 shows the speed versus torque characteristic of a series motor when the armature
voltage is fixed. This characteristic shows that the speed decreases none linearly as the torque increases, i.e.,
as the armature current increases.

External Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

The three important shunt characteristic curves are
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)
2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

We know that torque is directly proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ɸ.Ia. In
DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic
saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2.
Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia. After magnetic saturation of the field poles,
flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T Ia.
Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia lies
slightly lower.

In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these
motors are used where high starting torque is required.

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be neglected.
Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed
is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high.
That is why a series motor should never be started without some mechanical

load. But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in decreased
back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta) when speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.

Figure 7-1 Series motor and its external Characteristics

The series motor provides a strong starting torque and a wide range of operating speeds when it is
supplied by a fixed-voltage dc source. However, the speed, torque, and armature current depend on the
mechanical load applied to the motor. Also, the series motor has non-linear operating characteristics as
suggested by the speed versus torque relationship in Figure 7-1. As a result, it is difficult to operate a
series motor at a constant speed when the mechanical load fluctuates. Furthermore, the armature
current must be limited to prevent damage to the motor when it is starting (when power is applied to the
motor). Finally, a series motor must never run without mechanical load because the speed increases to
a veryhigh value which can damage the motor (motor runaway).
Today, series motors can operate with fixed-voltage power sources, for example, automobile starting
motors; or with variable-voltage power sources, for example, traction systems
Circuit Diagram

Figure 7-2 Series motor coupled to Dynamometer/Brake

Procedure:
• Make connections as shown in figure 7-2.
• Rotate slightly the torque controlling knob of Dynamometer to clock wise.
• Turn on the Power supply and apply voltages to motor slowly upto its rated voltage
• Record your results by applying the torque on series motor with the help of dynamometer torque
control knob.

Observation:
Sr. T N.m IA (A) N rpm
No

1 0.3 0.59 1497

2 0.4 0.64 1411

3 0.5 0.67 1338

4 0.6 0.71 1331

5 0.7 0.75 1287

6 0.8 0.79 1227

7 0.9 0.63 1152

8 1 0.91 1116

9 1.1 1.21 1011

Table 7.1 Results of external characteristics of series motor

Graphs:
Torque Vs Armature current:

Speed Vs Armature Current:

Speed Vs Armature Torque:

 Experiment No. 8
Objective:
• To study open circuit & load characteristics of Shunt DC Generator.

Apparatus:
• DC Motor/ Generator module
• Prime Mover
• Resistive load
• Data Acquisition interface software
• Connecting leads

Introduction:
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current electricity. This
energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced emf. According to
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR
a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in the conductor. The
magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided
with the closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field coils produce
an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically
induced emf is generated in the armature conductors.

Although dc generators are rarely used today, it is important to know their operation because this helps
understanding how a separately-excited dc motor can be used as an electric brake in modern dc motor drives.
You saw earlier in this unit that a dc motor can be considered as a linear voltage-to-speed converter. This
linear conversion process is reversible, meaning that when a fixed speed is imposed on the motor by an external
driving force, the motor produces an output voltage E0, and thus, operates as a linear speed-to-voltage
converter, i.e., a dc generator. Figure 8-1 shows a DC Generator.

Figure 8-1 DC Generator

A shunt generator is a type of direct current electric generator in which field winding and armature winding
are connected in parallel, and in which the armature supplies both the load current and the field current.
Open Circuit Characteristics of Shunt Generator:

This curve is drawn between shunt field current(Ish) and the no load voltage (E0). For a given excitation current
or field current, the e.m.f generated at no load E0 varies in proportionally with the rotational speed of the
armature. Here in the Graph 1 the magnetic characteristic curve for various speeds are drawn. Due to residual
magnetism the curves start from a point slightly up from the origin. The external load resistance of the machine
needs to be maintained greater than its critical value otherwise the machine will not excite or will stop running
if it is already in motion.

External Characteristics of Shunt Generator:

Graph 2 showing the external characteristics of shunt DC generator. It is showing the variation of terminal
voltage with the load current. Ohmic drop due to armature resistance gives lesser terminal voltage the
generated voltage. That is why the curve lies below the internal characteristic curve.

VT = (Ea - IaRa) = Ea – (Ish + IL)Ra

The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by adjusting the of the load terminal. Now, when IL
increased, then terminal voltage decreased. After certain limit, due to heavy load current and increased Ohmic
drop, the terminal voltage is reduced drastically. This drastic reduction of terminal voltage across the load,
results the increase in the load current although at that time load is high or load resistance is low.

That is why the load resistance of the machine must be maintained properly. The point in which the machine
gives maximum current output is called breakdown point.

In a Dc shunt generator the shunt field current indicated by If should be increased in order to get the desired
output terminal voltages at the terminal of Generator at rated speed (1500 rpm). The field rehoestat should
be turned to anticlockwise position first and then it should be turned in clockwise position in order to
increase the terminal voltage and decreasing the field resistance. After obtaining the rated output voltage
which is 220V, then in 2nd part we will apply a resistive load on Generator to check its load current Vs
Terminal voltage characteristics.
 Figure 8-2 E0 Vs If Characteristics of DC shunt Generator on no load at fixed speed

When the load is connected across the terminals of DC shunt Generator armature resistance causes the
output voltage E0 to decrease with increasing output current as shown in Figure 2-29. The output voltage E0
can be calculated using the following equation:

E0 = EMF – I0Ra

Where E0 is the DC generator output voltage EMF is the voltage induced across
the armature winding RA is the armature resistance I0 is the DC Generator output current

Figure 8-3 Load characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

The separately-excited dc generator provides flexible use because its characteristics can be changed by
changing the field current. However, a separate dc power source is needed to excite the field electromagnet.
This was a disadvantage when the first dc generators were used because dc sources were not commonly
available at the time. Therefore, dc generators that operate without a dc power source were designed. These
are referred to as self-excited dc generators.

Procedure:

• Set up the separately-excited dc generator circuit shown in Figure 8-4. Notice that no electrical load
is connected to the generator output.
• Set the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply or the Prime Mover/Dynamometer to operate as
a clockwise prime mover
• Set the prime mover speed to 1500 rpm
• Now increase the field current with the help of field rheostat and record your results at different
intervals
 Figure 8-4 DC shunt Generator circuit diagram on no load

• Now after completing this part connect a resistive load to DC shunt Generator output. Vary the
load current in steps of 0.05A from 0.05A to 0.35A.

Results:

• Without Loading:
E1 If N
(A) (rpm)
(V)
 • With Loading:

E1 If N IL
(A) (rpm)
(V)

Graph:
 Experiment No. 9
Objective:
To study External characteristics of DC Compound Generator.

Apparatus:

• DC Generator/Motor module
• Prime mover/Dynamometer module
• Rheostat
• DC Variable Supply
• Lab Volt Data Acquisition interfacing module
• Connecting Leads Discussion:

• Principle of Operation of DC Generator:

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a varying

magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an EMF (electromotive force) gets induced in
the conductor. The magnitude of induced EMF can be calculated from the EMF equation of dc generator. If
the conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path. In a DC
generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are rotated into the field.
Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature conductors, the output can be
collected from armature.

In a compound generator, both series and shunt winding occurs .The shunt winding can be connected either
across the armature only (short-shunt connection S) or across armature plus series field (long-shunt
connection G). The compound generator can be cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded
generator.

External Characteristics of cumulatively compounded generator:

The series excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the increase in
series excitation with the increase in load current.
.
 Figure Commulative compound Generator

Procedure:

• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram:
 • First of all Set the Prime mover Mode.
• Supply the power to prime mover and increase its voltage from 0 to 220V such that the rpm of
generator are 1500 and adjust the rheostat in such a way that the output voltages of generator are
220V approximately.
• Now Apply the Resistive load at the steps of 0.05A increment but keep rpm constant by increasing
the speed of prime mover.
• After that record the load current and output voltages across Load.

Observations:

Eg IL N

(V) (A) (rpm)

0
0.5
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35

Graph: (Eg Vs IL)

 Experiment No. 10
Objective:
To conduct the Load Test of an Induction Motor.

Apparatus:

• 4 pole Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Dynamometer/Prime

mover module. 3-phase AC Supply
• Data acquisition interfacing module
• Connecting Leads Discussion:

• Principle of Operation of AC Motor:

For better understanding the principle of three phase induction motor, the basic constructional feature of this
motor must be known to us. This Motor consists of two major parts:
Stator: Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct a 3 phase winding
circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The three phase winding are arranged in such a manner in
the slots that they produce a rotating magnetic field after 3Phase. AC supply is given to them.
Rotor: Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots that can
carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum bars which fits in each slots & they are short
circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a
little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of motor.

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle of 120°. When the
primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3 phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic field
which rotates at the synchronous speed.
Secrets behind the rotation:

According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an induction motor are either closed through an external
resistance or directly shorted by end ring, and cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows through the rotor conductor.
Here the relative speed between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the cause of current
generation; hence as per Lenz's law the rotor will rotate in the same direction to reduce the cause i.e. the
relative velocity.

Slip Of Induction Motor:

The difference between the synchronous speed of the magnetic field, and the shaft rotating speed is slip -
measured in RPM or frequency.

It is common to express the slip as the ratio between the shaft rotation speed and the synchronous magnetic
field speed.
S = (ns - nm) / ns X100%
where
S = slip
ns = synchronous speed of magnetic field (rev/min,
rpm) na = shaft rotating speed (rev/min, rpm)
When the rotor is not turning the slip is 100 %.And Slip at no load is approximately 0.
Slip and Voltage:
When a motor starts to rotate the slip is 100 % and the motor current is at maximum. Slip and motor current are
reduced when the rotor begin turning.
Slip Frequency:
Frequency decreases when slip decrease.
Procedure:

• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram:
 • First of all set the Dynamometer Mode.
• And set the torque at 0 Nm. For this we have set the torque knob at 0 position on Dynamometer.
• Set AC 3 phase power supply to maximum position.
• Now apply the torque at the steps of 0.1 increments and record the E1, E2, E3, I1, I2, I3, Active,
Reactive and Apparent Power, Power Factor, Slip and Speed.

Observations:

E1 E2 E3 I1 I2 I3 P Q S T N P.f Slip

Graphs:

I1 Vs P
 Experiment No. 11
Objective:

• To study the behavior of Synchronous Motor.

• To Observe the relationship between field current and Armature current (Stator current).
Apparatus:
• 4 pole Synchronous Motor Module
• Dynamometer/Prime mover Module
• AC 3 phase Supply
• DC Supply
• Connecting Leads
• Lab volt data acquisition and control interface
Discussion:

• Synchronous Motor:
When a 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical positions (In certain angle from one
another) there is an electrical field generate. Now the rotating magnetic field rotates at a certain speed, that
speed is called synchronous speed. Now if an electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the
electromagnet is magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with same speed of
rotating field. Synchronous motor is called so because the speed of the rotor of this motor is same as the
rotating magnetic field. It is basically a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is
synchronous speed, and therefore no intermediate speed is there or in other words it’s in synchronism with
the supply frequency.
Synchronous speed is given by
120 𝑓
𝑁𝑟𝑝𝑚 =
𝑃

Normally its construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction motor, except the fact that
the rotor is given dc supply, the reason of which is explained later. Now, let us first go through the basic
construction of this type of motor from the above picture, it is clear that how this type of motors are
designed.
Main Features of Synchronous Motors
1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting. They require some external means to bring their
speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for constant supply
frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load condition
3. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor. This makes it
being used in electrical power factor improvement.
Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e. two electrical inputs are provided to it. Its stator
winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with DC
supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux. The
rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the frequency to be 50 Hz, from the
above relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50
revolutions in 1 sec. At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or S-S)
causing repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S causing attractive force. But due to
inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive force and remain in
standstill condition. Hence it is not self starting. To overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some
mechanical input which rotates it in same direction as magnetic field to a speed very close to synchronous
speed. After some time magnetic locking occurs and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the
frequency.

Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor

1. Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction
motor or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very close to its
synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given. After some time when magnetic locking takes
place supply to the external motor is cut off.
2. Damper winding: In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is placed in
rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper winding and rotating air
gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed
approaches synchronous speed, emf and torque is reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes
place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous is first run as three phase induction
motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.
Application of Synchronous Motor
1. Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power factor improvement. Owing to its
characteristics to behave at any electrical power factor, it is used in power system in situations where static
capacitors are expensive.
2. Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm) and high power is required.
For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost of the corresponding three phase
induction motor is very high. Hence these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor,
rolling mills etc.
Procedure:

• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram:

Synchronous Motor Armature (Stator) winding connections:

Synchronous Motor Rotor (Field) winding connections:

• First of all set the Dynamometer Mode.

• And set the torque at 0 Nm. For this we have set the torque knob at 0 position on Dynamometer.
• Set AC 3 phase power supply to maximum position.
• And turn off the dc supply switch before start the motor.
• Now turn On the Ac supply and when the rotor starts rotating at steady state speed turn on the dc
supply switch which is connected with rotor winding.
• Now motor’s stator’s rotating field and rotor stationary field get locked and motor will run at
synchronous speed (1500 rpm for 4 pole synchronous motor).
• Now Apply the torque at the steps of 0.1 increment and record the E1, E2, I1, I2, I3, Active, Reactive
Power, Power Factor and Speed.
• Now for relation between field current and armature current set the torque at a fixed value (0.1 Nm).
And change the field current by increasing the rheostat stepwise and record both currents.
 Experiment No. 12
Objective:
• To study the behavior of Synchronous Generator.
• To Observe the Voltage regulation of Synchronous over different loads.
1. Resistive Load
2. Capacitive Load
3. Inductive Load Apparatus:

• 4 pole Synchronous Generator Module

• Dynamometer/Prime mover Module
• DC Supply
• Connecting Leads
• Lab volt data acquisition and control interface Discussion:

• SynchronousGenerator:
The generator in which permanent magnet/electromagnet is used instead of coil to provide excitation
field is termed as synchronous generator.
In general, synchronous generator consists of two parts rotor and stator. The rotor part consists of
field poles and stator part consists of armature conductors. The rotation of field poles in the presence
of armature conductors induces an alternating voltage which results in electrical power generation.

The speed of field poles is synchronous speed and is given by

Where, ‘f’ indicates alternating current frequency and ‘P’ indicates number of poles.

Working Principle of Synchronous Generator:

All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.

Field produced on rotor by dc current through slip rings.
Magnetic Flux distributed around rotor produces sinusoidal variation in induced EMF.
A’
A

BB CC

N S
C B
C’ B’
A
 Stator coils separated by 120o causes delay between phase EMFs by 120 degrees.
Phase difference depends upon the number of slots and number of coils per phase,
and position and orientation of coils.

Procedure:

• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

Circuit Diagram:

Synchronous Generator Armature (Stator) winding connections:

Load Armature Winding

Synchronous Motor Rotor (Field) winding connections:

 • First of all set the Prime mover Mode.
• And Connect the DC 220V supply with Field winding of Synchronous Generator and keep the DC
switch off at the Generator front panal.
• Connect the DC 220V supply to the Prime mover.
• Connect the 3 phase star connected resistive load and keep the switches off initially.
• Make the star connection of armature winding.
• Connect a voltmeter with one phase and ampere meter in series with any load attached in one phase.
• Now turn on the prime mover and approch to the 1500 rpm speed.
• Now turn on the DC switch of field winding.The generator will be synchronized suddenly.
• Now apply the load at the increment of 0.05 and record the meaurements of terminal voltage and
Load current.
• Apply Same procedure for inductive and capacitive load.

Observation:

It is observed that as the Inductive load increase the terminal voltages decrease and as the capacitive load
increases the terminal voltages increases due to leading power factor of load. But there is no change in the
speed of generator.By increasing the field current the terminal voltages also increases.
 Experiment No. 13
Objective:
To Synchronize the three phase alternator with Wapda/National grid.

Apparatus:
• Synchronous Motor/Generator Module
• Dynamometer/Prime mover Module
• Synchronizing Module
• DC Supply
• Connecting Leads
• Lab volt data acquisition and control interface Discussion:

To synchronize the alternator with national grid, before synchronizing there are 4 conditions which are must
be fulfiled

1. Phase sequence should be same

2. Voltage Magnitude should be same
3. Frequency should be same
4. Phase angle sholud be same Phase Sequence:
The phase sequence (or phase rotation) of the three phases of the generator must be the same as the
phase sequence of the three phases of the electrical system (Grid).
Voltage Magnitude:
The magnitude of the sinusoidal voltage produced by the generator must be equal to the magnitude
of the sinusoidal voltage of the grid.If all other conditions are met but the two voltages are not the
same, that is there is a voltage differential, closing of the AC generator output breaker will cause a
potentially large MVAR flow.
If the generator voltage is higher than the grid voltage, this means that the internal voltage of the
generator is higher than the grid voltage. When it is connected to the grid the generator will be
overexcited and it will put out MVAR.
If the generator voltage is less than the grid voltage, this means that the internal voltage of the
generator is lower than the grid voltage. When it is connected to the grid the generator will be
underexcited and it will absorb MVAR.
Frequency:
The frequency of the sinusoidal voltage produced by the generator must be equal to the frequency of
the sinusoidal voltage produced by the grid.
If generator is slower than the grid:

The synchroscope would be rotating rapidly counter clockwise. If the generator breaker were to be
accidentally closed, the generator would be out of step with the external electrical system. It would
behave like motor and the grid would try to bring it up to speed.In doing so, the rotor and stator would
be slipping poles and damage (possibly destroy) the generator as described previously. The same
problem would occur if the generator were faster than the grid.

If generator and grid have matching speed:

The high points and zero crossings of the sinusoidal voltages occur at the same rate of speed. If the
generator breaker were to be closed at this time, the grid would pull the generator into
step.However, this again would cause a large current in-rush to the generator and high stresses on
the rotor/stator with subsequentdamage to the generator. If the generator were leading the grid, it
would try to immediately push power into the grid with the same destructive forces as mentioned.
Hence the generator must be brought to a point where the grid voltage waveform exactly matches
what it is producing.
Phase angle:
The phase angle between the voltage produced by the generator and the voltage produced by the
gridmust be zero.The phase angle (0 to 360°) can be readily observed by comparing the simultaneous
occurrence of the peaks or zero crossings of the sinusoidal waveforms.
If the generator breaker is closed when they match exactly, the connection will appear smooth and
seamless.
Procedure:

• Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.

• And before turn on the switch(connecting National Grid) synchronize them by these
steps

1. Check the sequence of flickring of bulbs

2. Check the flikring rate of bulbs
3. Check the glow intensity of bulbs

Setting:

• The flikring sequence should be same it means all bulbs on or off at the time.
• Flikring rate showld be zero it means they are all should be turn on or turn off (not
flashing).
• The intensty of glow should be minimum as much as possible.

Methods:

• Flickring sequence shows the phase angle sequence, to set the flickring sequence just
swap the any two phases of National Grid or Synchronous generator.
• Flickring rate shows the frequency difference, to set the frquency difference zero just
change the speed of Synchronous generator (increase or decrease is depend upon the
difference).
• The intensity of glow shows the Amplitude difference of both sinusoidal voltages, if
the glow intensity is high it means there is large difference between National grid
voltages and Synchronous generator voltages and vise versa.
• If All these condition fulfiled then turn on the synchronizing switch so that our
Synchronous generator will attached to the bus of national grid. Now its rpm depends
that either it is consuming or delivering the power to National Grid.
• After Synchronizing take reading of National grid and Synchronous generator
voltages and Synchronous generator current (of any one phase) and speed and torque
of Synchronous generator and active power of Synchronous generator.
• Increase the active power deliverd to National grid by Synchronous generator in
increments of 10 watts and record the measurments.
 Circuit Diagram:

Results:

Resistive Load:

E1 I1 N

(V) (A) (rpm)

218.38 0 1550
208.41 0.05 1540
193 0.15 1552
186.02 0.32 1545
173.2 0.36 1547
161.7 0.4 1549
151.12 0.43 1546