Punctuations

1. Period (.) • Usage: Ends a declarative sentence or statement

. • Effect: Signals completion, finality, or calmness. • Example: The sun sets in the west.
2. Comma (,) • Usage: Separates items in a list, clauses, or pauses between ideas. •
Effect: Creates a pause for clarity or adds flow to complex sentences. • Example: I
bought apples, oranges, and bananas
. 3. Question Mark (?) • Usage: Ends a direct question. • Effect: Signals inquiry or
uncertainty, prompting a response or reflection. • Example: Are you coming to the
party?
4. Exclamation Mark (!) • Usage: Expresses strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis. •
Effect: Adds intensity, excitement, or urgency. • Example: Watch out!
5. Colon (:) • Usage: Introduces a list, explanation, or quote. • Effect: Signals something
important or elaborative is coming. • Example: He brought three items: a pen, a
notebook, and a flashlight.
6. Semicolon (;) • Usage: Links closely related independent clauses or separates items
in a complex list. • Effect: Creates a smooth connection between ideas without a full
stop. • Example: I wanted to go; however, the weather was terrible.
7. Quotation Marks (” “) • Usage: Encloses direct speech, quotes, or specific terms. •
Effect: Highlights spoken words, quotations, or emphasizes specific phrases. • Example:
He said, “I’ll be there soon.”
8. Apostrophe (’) • Usage: Indicates possession or contraction. • Effect: Clarifies
ownership or reduces formality in contractions. • Example: It’s John’s book.
9. Dash (—) • Usage: Indicates an abrupt break in thought or adds emphasis. • Effect:
Draws attention to added information or creates a dramatic pause. • Example: She was
about to speak—then suddenly stopped.
10. Parentheses (()) • Usage: Adds extra information or an aside. • Effect: Adds
supplementary, non-essential information without interrupting the main sentence. •
Example: The meeting (which was scheduled for noon) was delayed.
11. Ellipsis (…) • Usage: Indicates a trailing off or omitted text. • Effect: Creates
suspense, suggests hesitation, or indicates missing information. • Example: I’m not sure
if I can go…
12. Hyphen (-) • Usage: Joins compound words or separates syllables. • Effect:
Clarifies meaning in compound words. • Example: Well-known author, twenty-three-
year-old student.
Summary
1. Read or Watch the Material Carefully • Ensure you fully understand the original
content. • Focus on the key ideas, main points, and important details.
2. Identify the Main Ideas • Look for the topic sentence of each paragraph (for written
texts) or key moments (for videos, events). • Omit minor details, examples, or
unnecessary descriptions.
3. Use Your Own Words • Paraphrase the content. Avoid copying phrases or sentences
directly from the original text. • Write in a clear and concise way, using simple language.
4. Be Objective • Stick to the facts. Do not include personal opinions, interpretations, or
additional thoughts. • Present the material as neutrally as possible.
5. Keep It Short and Focused • The goal of a summary is brevity, so remove repetition
and irrelevant information. • Focus only on the core ideas and arguments
. 6. Maintain the Original Sequence • Present the ideas in the same order as the original
material unless it improves clarity to change it.
7. Review and Revise • Re-read your summary to ensure it accurately reflects the
original text and is free of errors. • Make sure the summary flows logically and clearly
Neutral Reporting Verbs

• Say: He said that he was tired.

• Tell: She told me to wait here.

• State: They stated that the project was complete.

• Report: The journalist reported that the event was successful.

• Explain: She explained why she was late.

Agree: He agreed that the plan was a good idea.

. • Accept: They accepted the proposal
• Deny: He denied that he had made a mistake.
• Refuse: She refused to comment on the issue.
• Dispute: They disputed the accuracy of the report.
• Question: He questioned the validity of the statement
Suggest: She suggested taking a break.
• Recommend: He recommended visiting the museum.
• Advise: They advised me to be careful
Insist: He insisted that he was right.
• Emphasize: She emphasized the importance of punctuality.
• Claim: They claimed that the product was the best on the market. Verbs Showing
Reaction or Emotion
• Complain: He complained about the noise.
• Apologize: She apologized for the mistake.
• Admit: They admitted that they were wrong.
• Applaud: He applauded the team’s efforts.
Poetry features
1. Imagery: Poetry often uses vivid and descriptive language to create mental pictures
and evoke sensory experiences.
2. Sound Devices: Elements like rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance, and
onomatopoeia contribute to the musical quality of poetry.
3. Form and Structure: Poems can follow specific forms (like sonnets or haikus) with
set patterns of lines and stanzas, or they can be free verse, lacking a consistent
structure.
4. Figurative Language: Poets frequently employ metaphors, similes, personification,
and other figures of speech to convey deeper meanings and emotions.
5. Emotion and Mood: Poetry often expresses intense feelings and creates specific
moods, allowing readers to connect on an emotional level.
6. Conciseness: Poems tend to convey meaning in a more condensed form than prose,
often using fewer words to evoke strong imagery and feelings
. 7. Symbolism: Objects, characters, and events in poetry often symbolize larger
concepts or themes, inviting deeper interpretation
. 8. Theme: Poetry often explores universal themes such as love, nature, death, and
identity, inviting readers to reflect on their significance.
Formal Language
• Tone: Polite, respectful, and professional. • Vocabulary: Uses sophisticated or
academic vocabulary; avoids slang and colloquialisms. •
Grammar: Follows strict grammatical rules; complete sentences and complex
structures are common. • Context: Typically used in academic writing, professional
communications, official documents, and formal speeches. • Examples: • “I would like to
request your assistance with this matter.” • “The results of the study indicate a
significant correlation between the variables.”
Informal Language • Tone: Casual, relaxed, and conversational. • Vocabulary:
Includes slang, colloquialisms, and everyday language; may use contractions. •
Grammar: More lenient with grammar rules; sentence fragments and simpler structures
are common. • Context: Used in personal conversations, casual emails, social media,
and informal writing. • Examples: • “Hey, can you help me with this?” • “The study
showed a pretty strong link between the two things.” Summary • Use formal language in
situations where professionalism and clarity are important, such as job applications,
academic essays, or business meetings. • Use informal language in casual settings,
such as chatting with friends, texting, or writing personal blogs.
1. Context Clues:
Look at the sentences or paragraphs surrounding the unfamiliar word. Authors often
provide hints or explanations through the context in which the word is used.
4. Word Parts: Break the word down into its prefixes, roots, and suffixes. Understanding
these components can help decipher the meaning. For example, “unhappy” consists of
the prefix “un-” (not) and the root “happy.”
1. Declarative Sentences • Definition: Statements that convey information or express
an opinion. • Placement: Often used to present main ideas or support points. • Example:
“The climate is changing rapidly.”
2. Interrogative Sentences • Definition: Questions that seek information. • Placement:
Typically placed at the beginning to engage the reader or at the end to provoke thought.
• Example: “What are the implications of climate change?”
 3. Imperative Sentences • Definition: Commands or requests that direct someone to
do something. • Placement: Usually placed at the beginning to establish a call to action
or at the end to leave the reader with a clear instruction. • Example: “Consider reducing
your carbon footprint.”
4. Exclamatory Sentences • Definition: Sentences that express strong emotion or
emphasis. • Placement: Often placed at the end of a paragraph or a significant point to
leave a lasting impact. • Example: “What a difference small actions can make!”
5. Complex Sentences • Definition: Sentences that contain an independent clause and
one or more dependent clauses. • Placement: Can be used anywhere in the text to
provide background information or to elaborate on a point. • Example: “Although many
people are aware of climate change, they often feel powerless to act.”
6. Compound Sentences • Definition: Sentences that contain two or more
independent clauses joined by a conjunction. • Placement: Useful for connecting related
ideas and can be positioned throughout the text. • Example: “The weather patterns are
shifting, and many species are struggling to adapt.”
7. Simple Sentences • Definition: Sentences that contain a single independent clause.
• Placement: Effective for stating straightforward facts or ideas; they can be sprinkled
throughout the text to provide clarity. • Example: “Many glaciers are melting.”
Tips for Placement: • Variety: Use a mix of sentence types to create a dynamic and
engaging writing style. • Clarity: Ensure that the placement of each sentence type
enhances understanding and flow. • Transitions: Use transitional words or phrases to
connect different sentence types smoothly.

Imperative Verbs Definition: Imperative verbs are used to issue commands, requests, or
instructions. They typically take the base form of a verb and are often directed toward the
listener For example, “Close the door.”
Modal Verbs Definition: Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility,
permission, ability, or obligation.
• Examples of Modal Verbs: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would. Examples: •
Ability: “She can swim.” (indicates ability) • Possibility: “It might rain tomorrow.” (indicates
possibility) • Permission: “May I leave early?” (indicates permission) • Obligation: “You must
finish your homework.” (indicates necessity) • Advice: “You should see a doctor.” (indicates
recommendation)