Spinal Cord Injury - Developments in Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in Treating Spinal Cord Injuries - Premier Science

11/17/24, 11:43 AM Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in Treating Spinal Cord
nal Cord Injuries - Premier Science
Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In

Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in
Treating Spinal Cord Injuries
Dr Modinat Olushanu PhD
Freelance writer, London, United Kingdom
Correspondence to: [email protected]
DOI: https://doi.org/10.70389/PJS.100005
Abstract
Introduction
History of treating SCI
Stem Cell Transplantation
Combination Therapies
Clinical Trials and Outcomes
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Additional information
Ethical approval: N/a

Consent: N/a
Funding: No industry funding
https://premierscience.com/pjs-24-278/ 1/21
11/17/24, 11:43 AM Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in Treating Spinal Cord Injuries - Premier Science
Conflicts of interest: N/a

Author contribution: Modinat Olushanu – Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, review and editing
Guarantor: Modinat Olushanu
Provenance and peer-review:
Commissioned and externally peer-reviewed
Data availability statement: N/a
Keywords: stem cells, MSCs, NSCs, iPSCs, OECs, biomaterial, scaffold, SCIs, neurorehabilitation, specialised
cells, functional recovery, clinical trials, induced pluripotent stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, neural stem
cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, stem cell transplantation
Cite this article as:

Olushanu M. Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in Treating Spinal
Cord Injuries. Premier Journal of Science 2024:1;100005
Received: 2 August 2024

Revised: 12 August 2024
Accepted: 13 August 2024
Published: 2 September 2024
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a severely debilitating condition that results in irreversible neurological deficits and
significantly diminishes quality of life. Traditionally, treatment has primarily focused on symptom management
and has offered limited functional recovery. Recent advancements in regenerative medicine and stem cell
research have presented new possibilities for SCI patients. This review discusses key developments in SCI
treatment, particularly stem cell transplantation, specialised cells, and combinational therapies.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and
olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) have shown promise in neural repair and functional recovery. Additionally,
combining stem cell therapy with rehabilitation and neurotrophic factors enhances the therapeutic potential.
However, achieving consistent and substantial functional recovery remains challenging and requires further
research and large-scale clinical trials. This review underscores the need to translate these scientific
advancements into clinical practice to improve the quality of life of SCI patients.
Introduction
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is estimated that between 250,000 and 500,000
people worldwide suffer from SCI annually (1). The prevalence of SCI varies widely across different regions and
populations and is often influenced by factors such as traffic accidents, workplace safety, and availability of
medical care (1,2).
SCI damage occurs in the spinal cord, resulting in the loss of functions such as mobility or sensation. The spinal
cord, a vital part of the central nervous system, comprises nerve fibres that relay signals between the brain and
the body (3). Damage to the spinal cord can disrupt these signals, causing significant and often permanent
changes in strength, sensation, and other functions below the injury site. SCIs can be caused by traumatic
events, such as motor vehicle accidents, sports injuries, falls, and violence, or by nontraumatic factors (3,4).
SCIs are classified as complete or incomplete injuries: a complete injury results in no function below the injury
level, whereas an incomplete injury preserves some function. The severity and impact of SCI are determined
by the affected spinal cord level (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, or sacral) (4).
SCIs significantly impact individuals, resulting in physical, psychosocial, and economic challenges. These
injuries often lead to the loss of movement and sensation, which can result in paralysis, such as tetraplegia or
paraplegia (5). Physical consequences may also include respiratory problems, spasticity, and persistent pain.
Injuries to the cervical and thoracic regions can impede neural pathways, leading to respiratory difficulties
such as ventilatory failure and pneumonia. Spasticity results in continuous muscle rigidity and hinders mobility,
whereas chronic pain can manifest as neuropathic, musculoskeletal, or visceral discomfort (6–8).
SCI can have a profound impact on an individual’s emotional and psychological well-being, often leading to
feelings of depression and anxiety as a result of sudden changes in physical capabilities. Furthermore, the
financial strain caused by high medical expenses and loss of employment can exacerbate the challenges
faced by individuals and their families (9).
History of treating SCI
The treatment of SCIs with stem cells and specialised cells can be traced back to early animal studies that
examined the regenerative capabilities of various stem cell types, including MSCs, NSCs, and iPSCs. These
studies have revealed the potential of these cells to improve motor and sensory functions and facilitate neural
repair. Initial clinical trials conducted in the early 2000s focused on the safety and feasibility of MSC
transplantation, demonstrating that MSCs derived from sources such as the bone marrow and adipose tissue
are safe and can modulate immune responses and promote tissue repair (10–13). Advances in iPSC technology
in the 2010s have enabled the reprogramming of somatic cells into pluripotent stem cells, offering new
avenues for neural repair (14,15). NSCs derived from foetal tissues or iPSCs have been tested for their ability to
differentiate into neurons and glial cells, aiding in neural repair and functional recovery (14,16–18).
Specialised cell types, such as olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and stem cell-derived exosomes, have also
been investigated for their regenerative potential(19–22). OECs are known for their ability to support axonal
growth, while exosome therapy offers a cell-free therapeutic approach by carrying neuroprotective and
regenerative factors to the injury site (20,21).
Despite promising results, challenges such as immune rejection, tumorigenesis, and the optimisation of cell
delivery methods remain (23,24). Recent studies have endeavoured to enhance these therapies and establish
consistent guidelines for their clinical application, which could significantly advance the treatment of SCI and
promote better patient outcomes (25,26).
Stem Cell Transplantation
Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)
MSCs possess immunomodulatory and regenerative properties. Derived from bone marrow, adipose tissue,
and umbilical cord, MSCs show potential in improving motor and sensory functions in SCI patients (24,27). Levi
et al. demonstrated the safety and feasibility of transplanting 20 million human central nervous system stem
cells (HuCNS-SC) into the thoracic spinal cord of 12 patients with chronic motor-complete and sensory-
incomplete SCI in a multi-site phase I/IIa clinical trial. The six-year study revealed no severe adverse effects or
tumour formation, and while sensory improvements were observed in five patients, motor function recovery
was not detected, emphasising the need for further research to enhance cell engraftment and integration
(28). Sykova et al. illustrated that MSCs from various sources have shown promise in treating
neurodegenerative diseases such as SCI and ALS, owing to their multilineage differentiation potential and
immunomodulatory properties (29,30). They release neuroprotective cytokines, migrate to lesion sites, and
enhance neural plasticity, leading to improved function in animal models (27,31). Clinical studies have
confirmed the safety and modest benefits of MSCs in promoting neural repair and functional recovery,
particularly umbilical cord-derived MSCs with high neurotrophic factor secretion (29,32) (33,34). Tahmasebi et
al.’s review, reflects that although improvements in sensory and bladder functions have been noted, the
effects on motor function remain unclear, requiring further research to optimise and assess the application of
these therapies in humans (34).
Neural Stem Cells (NSCs)
NSCs can differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, making them suitable for repairing
neural damage (35–38). Additionally, it has been suggested that genetically modified NSCs could overcome
certain limitations, such as low migration and survival rates, thereby enhancing their therapeutic potential (39).
Preclinical studies using NSCs derived from fetal tissues and iPSCs have shown promising results in promoting
neurogenesis and functional recovery in animal models of SCI (18,40–42). However, several challenges persist
that must be addressed before the clinical application of this technology can be realised, including the
regulation of cell differentiation and proliferation, as well as ensuring patient safety (18,43). Further research is
needed to optimise these therapies and ensure their efficacy and safety for potential use in humans
(41,42,44).
Another technology that has been explored is the conversion of human fibroblasts into NSCs using single zinc-
finger transcription factors, which represents a significant advancement and provides deeper insights into
neural development and potential therapeutic applications (45,46). This method allows the generation of
long-term self-renewable and multipotent NSCs, which are similar to control NSCs in terms of their
characteristics and functionality. Induced NSCs exhibit the capacity to survive, migrate, and differentiate into
neural phenotypes post-transplantation without tumour formation, which is crucial for any therapeutic
application (45). However, while this advancement is promising, it is important to consider the broader context
of SCI treatment and the various approaches being explored. For instance, Yu et al. and Pereira et al. elaborate
on the opportunities presented by NSCs derived from iPSCs and their capacity for cell transplantation therapy
aimed at addressing SCI (47,48). Lu et al. and Ao et al. emphasised the survival and integration of NSCs in
severe SCIs and the potential synergistic effects of co-transplanting NSCs with other cell types, such as
OECs, to promote regeneration and functional reconstruction (49,50). Furthermore, Kiani et al. indicated the
potential of employing human-induced neural stem cells (hiNSCs) for cell-based therapy in rats with spinal
cord injury (SCI), as evidenced by the enhanced cell viability and locomotor function observed following
transplantation (51).
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
iPSCs are a versatile source of stem cells that can be reprogrammed from somatic cells and differentiated
into various cell types, including neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs), which can be used for SCI treatment
(52–54). Research has demonstrated that iPSCs can survive, differentiate, and extend axons over long
distances in the injured spinal cord, forming synapses with host neurons, which are crucial for functional
recovery after SCI (55,56). Recent studies have focused on preparing for first-in-human clinical trials using
iPSC-derived neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) for subacute SCI (57,58). These studies have addressed
critical issues such as safety, tumourigenesis, and the practical challenges of cell preparation and
transplantation (54,58).
Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs)
OECs have been identified as promising agents in treating SCIs because of their unique ability to support
axonal growth and facilitate neural regeneration (59,60). These cells, which share characteristics with both
Schwann cells and astrocytes, can migrate within the damaged spinal cord, secrete neurotrophic factors, and
potentially carry exogenous genes to promote neuronal regeneration (61,62). Olfactory mucosa cells have
been found to be effective in restoring motor function due to their capacity to remyelinate and regenerate
axons. Furthermore, they express neurotrophic factors essential for nerve tissue recovery following SCI (63).
Additionally, OECs have been shown to interact with astrocytes, regulate inflammatory reactions, and
contribute to myelination, which is a critical process in nerve repair (59). However, there are challenges in the
application of OECs, such as inconsistency in therapeutic outcomes, which may be attributed to the variability
in cell populations used for transplantation (64). Moreover, while OECs have demonstrated neuroprotective
and repair roles, the mechanisms by which they mediate anti-inflammatory effects remain a subject of debate
(65). The potential of OECs is further complicated by the need for improved purification procedures to
achieve their full therapeutic potential (64).
In summary, OECs offer a multifaceted approach to SCI treatment by promoting axonal regeneration,
myelination, and modulation of the inflammatory response. Despite promising evidence, further research is
required to standardise cell preparations and fully understand the mechanisms of OEC-mediated repair to
optimise their therapeutic application (64,65).
Exosomes
Exosome therapy presents a novel cell-free approach to treating spinal cord injuries (SCIs) by capitalising on
the intrinsic ability of exosomes to transport neuroprotective and regenerative factors to the site of injury.
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that facilitate intercellular communication and possess the potential to
modify the injured spinal cord’s environment by delivering bioactive molecules that promote neuroprotection
and regeneration (20,21,66). Numerous studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potential of exosomes.
Zhou et al., in their study, revealed that exosomes derived from human placental MSCs possess the ability to
promote recovery from SCIs by stimulating endogenous neurogenesis and improving locomotor and bladder
functions via the MEK/ERK/CREB signalling pathway (67). In addition, a study by Xue et al. showed that human
umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (hUC-MSC)-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have the
potential to repair disrupted blood-spinal cord barriers in SCI through the regulation of Endothelin-1 and the
enhancement of tight junction proteins. These findings further support the idea that sEVs may offer a
promising cell-free therapeutic strategy for treating SCI (68). Another study demonstrated that exosomes
derived from UC-MSCs enhanced motor function recovery and reduced inflammation by inhibiting the NF-
κB/MAPK signalling pathway (69). Lee et al. demonstrated that targeted delivery of MSC-derived nanovesicles
(MF-NVs) enhances neuroprotection, anti-inflammation, and angiogenesis in SCI treatment, offering an
effective cell-free therapeutic approach (70). A study by Mu et al. showed that an emergency treatment
strategy using MSC-derived exosomes encapsulated in fibrin glue resulted in significant functional recovery in
SCI, suggesting potential benefits in urinary function recovery (71).
Combination Therapies
Combining Different Types of Stem Cells
Recent research has suggested that combining different stem cell types may enhance therapeutic outcomes
(62). Co-transplantation of NSCs and MSCs has demonstrated synergistic effects, resulting in improved
motor and sensory function. Furthermore, scaffolds and growth factors facilitate stem cell transplantation by
establishing a favourable microenvironment that promotes tissue regeneration (72–75). Notably, while the
advantages of employing a combination of stem cells have been emphasised, the literature also recognises
the intricacy of spinal SCI pathophysiology and the necessity for precision medicine approaches. This
indicates that the efficacy of combined stem cell therapies may be contingent upon customised treatment to
the unique features of the injury and the patient (24,76,77).
Rehabilitation and Neurotrophic Factors
Integrating stem cell transplantation with rehabilitation and neurotrophic factors has yielded encouraging
outcomes. Rehabilitation enhances the effects of cell transplantation by promoting neural plasticity and
functional recovery. Studies have shown that rehabilitation when combined with stem cell transplantation, can
lead to significant improvements in functional recovery, particularly when initiated during the chronic phase of
SCI (78). This synergistic effect is thought to be the result of the rehabilitation’s capacity to facilitate neuronal
plasticity within transplanted stem cells and sensorimotor circuits, which is crucial for functional recovery (79).
Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the integration of rehabilitation and neural progenitor cell (NPC)
transplants leads to enhanced functional results because rehabilitation promotes the growth of host
corticospinal axons into grafts (78). This suggests that rehabilitation not only supports the integration of
transplanted cells but also enhances endogenous repair mechanisms
The use of neurotrophic factors, such as neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), in conjunction with stem cell therapies, has
been shown to improve outcomes in patients with spinal cord injuries (SCI). The combination of these two
therapies has demonstrated synergistic effects, leading to improved locomotor function and reduced SCI
pathology (80,81). In particular, the use of neurotrophic factors, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), in conjunction with stem cell therapies has
demonstrated the potential to mitigate damage and facilitate recovery in preclinical models of SCI (80).
In conclusion, evidence suggests that neurotrophic factors, including NT-3, can effectively improve
outcomes after SCIs when combined with stem cell treatments. This joint approach benefits from the
neuroprotective and regenerative qualities of neurotrophins and the extensive therapeutic potential of stem
cells, presenting a promising strategy for improving recovery in SCI (77,80,81).
Clinical Trials and Outcomes
Safety and Feasibility
Clinical trials have established the safety and feasibility of stem cell transplantation in SCI. Rong et al. study
highlights that stem cell transplantation has been performed at various stages of SCI and is safe and feasible,
with the potential to alleviate inflammation and restore the function of damaged nerve cells (82). Similarly,
Digma et al. reported that early clinical trials demonstrated the safety and feasibility of stem cell
transplantation in patients with SCI, with observed improvements in sensory and motor functions (83).
Silvestro et al. also supported these findings, indicating that clinical trials have demonstrated the safety and
efficacy of stem cell therapy in patients with SCI (82–84). However, despite these positive indications,
challenges and limitations remain to be addressed. Agosti et al. pointed out that, while stem cell therapies
show promise, some potential adverse events and limitations necessitate careful optimisation of
transplantation conditions (85). Moreover, there is a need for a deeper understanding of SCI pathophysiology
and concerns, such as tumourigenicity and immunogenicity, before its widespread clinical adoption. Goel et
al. and Kan et al. echo the sentiment that more rigorous, large-scale clinical trials are needed to fully
understand the safety, efficacy, and long-term viability of stem cell therapies for SCI (85–87).
Efficacy
Although the safety of stem cell therapies has been well documented, their efficacy remains variable. The
efficacy of these therapies is less consistent, as clinical studies have not always yielded encouraging results,
and the translation of preclinical success to clinical practice has been challenging (88). This discrepancy may
be due to the heterogeneity of SCI pathophysiology, timing of intervention, and types of stem cells used (76).
Moreover, despite the promise shown in animal models, the limitations of preclinical data and the complexity
of translating these findings into successful clinical outcomes have been acknowledged (89).
Various studies have reported improvements in motor and sensory functions post-SCI have been reported in
various studies, particularly with the use of MSCs and NSCs. MSCs have been shown to promote repair
through immunomodulation, neuroprotection, and nerve regeneration (24), whereas NSCs have
demonstrated the ability to form synapses with host axons and extend new axons from the injury site (79).
However, the extent of recovery is variable and dependent on factors such as the type of stem cells used, the
severity of injury, and the therapeutic approach. The promising results from MSC and NSC therapies
underscore the potential of stem cell-based interventions in SCI treatment, although further research is
needed to optimise these therapies and understand their mechanisms of action (24,90).
Discussion
Recent advancements in SCI treatment, particularly in stem cell therapies and combinational approaches,
offer new hope for improving the quality of life for individuals with SCI (76,89,91,92). Significant progress has
been made in developing these therapies, demonstrating their potential to repair damaged spinal cord
tissues and restore lost function (22,93–95). However, ongoing research and clinical trials are crucial to
overcome the existing challenges and fully realise the potential of these therapies. Addressing issues such as
immune rejection, precise delivery methods, and ensuring stem cell treatments’ long-term safety and efficacy
remain essential.
Overcoming the challenges
The advent of iPSC technology has mitigated ethical concerns, particularly with the use of embryonic stem
cells (ESCs) and fetal tissues (40). Although stem cells are not a complete solution for neural repair, their
combination with other therapies, such as rehabilitation and nanotechnology, may enhance their
effectiveness (96). Integrating innovative technologies and comprehensive treatment strategies is
fundamental to advancing SCI treatment and achieving substantial functional recovery (97–99). Technologies,
such as biomaterials, scaffolding, and gene editing, are being explored to enhance the effectiveness of stem
cell therapies. Biomaterials can provide a supportive environment for stem cells, promoting their survival and
integration into the host tissues (74,75,99–101).
Scaffolding techniques help guide the growth and organisation of new cells, whereas gene editing can be
used to enhance the regenerative capacity of stem cells (44,74,93,100). Moreover, integrating
complementary technologies, such as neurorehabilitation, electrical stimulation, and pharmacological
treatments, can maximise the benefits of stem cell therapy (102,103). Neurorehabilitation can help patients
relearn motor skills and improve functional outcomes. Electrical stimulation can enhance the activity of spinal
circuits and promote nerve regeneration (103–105). Pharmacological treatments can address inflammation
and other secondary complications, creating a more favourable environment for stem cell therapy (106).
Conclusion
Stem cell therapy for SCI is a promising field with great potential for improving patient outcomes.
Collaborative efforts among stakeholders, including scientists, clinicians, and regulatory bodies, are vital to
address the current challenges. Advances in stem cell biology and regenerative medicine have pushed the
boundaries of what is possible. Future studies should focus on optimising stem cell therapy protocols to
ensure the highest safety and efficacy standards. This includes determining the best types of stem cells to
use, refining delivery methods, and establishing optimal timing for intervention.
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11/17/24, 11:43 AM Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In Using Stem Cells and Specialised Cells in Treating Spinal Cord

nal Cord Injuries - Premier Science

Spinal Cord Injury: Developments In

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History of treating SCI

Stem Cell Transplantation

Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)

Neural Stem Cells (NSCs)

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs)

Combining Different Types of Stem Cells

Rehabilitation and Neurotrophic Factors

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4. Spinal cord injury. NINDS [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-

51. Kiani S, Mohammadshirazi A, Kashkouli M, Shahbazi E, Asghari H, Kheymeh A, et al. Transplantation of

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