Pi

The number π (/paɪ/; spelled out as "pi") is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter, approximately equal to 3.14159. The number π appears in many
formulae across mathematics and physics. It is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be

expressed exactly as a ratio of two integers, although fractions such as are commonly used to

approximate it. Consequently, its decimal representation never ends, nor enters a permanently
repeating pattern. It is a transcendental number, meaning that it cannot be a solution of an equation
involving only finite sums, products, powers, and integers. The transcendence of π implies that it is
impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge.
The decimal digits of π appear to be randomly distributed,[a] but no proof of this conjecture has been
found.

For thousands of years, mathematicians have attempted to extend their understanding of π,

sometimes by computing its value to a high degree of accuracy. Ancient civilizations, including the
Egyptians and Babylonians, required fairly accurate approximations of π for practical computations.
Around 250 BC, the Greek mathematician Archimedes created an algorithm to approximate π with
arbitrary accuracy. In the 5th century AD, Chinese mathematicians approximated π to seven digits,
while Indian mathematicians made a five- digit approximation, both using geometrical techniques. The
first computational formula for π, based on infinite series, was discovered a millennium later.[1][2] The
earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its
diameter was by the Welsh mathematician William Jones in 1706.[3]

The invention of calculus soon led to the calculation of hundreds of digits of π, enough for all practical
scientific computations. Nevertheless, in the 20th and 21st centuries, mathematicians and computer
scientists have pursued new approaches that, when combined with increasing computational power,
extended the decimal representation of π to many trillions of digits.[4][5] These computations are
motivated by the development of efficient algorithms to calculate numeric series, as well as the
human quest to break records.[6][7] The extensive computations involved have also been used to test
supercomputers as well as stress testing consumer computer hardware.

Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry,
especially those concerning circles, ellipses and spheres. It is also found in formulae from other
topics in science, such as cosmology, fractals, thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetism. It
also appears in areas having little to do with geometry, such as number theory and statistics, and in
modern mathematical analysis can be defined without any reference to geometry. The ubiquity of π
makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants inside and outside of science.
Several books devoted to π have been published, and record- setting calculations of the digits of π
often result in news headlines.

Fundamentals

Name

The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter
is the lowercase Greek letter π, sometimes spelled out as pi. [8] In English, π is pronounced as "pie"
(/paɪ/ PY).[9] In mathematical use, the lowercase letter π is distinguished from its capitalized and
enlarged counterpart Π, which denotes a product of a sequence, analogous to how Σ denotes
summation.

The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π.

Definition

The circumference of a circle is

slightly more than three times as long
as its diameter. The exact ratio is
called π.

π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference C to its diameter d:[10]

The ratio is constant, regardless of the circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter

of another circle, it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio . This definition of π
implicitly makes use of flat (Euclidean) geometry; although the notion of a circle can be extended to

any curve (non- Euclidean) geometry, these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula .[10]

Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which
can be formally defined independently of geometry using limits—a concept in calculus.[11] For
example, one may directly compute the arc length of the top half of the unit circle, given in Cartesian
coordinates by the equation , as the integral:[12]

An integral such as this was proposed as a definition of π by Karl Weierstrass, who defined it directly
as an integral in 1841.[b]

Integration is no longer commonly used in a first analytical definition because, as Remmert 2012
explains, differential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum, so it is
desirable to have a definition of π that does not rely on the latter. One such definition, due to Richard
Baltzer[14] and popularized by Edmund Landau,[15] is the following: π is twice the smallest positive
number at which the cosine function equals 0.[10][12][16] π is also the smallest positive number at
which the sine function equals zero, and the difference between consecutive zeroes of the sine
function. The cosine and sine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series,[17] or as
the solution of a differential equation.[16]

In a similar spirit, π can be defined using properties of the complex exponential, exp z, of a complex
variable z. Like the cosine, the complex exponential can be defined in one of several ways. The set of
complex numbers at which exp z is equal to one is then an (imaginary) arithmetic progression of the
form:

and there is a unique positive real number π with this property.[12][18]

A variation on the same idea, making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts of topology and
algebra, is the following theorem:[19] there is a unique (up to automorphism) continuous isomorphism
from the group R/Z of real numbers under addition modulo integers (the circle group), onto the
multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value one. The number π is then defined as half
the magnitude of the derivative of this homomorphism.[20]
Irrationality and normality

π is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers. Fractions such
22 355
as 7 ⁠and ⁠113 ⁠are commonly used to approximate π, but no common fraction (ratio of whole numbers)

can be its exact value.[21] Because π is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal
representation, and does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several
proofs that π is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the reductio ad absurdum
technique. The degree to which π can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality
measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger or
at least equal to the measure of e but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers.[22]

The digits of π have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness, including
tests for normality; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits
(of any given length) appear equally often. The conjecture that π is normal has not been proven or
disproven.[23]

Since the advent of computers, a large number of digits of π have been available on which to perform
statistical analysis. Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal
digits of π, and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequencies of the ten digits 0
to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found.[24] Any
random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non- random, by the
infinite monkey theorem. Thus, because the sequence of π's digits passes statistical tests for
randomness, it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non- random, such as a sequence
of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of π.[25]
This is also called the "Feynman point" in mathematical folklore, after Richard Feynman, although no
connection to Feynman is known.
Transcendence

Because π is a transcendental
number, squaring the circle is not
possible in a finite number of steps
using the classical tools of compass
and straightedge.

In addition to being irrational, π is also a transcendental number, which means that it is not the
solution of any non- constant polynomial equation with rational coefficients, such as

.[26][c]

The transcendence of π has two important consequences: First, π cannot be expressed using any
finite combination of rational numbers and square roots or n - th roots (such as or ). Second,
since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible
to "square the circle". In other words, it is impossible to construct, using compass and straightedge
alone, a square whose area is exactly equal to the area of a given circle.[27] Squaring a circle was one
of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity.[28] Amateur mathematicians in modern
times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and claim success—despite the fact that it is
mathematically impossible.[29][30]

Continued fractions

As an irrational number, π cannot be represented as a common fraction. But every number, including π,
can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:
Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a rational approximation for π; the first four of
22 333 355
these are 3, ⁠ 7 ⁠, ⁠106 ⁠, and ⁠113 ⁠. These numbers are among the best- known and most widely used

historical approximations of the constant. Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational
approximation; that is, each is closer to π than any other fraction with the same or a smaller
denominator.[31] Because π is transcendental, it is by definition not algebraic and so cannot be a
quadratic irrational. Therefore, π cannot have a periodic continued fraction. Although the simple
continued fraction for π (shown above) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern,[32][33] several
generalized continued fractions do, such as:[34]

The middle of these is due to the mid- 17th century mathematician William Brouncker, see
§ Brouncker's formula.

Approximate value and digits

Some approximations of pi include:

Integers: 3

22 333 355 52163

Fractions: Approximate fractions include (in order of increasing accuracy) 7 , 106 , 113 , 16604 ,
103993 104348 245850922
33102
, 33215 , and 78256779 .[31] (List is selected terms from OEIS: A063674 and

OEIS: A063673.)
 Digits: The first 50 decimal digits are
3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510...[35] (see OEIS: A000796)

Digits in other number systems

The first 48 binary (base 2) digits (called bits) are

11.0010 0100 0011 1111 0110 1010 1000 1000 1000 0101 1010 0011... (see OEIS: A004601)

The first 36 digits in ternary (base 3) are 10.010 211 012 222 010 211 002 111 110 221 222 220...
(see OEIS: A004602)

The first 20 digits in hexadecimal (base 16) are 3.243F 6A88 85A3 08D3 1319...[36] (see
OEIS: A062964)

The first five sexagesimal (base 60) digits are 3;8,29,44,0,47[37] (see OEIS: A060707)

Complex numbers and Euler's identity

The association between imaginary

powers of the number e and points on
the unit circle centred at the origin in
the complex plane given by Euler's
formula

Any complex number, say z, can be expressed using a pair of real numbers. In the polar coordinate
system, one number (radius or r) is used to represent z's distance from the origin of the complex
plane, and the other (angle or φ) the counter- clockwise rotation from the positive real line:[38]

where i is the imaginary unit satisfying . The frequent appearance of π in complex analysis
can be related to the behaviour of the exponential function of a complex variable, described by Euler's
formula:[39]

where the constant e is the base of the natural logarithm. This formula establishes a correspondence
between imaginary powers of e and points on the unit circle centred at the origin of the complex
plane. Setting in Euler's formula results in Euler's identity, celebrated in mathematics due to it
containing five important mathematical constants:[39][40]

There are n different complex numbers z satisfying , and these are called the "n- th roots of
unity"[41] and are given by the formula:

History

Antiquity

The best- known approximations to π dating before the Common Era were accurate to two decimal
places; this was improved upon in Chinese mathematics in particular by the mid- first millennium, to an
accuracy of seven decimal places. After this, no further progress was made until the late medieval
period.

The earliest written approximations of π are found in Babylon and Egypt, both within one percent of
the true value. In Babylon, a clay tablet dated 1900–1600 BC has a geometrical statement that, by
25
implication, treats π as 8 = 3.125.[42] In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650 BC but copied

from a document dated to 1850 BC, has a formula for the area of a circle that treats π as

.[33][42] Although some pyramidologists have theorized that the Great Pyramid of Giza

was built with proportions related to π, this theory is not widely accepted by scholars.[43] In the
Shulba Sutras of Indian mathematics, dating to an oral tradition from the first or second millennium BC,
approximations are given which have been variously interpreted as approximately 3.08831, 3.08833,
3.004, 3, or 3.125.[44]

Polygon approximation era

π can be estimated by computing the perimeters of

circumscribed and inscribed polygons.
 Archimedes developed the polygonal
approach to approximating π.

The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of π was a geometrical approach
using polygons, devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, implementing the
method of exhaustion.[45] This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1,000 years, and as a result π
is sometimes referred to as Archimedes's constant.[46] Archimedes computed upper and lower
bounds of π by drawing a regular hexagon inside and outside a circle, and successively doubling the
number of sides until he reached a 96- sided regular polygon. By calculating the perimeters of these
223 22
polygons, he proved that ⁠ 71 ⁠< π < ⁠ 7 ⁠(that is, 3.1408 < π < 3.1429).[47] Archimedes' upper bound of
22 22
7 ⁠
may have led to a widespread popular belief that π is equal to ⁠ 7 ⁠.[48] Around 150 AD, Greek- Roman

scientist Ptolemy, in his Almagest, gave a value for π of 3.1416, which he may have obtained from
Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga.[49][50] Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached
39 digits of π in 1630, a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71
digits.[51]

In ancient China, values for π included 3.1547 (around 1 AD), (100 AD, approximately 3.1623),
142
and 45 ⁠(3rd century, approximately 3.1556).[52] Around 265 AD, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu
Hui created a polygon- based iterative algorithm and used it with a 3,072- sided polygon to obtain a
value of π of 3.1416.[53][54] Liu later invented a faster method of calculating π and obtained a value of
3.14 with a 96- sided polygon, by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of
successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4.[53] The Chinese mathematician Zu
Chongzhi, around 480 AD, calculated that and suggested the
approximations and , which he

termed the Milü (''close ratio") and Yuelü ("approximate ratio"), respectively, using Liu Hui's algorithm
applied to a 12,288- sided polygon. With a correct value for its seven first decimal digits, this value
remained the most accurate approximation of π available for the next 800 years.[55]

The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).[56] Fibonacci in
c. 1220 computed 3.1418 using a polygonal method, independent of Archimedes.[57] Italian author

Dante apparently employed the value .[57]

The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al- Kāshī produced nine sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent

of 16 decimal digits, in 1424, using a polygon with sides,[58][59] which stood as the world
record for about 180 years.[60] French mathematician François Viète in 1579 achieved nine digits with
a polygon of sides.[60] Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal
places in 1593.[60] In 1596, Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits, a record he
later increased to 35 digits (as a result, π was called the "Ludolphian number" in Germany until the
early 20th century).[61] Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621,[62] and Austrian
astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 1040 sides.[63] Christiaan
Huygens was able to arrive at 10 decimal places in 1654 using a slightly different method equivalent
to Richardson extrapolation.[64][65]

Infinite series

Comparison of the convergence of several

historical infinite series for π. S n is the
approximation after taking n terms. Each
subsequent subplot magnifies the shaded area
horizontally by 10 times. (click for detail)

The calculation of π was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th
and 17th centuries. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence. Infinite series
allowed mathematicians to compute π with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who
used geometrical techniques.[66] Although infinite series were exploited for π most notably by
European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the approach also
appeared in the Kerala school sometime in the 14th or 15th century.[67][68] Around 1500 AD, a written
description of an infinite series that could be used to compute π was laid out in Sanskrit verse in
Tantrasamgraha by Nilakantha Somayaji.[67] The series are presented without proof, but proofs are
presented in a later work, Yuktibhāṣā , from around 1530 AD. Several infinite series are described,
including series for sine (which Nilakantha attributes to Madhava of Sangamagrama), cosine, and
arctangent which are now sometimes referred to as Madhava series. The series for arctangent is
sometimes called Gregory's series or the Gregory–Leibniz series.[67] Madhava used infinite series to
estimate π to 11 digits around 1400.[69]

In 1593, François Viète published what is now known as Viète's formula, an infinite product (rather
than an infinite sum, which is more typically used in π calculations):[70][71][72]

In 1655, John Wallis published what is now known as Wallis product, also an infinite product:[70]

Isaac Newton used infinite

series to compute π to 15
digits, later writing "I am
ashamed to tell you to how
many figures I carried these
computations".[73]

In the 1660s, the English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz discovered calculus, which led to the development of many infinite series for approximating
π. Newton himself used an arcsine series to compute a 15- digit approximation of π in 1665 or 1666,
writing, "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other
business at the time."[73]
In 1671, James Gregory, and independently, Leibniz in 1673, discovered the Taylor series expansion
for arctangent:[67][74][75]

This series, sometimes called the Gregory–Leibniz series, equals when evaluated with .[75]
But for , it converges impractically slowly (that is, approaches the answer very gradually), taking
about ten times as many terms to calculate each additional digit.[76]

In 1699, English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the Gregory–Leibniz series for to

compute π to 71 digits, breaking the previous record of 39 digits, which was set with a polygonal
algorithm.[77]

In 1706, John Machin used the Gregory–Leibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much
faster:[3][78][79]

Machin reached 100 digits of π with this formula.[80] Other mathematicians created variants, now
known as Machin- like formulae, that were used to set several successive records for calculating
digits of π.[81][80]

Isaac Newton accelerated the convergence of the Gregory–Leibniz series in 1684 (in an unpublished
work; others independently discovered the result):[82]

Leonhard Euler popularized this series in his 1755 differential calculus textbook, and later used it
with Machin- like formulae, including with which he computed 20

digits of π in one hour.[83]

Machin- like formulae remained the best- known method for calculating π well into the age of
computers, and were used to set records for 250 years, culminating in a 620- digit approximation in
1946 by Daniel Ferguson – the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device.[84]

In 1844, a record was set by Zacharias Dase, who employed a Machin- like formula to calculate 200
decimals of π in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.[85]

In 1853, British mathematician William Shanks calculated π to 607 digits, but made a mistake in the
528th digit, rendering all subsequent digits incorrect. Though he calculated an additional 100 digits in
1873, bringing the total up to 707, his previous mistake rendered all the new digits incorrect as
well.[86]

Rate of convergence

Some infinite series for π converge faster than others. Given the choice of two infinite series for π,
mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence
reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate π to any given accuracy.[87] A simple infinite
series for π is the Gregory–Leibniz series:[88]

As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum, the total gradually gets closer to π,
and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to π as desired. It converges quite slowly,
though – after 500,000 terms, it produces only five correct decimal digits of π.[89]

An infinite series for π (published by Nilakantha in the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than
the Gregory–Leibniz series is:[90][91]

The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series:

After 1st After 2nd After 3rd After 4th After 5th Converges
Infinite series for π
term term term term term to:

4.0000 2.6666 ... 3.4666 ... 2.8952 ... 3.3396 ...

π = 3.1415 ...
3.0000 3.1666 ... 3.1333 ... 3.1452 ... 3.1396 ...

After five terms, the sum of the Gregory–Leibniz series is within 0.2 of the correct value of π,
whereas the sum of Nilakantha's series is within 0.002 of the correct value. Nilakantha's series
converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of π. Series that converge even faster
include Machin's series and Chudnovsky's series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per
term.[87]

Irrationality and transcendence

Not all mathematical advances relating to π were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations.
When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735, finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal
squares, he established a connection between π and the prime numbers that later contributed to the
development and study of the Riemann zeta function:[92]

Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1768 proved that π is irrational, meaning it is not equal to
the quotient of any two integers.[21] Lambert's proof exploited a continued- fraction representation of
the tangent function.[93] French mathematician Adrien- Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that π2 is also
irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that π is
transcendental,[94] confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler.[95][96] Hardy and Wright
states that "the proofs were afterwards modified and simplified by Hilbert, Hurwitz, and other
writers".[97]

Adoption of the symbol π

The earliest known use Leonhard Euler

of the Greek letter π to popularized the use of
represent the ratio of a the Greek letter π in
circle's circumference to works he published in
its diameter was by 1736 and 1748.
Welsh mathematician
William Jones in 1706

In the earliest usages, the Greek letter π was used to denote the semiperimeter (semiperipheria in
Latin) of a circle [8] and was combined in ratios with δ (for diameter or semidiameter) or ρ (for radius)
to form circle constants.[98][99][100][101] (Before then, mathematicians sometimes used letters such as
c or p instead.[102]) The first recorded use is Oughtred's " ", to express the ratio of periphery and
diameter in the 1647 and later editions of Clavis Mathematicae.[103][102] Barrow likewise used " " to

represent the constant 3.14...,[104] while Gregory instead used " " to represent 6.28... .[105][100]
The earliest known use of the Greek letter π alone to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to
its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work Synopsis Palmariorum
Matheseos; or, a New Introduction to the Mathematics .[3][106] The Greek letter appears on p. 243 in
the phrase " Periphery (π)", calculated for a circle with radius one. However, Jones writes that his
equations for π are from the "ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin", leading to speculation
that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones.[102] Jones' notation was not
immediately adopted by other mathematicians, with the fraction notation still being used as late as
1767.[98][107]

Euler started using the single- letter form beginning with his 1727 Essay Explaining the Properties of
Air, though he used π = 6.28..., the ratio of periphery to radius, in this and some later writing.[108][109]
Euler first used π = 3.14... in his 1736 work Mechanica ,[110] and continued in his widely read 1748
work Introductio in analysin infinitorum (he wrote: "for the sake of brevity we will write this number
as π; thus π is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius 1").[111] Because Euler
corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe, the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly,
and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world,[102] though the definition
still varied between 3.14... and 6.28... as late as 1761.[112]

Modern quest for more digits

Computer era and iterative algorithms

The development of computers in the

The Gauss–Legendre iterative algorithm:
mid- 20th century again revolutionized the
Initialize
hunt for digits of π. Mathematicians John
Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1,120
Iterate
digits in 1949 using a desk calculator.[113]
Using an inverse tangent (arctan) infinite
series, a team led by George Reitwiesner
and John von Neumann that same year Then an estimate for π is given by
achieved 2,037 digits with a calculation
that took 70 hours of computer time on
the ENIAC computer.[114][115] The record,
always relying on an arctan series, was broken repeatedly (3089 digits in 1955,[116] 7,480 digits in
1957; 10,000 digits in 1958; 100,000 digits in 1961) until 1 million digits were reached in 1973.[114]
Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute π. First, the
discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing π, which were much faster than the infinite
series; and second, the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers
very rapidly.[117] Such algorithms are particularly important in modern π computations because most
of the computer's time is devoted to multiplication.[118] They include the Karatsuba algorithm, Toom–
Cook multiplication, and Fourier transform- based methods.[119]

The iterative algorithms were independently published in 1975–1976 by physicist Eugene Salamin
and scientist Richard Brent.[120] These avoid reliance on infinite series. An iterative algorithm repeats
a specific calculation, each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs, and produces a
result in each step that converges to the desired value. The approach was actually invented over 160
years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss, in what is now termed the arithmetic–geometric mean method
(AGM method) or Gauss–Legendre algorithm.[120] As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also
referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.

The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than infinite series
algorithms: whereas infinite series typically increase the number of correct digits additively in
successive terms, iterative algorithms generally multiply the number of correct digits at each step.
For example, the Brent–Salamin algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration. In 1984,
brothers John and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits
in each step; and in 1987, one that increases the number of digits five times in each step.[121] Iterative
methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for
computing π between 1995 and 2002.[122] This rapid convergence comes at a price: the iterative
algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series.[122]

Motives for computing π

As mathematicians discovered new algorithms, and

computers became available, the number of known
decimal digits of π increased dramatically. The
vertical scale is logarithmic.
For most numerical calculations involving π, a handful of digits provide sufficient precision. According
to Jörg Arndt and Christoph Haenel, thirty- nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological
calculations, because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable
universe with a precision of one atom. Accounting for additional digits needed to compensate for
computational round- off errors, Arndt concludes that a few hundred digits would suffice for any
scientific application. Despite this, people have worked strenuously to compute π to thousands and
millions of digits.[123] This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records,
and such achievements with π often make headlines around the world.[124][125] They also have
practical benefits, such as testing supercomputers, testing numerical analysis algorithms (including
high- precision multiplication algorithms); and within pure mathematics itself, providing data for
evaluating the randomness of the digits of π.[126]

Rapidly convergent series

Srinivasa Ramanujan,
working in isolation in India,
produced many innovative
series for computing π.

Modern π calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively. New infinite series were discovered
in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms, yet are simpler and less memory
intensive.[122] The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914, when Indian mathematician
Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for π, remarkable for their
elegance, mathematical depth and rapid convergence.[127] One of his formulae, based on modular
equations, is
This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series, including Machin's formula.[128] Bill
Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of π, setting a record of 17 million digits
in 1985.[129] Ramanujan's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein
brothers (Jonathan and Peter) and the Chudnovsky brothers.[130] The Chudnovsky formula developed
in 1987 is

It produces about 14 digits of π per term[131] and has been used for several record- setting π
calculations, including the first to surpass 1 billion (109) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers,
10 trillion (1013) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo,[132] and 100 trillion digits by
Emma Haruka Iwao in 2022.[133] For similar formulae, see also the Ramanujan–Sato series.

In 2006, mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithm[134] to generate
several new formulae for π, conforming to the following template:

where q is eπ (Gelfond's constant), k is an odd number, and a, b, c are certain rational numbers that
Plouffe computed.[135]

Monte Carlo methods

Buffon's needle. Random dots

Needles a and b are are placed on
dropped randomly. a square and
a circle
inscribed
inside.

Monte Carlo methods, which evaluate the results of multiple random trials, can be used to create
approximations of π.[136] Buffon's needle is one such technique: If a needle of length ℓ is dropped n
times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn t units apart, and if x of those times it comes to
rest crossing a line (x > 0), then one may approximate π based on the counts:[137]
Another Monte Carlo method for computing π is to draw a circle inscribed in a square, and randomly
place dots in the square. The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of dots will
approximately equal π/4.[138]

Five random walks with 200 steps.

The sample mean of |W 200 | is
μ = 56/5, and so 2(200)μ−2 ≈ 3.19 is
within 0.05 of π.

Another way to calculate π using probability is to start with a random walk, generated by a sequence
of (fair) coin tosses: independent random variables X k such that X k ∈ {−1,1} with equal probabilities.
The associated random walk is

so that, for each n, Wn is drawn from a shifted and scaled binomial distribution. As n varies, Wn
defines a (discrete) stochastic process. Then π can be calculated by [139]

This Monte Carlo method is independent of any relation to circles, and is a consequence of the
central limit theorem, discussed below.

These Monte Carlo methods for approximating π are very slow compared to other methods, and do
not provide any information on the exact number of digits that are obtained. Thus they are never used
to approximate π when speed or accuracy is desired.[140]

Spigot algorithms

Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into π. They are
called spigot algorithms because, like water dripping from a spigot, they produce single digits of π
that are not reused after they are calculated.[141][142] This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative
algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.[141]
Mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in
1995.[142][143][144] Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms, but not as fast as iterative
algorithms.[143]

Another spigot algorithm, the BBP digit extraction algorithm, was discovered in 1995 by Simon
Plouffe:[145][146]

This formula, unlike others before it, can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of π without
calculating all the preceding digits.[145] Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual
hexadecimal digits, and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits. An
important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record π
computations: After a new record is claimed, the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal, and then
a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several randomly selected hexadecimal digits near
the end; if they match, this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is
correct.[132]

Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard's formula (a
modification of the BBP algorithm) to compute the quadrillionth (1015th) bit of π, which turned out to
be 0.[147] In September 2010, a Yahoo! employee used the company's Hadoop application on one
thousand computers over a 23- day period to compute 256 bits of π at the two- quadrillionth
(2×1015th) bit, which also happens to be zero.[148]

In 2022, Plouffe found a base- 10 algorithm for calculating digits of π.[149]

Role and characterizations in mathematics

Because π is closely related to the circle, it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry
and trigonometry, particularly those concerning circles, spheres, or ellipses. Other branches of
science, such as statistics, physics, Fourier analysis, and number theory, also include π in some of
their important formulae.
Geometry and trigonometry

The area of the circle equals π times

the shaded area. The area of the unit
circle is π.

π appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles, such as
ellipses, spheres, cones, and tori. Below are some of the more common formulae that involve π.[150]

The circumference of a circle with radius r is 2πr.

The area of a circle with radius r is πr2.

The area of an ellipse with semi- major axis a and semi- minor axis b is πab.

4
The volume of a sphere with radius r is ⁠3 ⁠π r3.

The surface area of a sphere with radius r is 4πr2.

Some of the formulae above are special cases of the volume of the n - dimensional ball and the
surface area of its boundary, the (n −1)- dimensional sphere, given below.

Apart from circles, there are other curves of constant width. By Barbier's theorem, every curve of
constant width has perimeter π times its width. The Reuleaux triangle (formed by the intersection of
three circles with the sides of an equilateral triangle as their radii) has the smallest possible area for
its width and the circle the largest. There also exist non- circular smooth and even algebraic curves of
constant width.[151]

Definite integrals that describe circumference, area, or volume of shapes generated by circles
typically have values that involve π. For example, an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of
radius one is given by:[152]
In that integral, the function represents the height over the - axis of a semicircle (the
square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem), and the integral computes the area below
the semicircle.

The existence of such integrals makes π an algebraic period.[153]

Units of angle

Sine and cosine functions repeat with period 2π.

The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use radians as units of
measurement. π plays an important role in angles measured in radians, which are defined so that a
complete circle spans an angle of 2π radians. The angle measure of 180° is equal to π radians, and
1° = π/180 radians.[154]

Common trigonometric functions have periods that are multiples of π; for example, sine and cosine
have period 2π,[155] so for any angle θ and any integer k,[155]
Eigenvalues

The overtones of a vibrating string are

eigenfunctions of the second
derivative, and form a harmonic
progression. The associated
eigenvalues form the arithmetic
progression of integer multiples of π.

Many of the appearances of π in the formulae of mathematics and the sciences have to do with its
close relationship with geometry. However, π also appears in many natural situations having
apparently nothing to do with geometry.

In many applications, it plays a distinguished role as an eigenvalue. For example, an idealized

vibrating string can be modelled as the graph of a function f on the unit interval [0, 1], with fixed ends
f(0) = f(1) = 0. The modes of vibration of the string are solutions of the differential equation
, or . Thus λ is an eigenvalue of the second derivative
operator , and is constrained by Sturm–Liouville theory to take on only certain specific
values. It must be positive, since the operator is negative definite, so it is convenient to write λ = ν2,
where ν > 0 is called the wavenumber. Then f(x) = sin(π x) satisfies the boundary conditions and the
differential equation with ν = π.[156]

The value π is, in fact, the least such value of the wavenumber, and is associated with the
fundamental mode of vibration of the string. One way to show this is by estimating the energy, which
satisfies Wirtinger's inequality:[157] for a function with f(0) = f(1) = 0 and f, f ′ both
square integrable, we have:

with equality precisely when f is a multiple of sin(π x). Here π appears as an optimal constant in
Wirtinger's inequality, and it follows that it is the smallest wavenumber, using the variational
characterization of the eigenvalue. As a consequence, π is the smallest singular value of the
derivative operator on the space of functions on [0, 1] vanishing at both endpoints (the Sobolev
space ).

Inequalities

The ancient city of Carthage was the

solution to an isoperimetric problem,
according to a legend recounted by
Lord Kelvin:[158] those lands bordering
the sea that Queen Dido could
enclose on all other sides within a
single given oxhide, cut into strips.

The number π serves appears in similar eigenvalue problems in higher- dimensional analysis. As
mentioned above, it can be characterized via its role as the best constant in the isoperimetric
inequality: the area A enclosed by a plane Jordan curve of perimeter P satisfies the inequality

and equality is clearly achieved for the circle, since in that case A = πr2 and P = 2πr.[159]

Ultimately, as a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality, π appears in the optimal constant for the
critical Sobolev inequality in n dimensions, which thus characterizes the role of π in many physical
phenomena as well, for example those of classical potential theory.[160][161][162] In two dimensions,
the critical Sobolev inequality is

for f a smooth function with compact support in R2, is the gradient of f, and and
refer respectively to the L2 and L1- norm. The Sobolev inequality is equivalent to the isoperimetric
inequality (in any dimension), with the same best constants.

Wirtinger's inequality also generalizes to higher- dimensional Poincaré inequalities that provide best
constants for the Dirichlet energy of an n - dimensional membrane. Specifically, π is the greatest
constant such that

for all convex subsets G of Rn of diameter 1, and square- integrable functions u on G of mean
zero.[163] Just as Wirtinger's inequality is the variational form of the Dirichlet eigenvalue problem in
one dimension, the Poincaré inequality is the variational form of the Neumann eigenvalue problem, in
any dimension.

Fourier transform and Heisenberg uncertainty principle

An animation of a geodesic in the

Heisenberg group

The constant π also appears as a critical spectral parameter in the Fourier transform. This is the
integral transform, that takes a complex- valued integrable function f on the real line to the function
defined as:

Although there are several different conventions for the Fourier transform and its inverse, any such
convention must involve π somewhere. The above is the most canonical definition, however, giving
the unique unitary operator on L2 that is also an algebra homomorphism of L1 to L∞.[164]

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also contains the number π. The uncertainty principle gives a
sharp lower bound on the extent to which it is possible to localize a function both in space and in
frequency: with our conventions for the Fourier transform,

The physical consequence, about the uncertainty in simultaneous position and momentum
observations of a quantum mechanical system, is discussed below. The appearance of π in the
formulae of Fourier analysis is ultimately a consequence of the Stone–von Neumann theorem,
asserting the uniqueness of the Schrödinger representation of the Heisenberg group.[165]

Gaussian integrals

A graph of the Gaussian function

2
ƒ(x) = e−x . The coloured region
between the function and the x-axis
has area √ π .

The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for
complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most
experiments follows a normal distribution.[166] The Gaussian function, which is the probability density
function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ, naturally contains π:[167]

The factor of makes the area under the graph of f equal to one, as is required for a probability

distribution. This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral:[167]

which says that the area under the basic bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of π.

The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions, and thus of π, in probability
and statistics. This theorem is ultimately connected with the spectral characterization of π as the
eigenvalue associated with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the fact that equality holds in
the uncertainty principle only for the Gaussian function.[168] Equivalently, π is the unique constant
2
making the Gaussian normal distribution e−πx equal to its own Fourier transform.[169] Indeed,
according to Howe (1980), the "whole business" of establishing the fundamental theorems of Fourier
analysis reduces to the Gaussian integral.[165]

Topology

Uniformization of the Klein quartic, a

surface of genus three and Euler
characteristic −4, as a quotient of the
hyperbolic plane by the symmetry
group PSL(2,7) of the Fano plane. The
hyperbolic area of a fundamental
domain is 8π , by Gauss–Bonnet.

The constant π appears in the Gauss–Bonnet formula which relates the differential geometry of
surfaces to their topology. Specifically, if a compact surface Σ has Gauss curvature K, then

where χ(Σ) is the Euler characteristic, which is an integer.[170] An example is the surface area of a
sphere S of curvature 1 (so that its radius of curvature, which coincides with its radius, is also 1.) The
Euler characteristic of a sphere can be computed from its homology groups and is found to be equal
to two. Thus we have

reproducing the formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius 1.

The constant appears in many other integral formulae in topology, in particular, those involving
characteristic classes via the Chern–Weil homomorphism.[171]
Cauchy's integral formula

Complex analytic functions can be

visualized as a collection of
streamlines and equipotentials,
systems of curves intersecting at
right angles. Here illustrated is the
complex logarithm of the Gamma
function.

One of the key tools in complex analysis is contour integration of a function over a positively oriented
(rectifiable) Jordan curve γ. A form of Cauchy's integral formula states that if a point z0 is interior to γ,
then[172]

Although the curve γ is not a circle, and hence does not have any obvious connection to the constant
π, a standard proof of this result uses Morera's theorem, which implies that the integral is invariant
under homotopy of the curve, so that it can be deformed to a circle and then integrated explicitly in
polar coordinates. More generally, it is true that if a rectifiable closed curve γ does not contain z0,
then the above integral is 2πi times the winding number of the curve.

The general form of Cauchy's integral formula establishes the relationship between the values of a
complex analytic function f(z) on the Jordan curve γ and the value of f(z) at any interior point z0 of
γ:[173]

provided f(z) is analytic in the region enclosed by γ and extends continuously to γ. Cauchy's integral
formula is a special case of the residue theorem, that if g(z) is a meromorphic function the region
enclosed by γ and is continuous in a neighbourhood of γ, then

where the sum is of the residues at the poles of g(z).

Vector calculus and physics

The constant π is ubiquitous in vector calculus and potential theory, for example in Coulomb's law,[174]
Gauss's law, Maxwell's equations, and even the Einstein field equations.[175][176] Perhaps the simplest
example of this is the two- dimensional Newtonian potential, representing the potential of a point
source at the origin, whose associated field has unit outward flux through any smooth and oriented
closed surface enclosing the source:

The factor of is necessary to ensure that is the fundamental solution of the Poisson

equation in :[177]

where is the Dirac delta function.

In higher dimensions, factors of π are present because of a normalization by the n- dimensional

volume of the unit n sphere. For example, in three dimensions, the Newtonian potential is:[177]

which has the 2- dimensional volume (i.e., the area) of the unit 2- sphere in the denominator.

Total curvature

This curve has total curvature 6π, and index/turning

number 3, though it only has winding number 2
about p .

In mathematical study of the differential geometry of curves, the total curvature of an immersed plane
curve is the integral of curvature along a curve taken with respect to arc length:
The total curvature of a closed curve is always an integer multiple of 2π, where N is called the index
of the curve or turning number – it is the winding number of the unit tangent vector about the origin, or
equivalently the degree of the map to the unit circle assigning to each point of the curve, the unit
velocity vector at that point. This map is similar to the Gauss map for surfaces.

The gamma function and Stirling's approximation

Plot of the gamma function on the real

axis

The factorial function is the product of all of the positive integers through n. The gamma function
extends the concept of factorial (normally defined only for non- negative integers) to all complex
numbers, except the negative real integers, with the identity . When the gamma
function is evaluated at half- integers, the result contains π. For example, and

.[178]

The gamma function is defined by its Weierstrass product development:[179]

where γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Evaluated at z = 1/2 and squared, the equation Γ(1/2)2 = π
reduces to the Wallis product formula. The gamma function is also connected to the Riemann zeta
function and identities for the functional determinant, in which the constant π plays an important role.

The gamma function is used to calculate the volume Vn(r) of the n - dimensional ball of radius r in
Euclidean n - dimensional space, and the surface area Sn−1(r) of its boundary, the (n −1)- dimensional
sphere:[180]
Further, it follows from the functional equation that

The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to the factorial function n! for
large n: which is known as Stirling's approximation.[181] Equivalently,

As a geometrical application of Stirling's approximation, let Δ n denote the standard simplex in n -

dimensional Euclidean space, and (n + 1)Δ n denote the simplex having all of its sides scaled up by a
factor of n + 1. Then

Ehrhart's volume conjecture is that this is the (optimal) upper bound on the volume of a convex body
containing only one lattice point.[182]

Number theory and Riemann zeta function

Each prime has an associated Prüfer

group, which are arithmetic
localizations of the circle. The L-
functions of analytic number theory
are also localized in each prime p .
 Solution of the Basel problem using
the Weil conjecture: the value of ζ(2)
is the hyperbolic area of a
fundamental domain of the modular
group, times π/2.

The Riemann zeta function ζ(s) is used in many areas of mathematics. When evaluated at s = 2 it can
be written as

Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the
Basel problem. Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to π 2/6.[92] Euler's
result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively
prime (that is, having no shared factors) is equal to 6/π 2.[183][184] This probability is based on the
observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime p is 1/p (for example, every
7th integer is divisible by 7.) Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime
is 1/p2, and the probability that at least one of them is not is 1 − 1/p2. For distinct primes, these
divisibility events are mutually independent; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime
is given by a product over all primes:[185]

This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate π using a
Monte Carlo approach.[186]

The solution to the Basel problem implies that the geometrically derived quantity π is connected in a
deep way to the distribution of prime numbers. This is a special case of Weil's conjecture on
Tamagawa numbers, which asserts the equality of similar such infinite products of arithmetic
quantities, localized at each prime p, and a geometrical quantity: the reciprocal of the volume of a
certain locally symmetric space. In the case of the Basel problem, it is the hyperbolic 3- manifold
SL2(R)/SL2(Z).[187]

The zeta function also satisfies Riemann's functional equation, which involves π as well as the
gamma function:

Furthermore, the derivative of the zeta function satisfies

A consequence is that π can be obtained from the functional determinant of the harmonic oscillator.
This functional determinant can be computed via a product expansion, and is equivalent to the Wallis
product formula.[188] The calculation can be recast in quantum mechanics, specifically the variational
approach to the spectrum of the hydrogen atom.[189]

Fourier series

π appears in characters of p-adic

numbers (shown), which are elements
of a Prüfer group. Tate's thesis makes
heavy use of this machinery.[190]

The constant π also appears naturally in Fourier series of periodic functions. Periodic functions are
functions on the group T =R/Z of fractional parts of real numbers. The Fourier decomposition shows
that a complex- valued function f on T can be written as an infinite linear superposition of unitary
characters of T . That is, continuous group homomorphisms from T to the circle group U(1) of unit
modulus complex numbers. It is a theorem that every character of T is one of the complex
exponentials .
There is a unique character on T , up to complex conjugation, that is a group isomorphism. Using the
Haar measure on the circle group, the constant π is half the magnitude of the Radon–Nikodym
derivative of this character. The other characters have derivatives whose magnitudes are positive
integral multiples of 2π.[20] As a result, the constant π is the unique number such that the group T,
equipped with its Haar measure, is Pontrjagin dual to the lattice of integral multiples of 2π.[191] This is
a version of the one- dimensional Poisson summation formula.

Modular forms and theta functions

Theta functions transform under the

lattice of periods of an elliptic curve.

The constant π is connected in a deep way with the theory of modular forms and theta functions. For
example, the Chudnovsky algorithm involves in an essential way the j- invariant of an elliptic curve.

Modular forms are holomorphic functions in the upper half plane characterized by their transformation
properties under the modular group (or its various subgroups), a lattice in the group
. An example is the Jacobi theta function

which is a kind of modular form called a Jacobi form.[192] This is sometimes written in terms of the

nome .

The constant π is the unique constant making the Jacobi theta function an automorphic form, which
means that it transforms in a specific way. Certain identities hold for all automorphic forms. An
example is

which implies that θ transforms as a representation under the discrete Heisenberg group. General
modular forms and other theta functions also involve π, once again because of the Stone–von
Neumann theorem.[192]
Cauchy distribution and potential theory

The Witch of Agnesi, named for Maria

Agnesi (1718–1799), is a geometrical
construction of the graph of the
Cauchy distribution.

The Cauchy distribution governs the

passage of Brownian particles
through a membrane.

The Cauchy distribution

is a probability density function. The total probability is equal to one, owing to the integral:

The Shannon entropy of the Cauchy distribution is equal to ln(4π), which also involves π.

The Cauchy distribution plays an important role in potential theory because it is the simplest
Furstenberg measure, the classical Poisson kernel associated with a Brownian motion in a half-
plane.[193] Conjugate harmonic functions and so also the Hilbert transform are associated with the
asymptotics of the Poisson kernel. The Hilbert transform H is the integral transform given by the
Cauchy principal value of the singular integral

The constant π is the unique (positive) normalizing factor such that H defines a linear complex
structure on the Hilbert space of square- integrable real- valued functions on the real line.[194] The
Hilbert transform, like the Fourier transform, can be characterized purely in terms of its transformation
properties on the Hilbert space L2(R): up to a normalization factor, it is the unique bounded linear
operator that commutes with positive dilations and anti- commutes with all reflections of the real
line.[195] The constant π is the unique normalizing factor that makes this transformation unitary.

In the Mandelbrot set

The Mandelbrot set can be used to

approximate π.

An occurrence of π in the fractal called the Mandelbrot set was discovered by David Boll in 1991.[196]
He examined the behaviour of the Mandelbrot set near the "neck" at (−0.75, 0). When the number of
iterations until divergence for the point (−0.75, ε) is multiplied by ε, the result approaches π as ε
approaches zero. The point (0.25 + ε, 0) at the cusp of the large "valley" on the right side of the
Mandelbrot set behaves similarly: the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square
root of ε tends to π.[196][197]

Projective geometry

Let V be the set of all twice differentiable real functions that satisfy the ordinary
differential equation . Then V is a two- dimensional real vector space, with two
parameters corresponding to a pair of initial conditions for the differential equation. For any , let
be the evaluation functional, which associates to each the value
of the function f at the real point t. Then, for each t, the kernel of is a one- dimensional linear
subspace of V. Hence defines a function from from the real line to the real
projective line. This function is periodic, and the quantity π can be characterized as the period of this
map.[198] This is notable in that the constant π, rather than 2π, appears naturally in this context.
Outside mathematics

Describing physical phenomena

Although not a physical constant, π appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles
of the universe, often because of π's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A
simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period T of a simple
pendulum of length L, swinging with a small amplitude (g is the earth's gravitational acceleration):[199]

One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which shows
that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle's position (Δx) and momentum (Δp) cannot both
be arbitrarily small at the same time (where h is the Planck constant):[200]

The fact that π is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of
orthopositronium. The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine- structure constant α is [201]

where me is the mass of the electron.

π is present in some structural engineering formulae, such as the buckling formula derived by Euler,
which gives the maximum axial load F that a long, slender column of length L, modulus of elasticity E,
and area moment of inertia I can carry without buckling:[202]

The field of fluid dynamics contains π in Stokes' law, which approximates the frictional force F
exerted on small, spherical objects of radius R, moving with velocity v in a fluid with dynamic
viscosity η:[203]

In electromagnetics, the vacuum permeability constant μ0 appears in Maxwell's equations, which

describe the properties of electric and magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation. Before 20 May
2019, it was defined as exactly
Memorizing digits

Piphilology is the practice of memorizing large numbers of digits of π,[204] and world- records are
kept by the Guinness World Records . The record for memorizing digits of π, certified by Guinness
World Records, is 70,000 digits, recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21
March 2015.[205] In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited
100,000 decimal places, but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records.[206]

One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word lengths represent the
digits of π: The first word has three letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the fourth has
one, the fifth has five, and so on. Such memorization aids are called mnemonics. An early example of
a mnemonic for pi, originally devised by English scientist James Jeans, is "How I want a drink,
alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics."[204] When a poem is used,
it is sometimes referred to as a piem.[207] Poems for memorizing π have been composed in several
languages in addition to English.[204] Record- setting π memorizers typically do not rely on poems, but
instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci.[208]

A few authors have used the digits of π to establish a new form of constrained writing, where the
word lengths are required to represent the digits of π. The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3835
digits of π in this manner,[209] and the full- length book Not a Wake contains 10,000 words, each
representing one digit of π.[210]

In popular culture

A pi pie. Many pies are circular, and

"pie" and π are homophones, making
pie a frequent subject of pi puns.

Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae, π has
been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs.[211]

In the Palais de la Découverte (a science museum in Paris) there is a circular room known as the pi
room. On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of π. The digits are large wooden characters attached to the
dome- like ceiling. The digits were based on an 1873 calculation by English mathematician William
Shanks, which included an error beginning at the 528th digit. The error was detected in 1946 and
corrected in 1949.[212]

In Carl Sagan's 1985 novel Contact it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message
deep within the digits of π. This part of the story was omitted from the film adaptation of the
novel.[213][214] The digits of π have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song "Pi" from the
2005 album Aerial by Kate Bush.[215] In the 1967 Star Trek episode "Wolf in the Fold", an out- of-
control computer is contained by being instructed to "Compute to the last digit the value of π".[47]

In the United States, Pi Day falls on 14 March (written 3/14 in the US style), and is popular among
students.[47] π and its digital representation are often used by self- described "math geeks" for inside
jokes among mathematically and technologically minded groups. A college cheer variously attributed
to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute includes
"3.14159".[216][217] Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date and time 3/14/15
9:26:53 reflected many more digits of pi.[218][219] In parts of the world where dates are commonly
noted in day/month/year format, 22 July represents "Pi Approximation Day", as 22/7 = 3.142857.[220]

Some have proposed replacing π by τ = 2π,[221] arguing that τ, as the number of radians in one turn or
the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius, is more natural than π and simplifies many
formulae.[222][223] This use of τ has not made its way into mainstream mathematics,[224] but since
2010 this has led to people celebrating Two Pi Day or Tau Day on June 28.[225]

In 1897, an amateur mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana
Pi Bill, which described a method to square the circle and contained text that implied various incorrect
values for π, including 3.2. The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish a value of mathematical
constant by legislative fiat. The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives, but
rejected by the Senate, and thus it did not become a law.[226]

In computer culture

In contemporary internet culture, individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number
π. For instance, the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program TeX
approach π. The versions are 3, 3.1, 3.14, and so forth.[227]
Many programming languages include π for use in programs. Similarly, τ has been added to several
programming languages as a predefined constant.[228][229]

See also

Approximations of π

Chronology of computation of π

List of mathematical constants

References

Explanatory notes

a. In particular, π is conjectured to be a normal number, which implies a specific kind of statistical

randomness on its digits in all bases.

b. The specific integral that Weierstrass used was [13]

c. The polynomial shown is the first few terms of the Taylor series expansion of the sine function.

Citations

1. Andrews, Askey & Roy 1999, p. 59.

2. Gupta, R. C. (1992). "On the remainder term in the Madhava–Leibniz's series". Ganita Bharati. 14
(1–4): 68–71.
3. Jones, William (1706). Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos (https://archive.org/details/Synopsis
PalmariorumMatheseosOrANewIntroductionToTheMathematics/page/n283/) . London: J. Wale.
pp. 243 (https://archive.org/details/SynopsisPalmariorumMatheseosOrANewIntroductionToThe
Mathematics/page/n261/) , 263 (https://archive.org/details/SynopsisPalmariorumMatheseos
OrANewIntroductionToTheMathematics/page/n283/) . p. 263: "There are various other ways of
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General and cited sources

Abramson, Jay (2014). Precalculus (https://openstax.org/details/books/precalculus) . OpenStax.

Andrews, George E.; Askey, Richard; Roy, Ranjan (1999). Special Functions (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=kGshpCa3eYwC&pg=PA59) . Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 978- 0- 521-
78988- 2.

Arndt, Jörg; Haenel, Christoph (2006). Pi Unleashed (https://books.google.com/books?id=Qwwcmw

eJCDQC) . Springer- Verlag. ISBN 978- 3- 540- 66572- 4. Retrieved 5 June 2013. English
translation by Catriona and David Lischka.

Berggren, Lennart; Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (1997). Pi: a Source Book. Springer- Verlag.
ISBN 978- 0- 387- 20571- 7.

Boyer, Carl B.; Merzbach, Uta C. (1991). A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/histor

yofmathema00boye) (2 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978- 0- 471- 54397- 8.

Bronshteĭn, Ilia; Semendiaev, K.A. (1971). A Guide Book to Mathematics . Verlag Harri Deutsch.
ISBN 978- 3- 87144- 095- 3.

Dym, H.; McKean, H. P. (1972). Fourier series and integrals . Academic Press.

Eymard, Pierre; Lafon, Jean Pierre (2004). The Number π. Translated by Wilson, Stephen. American
Mathematical Society. ISBN 978- 0- 8218- 3246- 2. English translation of Autour du nombre π
(in French). Hermann. 1999.

Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2004). π: A Biography of the World's Most Mysterious
Number (https://archive.org/details/pi00alfr_ 0) . Prometheus Books. ISBN 978- 1- 59102-
200- 8.

Remmert, Reinhold (2012). "Ch. 5 What is π?" (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z53SBwAAQBA

J&pg=PA123) . In Heinz- Dieter Ebbinghaus; Hans Hermes; Friedrich Hirzebruch; Max
Koecher; Klaus Mainzer; Jürgen Neukirch; Alexander Prestel; Reinhold Remmert (eds.).
Numbers . Springer. ISBN 978- 1- 4612- 1005- 4.
Further reading

Blatner, David (1999). The Joy of π. Walker & Company. ISBN 978- 0- 8027- 7562- 7.

Delahaye, Jean- Paul (1997). Le fascinant nombre π. Paris: Bibliothèque Pour la Science. ISBN 2-
902918- 25- 9.

External links

Weisstein, Eric W. "Pi" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pi.html) . MathWorld.

Demonstration by Lambert (1761) of irrationality of π, online (https://www.bibnum.education.fr/math

ematiques/theorie- des- nombres/lambert- et- l- irrationalite- de- p- 1761) Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20141231045534/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/mathematiques/theorie- des- nom
bres/lambert- et- l- irrationalite- de- p- 1761) 31 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine and
analysed BibNum (https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sites/default/files/24-lambert-analysis.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115151/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sites/
default/files/24-lambert-analysis.pdf) 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine (PDF).

π Search Engine (https://pisearch.org/pi) 2 billion searchable digits of π, e and √ 2

approximation von π by lattice points (https://www.geogebra.org/m/kwty4hsz) and

approximation of π with rectangles and trapezoids (https://www.geogebra.org/m/bxfa364u)
(interactive illustrations)