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Metal Matrix Composite Brake Rotor: Historical Development and Product Life
Cycle Analysis

Article · December 2011

DOI: 10.15282/ijame.4.2011.8.0038

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International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering (IJAME)
ISSN: 1985-9325(Print); ISSN: 2180-1606 (Online); Volume 4, pp. 471-480, July-December 2011
©Universiti Malaysia Pahang

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE BRAKE ROTOR: HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

A.A. Adebisi*1, M.A. Maleque1, M.M. Rahman2

1
Department of Manufacturing and Materials Engineering
International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang
26600 Pekan, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) have become attractive for engineering structural
applications due to their excellent specific strength property and are increasingly seen as
alternative to the conventional materials particularly in the automotive industry. In this
study, a historical background on the development and application of metal matrix
composite for automotive brake rotor is presented. The discussion also includes analysis
of the product life cycle with stir casting as a case study. The historical review analysis
revealed that gradual development of material and processing technique have lead to a
lighter weight, lower cost, and higher performance brake rotor as a result of the better
understanding of the mechanics of metal matrix composite. It emerged from the study
that stir casting technique provides ease of operation, sustainability and most
significantly very competitive without sacrificing quality relative to other techniques;
and as such is the most attractive manufacturing process in the industry. These findings
can be used for future design and manufacture of an efficient and effective aluminium
matrix composite brake rotor for automotive and other applications.

Keywords: metal matrix composite; brake rotor; product life cycle; historical
development

INTRODUCTION

For the past 40 years, materials design has shifted emphasis on pursuing light weight,
environment friendly, low cost, quality, and better performance materials. Parallel to
this trend, metal-matrix composites (MMCs) have been attracting growing interest for
many applications (Kaczmar et al., 2000; Rohatgi et al., 1992; Chawla, 1992). MMCs
attributes include improved performance in the mechanical behaviour (e.g., tensile and
compressive properties, and tribology) and physical properties (e.g., density, thermal
expansion, and thermal diffusivity) by varying the weight fraction of the reinforcement
phase. However, the low ductility property and low-transverse creep resistance
developed due to the hard particulate reinforcement is the major drawback that limits
the usage in structural component applications. A substantial research effort has been
directed towards developing an improved understanding of their potential and
limitations invoking principles of physical metallurgy, stress analysis, processing
sciences and applications.
In recent years, the development of MMCs has been receiving worldwide
attention on account of their superior strength and stiffness in addition to high wear

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resistance and creep resistance comparison to their corresponding wrought alloys.

Metal-matrix composites have been used commercially in the automotive market for
nearly 20 years. Properties of interest to the automotive industry include increased
specific strength and stiffness, wear resistance, thermal conductivity and improved high-
cycle fatigue resistance (Allison and Cole, 1993). Weight savings is also important in
automotive applications with the need for achieving performance improvements with
much lower-cost materials and processes. There has been successful application in
several automotive applications in which the combination of properties and cost
satisfied a particular need. As a result of these successful applications, business
communications company (BCC), Inc (www.bccresearch.com) estimates that the global
market for metal matrix composites consumed 4.1 million kilograms of materials in
2007 and 4.4 million kilograms in 2008. This is expected to increase to 5.9 million in
2013, for a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.9%. The ground transportation
segment has the largest share of the market and used 2.4 million kilograms of materials
in 2008. This should reach 3.2 million kilograms in 2013, for a CAGR of 5.5% (Swift,
2009). Figure 1 shows the global metal matrix composite by application and segment.

Figure 1. Global MMC outlook by application/segment, 2004 – 2013

[http://www.bccresearch.com/report/AVM012D.html]

In automotive application, brake rotors have been held up as an example where

MMCs make a difference. In terms of weight, MMC rotor designs provide up to a 60%
reduction when compared to cast iron. In addition, aluminum MMC rotors outperform
their iron counterparts in terms of their mechanical properties and practical use. It has
been found that the value of weight reduction in the automotive industry is between
$0.35- $3.50/kg depending on vehicle platform. Therefore, a 7-kg-iron rotor produced
in aluminum MMC at 50% the weight could result in a savings of $ 1.23- $12.25. In a
comparison of an aluminum MMC brake rotor vs. an iron brake rotor, the iron
component will be the higher value in terms of purchase price, post-purchase processing
and maintainability, but the MMC component wins out in terms of performance,
marketability and maintainability (Bruski, 2000).

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 Metal matrix composite brake rotor: Historical development and product life cycle analysis

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF BRAKE ROTOR

Brake rotor development and its use began in England in the 1890s. The first caliper-
type automobile brake rotor was patented by Frederick William Lanchester at
Birmingham, UK in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the
limited choice of metals in this period resulted to the use of copper as the braking
medium acting on the rotor. Major advancement in brake technology came in 1918 with
the invention of four wheel hydraulic brake systems by Malcolm Loughead. The
hydraulic brake system replaced the mechanical brake system that was in use at this
time. The mechanical system had numerous disadvantages which made it difficult to
brake all the wheels evenly, often causing a loss of control. Moreover, it required
drivers to exert tremendous amounts of force on the brake pedal to slow the car. The
hydraulic brake system multiplied the force that was applied to the brake, lessening the
amount of force needed to be applied to the brake pedal by the driver. This system was
first used in 1918 by Duesenberg, by 1929; four wheel hydraulic braking systems were
standard equipment on modern cars. Modern-style brake rotors first appeared on the
low-volume Crosley Hotshot in 1949, although they had to be discontinued in 1950 due
to design problems which significantly affect the life cycle of the brake rotor.
Aluminum matrix composites were first developed to meet very high
performance needs for structural applications. Continuous fiber reinforced aluminum
was used in the Space Shuttle and Hubble Space Telescope, material cost became a
more significant consideration and emphasis shifted toward particulate-reinforced
materials, with the goal of a lower cost, high volume product that could be used in
automotive and commercial aerospace applications. Major aluminum companies, had
metal matrix composites development programs in the 1980's and early 1990's. Alcan,
through its Duralcan subsidiary, established a 36 million USD per year production
capability for particulate-reinforced aluminum composites (Rittner, 2000). Automotive
applications include cast aluminum composite brake drums and rotors on the Prowler
and EV-1, driveshafts for the Corvette and GM S/T truck, and tire studs in Scandinavia.
In the aerospace field, aluminum composites are used in the fan exit guide vanes of the
Pratt and Whitney 4000 series engines, which power the Boeing 777. Another exciting
area of application for aluminum composites is in the fast-growing electronics
packaging market, primarily for thermal management (as shown in Figure 1)
applications in which the ability to match the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
electronic materials is a key attribute.
Metal-matrix composite brake rotors and drums are typically produced by
casting processes such as semi permanent gravity casting. Aluminum-magnesium and
aluminum-silicon matrix alloys and both SiC and Al2O3 particle reinforcements have
been used, typically of at least 20% by volume. A number of automobiles now use
MMC brake components. The Lotus Elise used four discontinuously reinforced
aluminum (DRA) brake rotors per vehicle from 1996 to 1998, and the specialty
Plymouth Prowler has used DRA in the rear wheels since production started in 1997.
Discontinuously reinforced aluminum rotors are particularly attractive in lightweight
automobiles and are featured in the Volkswagen Lupo 3L and the Audi A2. In addition,
a number of electric and hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota RAV4, Ford Prodigy, and
the General Motors Precept, are reported to use MMC brake components (Miracle and
Hunt, 2004). Figure 2 shows a selection of discontinuously reinforced aluminum (DRA)
brake rotors.

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Figure 2. Discontinuously reinforced aluminum MMC brake rotors

[http://www.mmc-assess.tuwien.ac.at]

MMC BRAKE ROTOR APPLICATION

Aluminium-based MMCs offer a very useful combination of properties for brake system
applications in replacement of cast iron. Specifically, the wear resistance and high
thermal conductivity of aluminum MMCs enable substitution in disk brake rotors, with
an attendant weight savings on the order of 50 to 60%. Because the weight reduction is
unsprung, it also reduces inertial forces, providing an additional benefit in fuel
economy. In addition, lightweight MMC rotors provide increased acceleration and
reduced braking distance. It is reported that, based on brake dynamometer testing,
MMC rotors reduce brake noise and wear, and have more uniform friction over the
entire testing sequence compared to cast iron rotors (Miracle and Hunt, 2004). Table 1
shows the advantages of metal matrix composite over metals and other composites
(Chawla and Chawla, 2006)

Table 1. Advantages of metal matrix composites (MMC) over metals and other
composite (polymer matrix composites PMC)

Metals Other composites

Major weight savings due to higher Higher strength and stiffness
strength-to-weight ratio
Exceptional dimensional stability Higher thermal conductivity and service
(for example, SiC,/Al to Al) temperatures
Higher elevated temperature stability, Higher electrical conductivity (grounding,
i.e., creep resistance space charging)
Significantly improved cyclic fatigue Better transverse properties and radiation
characteristics survivability (laser, UV, nuclear, etc.)
Better wear resistance Improved joining characteristics

Aluminum is utilised as the most popular matrix for the metal matrix composites
(MMCs). The Al alloys are quite attractive due to their low density, their capability to
be strengthened by precipitation, their good corrosion resistance, high thermal and

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 Metal matrix composite brake rotor: Historical development and product life cycle analysis

electrical conductivity, and their high damping capacity. They are usually reinforced by
SiC, Al2O3, C but TiB2, BeO, BN, B4C, SiB6, Cr3C2, Gr, TiB, TiC, Si may also be
considered. From previous study (Andreas, 2007) it was found that the usage of matrix
and particle reinforcement materials by companies varies, Figures 3 and 4 indicate that
most company uses aluminium as matrix material and SiC as particle reinforcement
respectively.

Figure 3. Usage of matrix materials

Figure 4. Usage of particulate reinforced materials

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

The life cycle of a product is the length of time between its introduction on the market
for the first time and the time when the production declines or decides to stop. The

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interval between the introduction and decline stage witnesses the growth and maturity
stages of the product and it varies from few months to several years depending on its
nature, usefulness, competition, environmental impact as well as technological
development. The automotive industries have a relatively short life cycle as a result of
fast technological development, pressure due to competition are also high due to
advanced research and development. Automobile parts (piston, push rods, connecting
rods, drive shaft, and brake systems) have witnessed advancement in materials and
manufacturing processes which in turn has influenced the life cycle analysis.

Brake rotor life cycle

The life cycle of an automotive brake rotor begins when it is introduced into the market
after product development. This gives opportunity for new product as a result of material
development and better processing technique. Initially sales grow slowly at the
introduction stage when the MMC brake rotor is new on the market due to the limited
awareness of its performance and improved properties. Sales subsequently rise rapidly
during the period of growth with the acceptance of an increasing number of customers as
the market stabilises, then the product MMC brake rotor becomes mature. As the brake
rotor reaches maturity, it is overtaken by new developments with the introduction of
superior competitors. At this period it experiences a decline and may be eventually
withdrawn when new design modification with new materials and manufacturing
processes is not developed to prolong the life cycle. From Figure 5, it can be seen that
brake rotor life cycle consist of four different stages such as introduction, growth,
maturity and decline.

Revenue

Introduction Growth Maturity Decline

Time

Figure 5. Automotive brake rotor life cycle

Introduction Stage

At the introduction (or development) stage market size and growth is slow. Substantial
research and development costs have been incurred in getting the MMC brake rotor to
this stage. In addition, marketing costs may be high and it is unlikely that companies
will make profits on newly developed products at this stage. The newly developed brake
rotors are carefully monitored and advertised to ensure that they start to grow.
Otherwise, the best option may be to withdraw or end the product. The need for

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 Metal matrix composite brake rotor: Historical development and product life cycle analysis

immediate profit is not a pressure as the lack of it is expected at this time. The superior
mechanical and thermal performance is promoted to create awareness. If the MMC rotor
has no or few competitors, a skimming price strategy is employed to maximise profits.
Limited numbers of product will be available in few channels of distribution. Figure 6
shows the profit and loss for the product life cycle of brake rotor and it clearly illustrates
that heavy costs is incurred for research and development before the launch of the MMC
brake rotor. This is a negative cash flow and great effort is usually applied to minimise
this expenditure.

Growth Stage

The growth stage is characterised by rapid growth in sales and profits as the product is
becoming established. Profits arise due to an increase in output (economies of scale) and
possibly better prices for raw materials and manufactured components. Competitors are
fewer, sales are growing and profit margins are good. At this stage, it is cheaper for
company to invest in increasing their market share as well as enjoying the overall
growth of the market. Competitors are attracted into the market with very similar
offerings. Advertising cost becomes high and focuses upon developing product brand
such as ventilated and solid brake rotors with various design concepts.

Sales and
Profit

Product Introduction Growth Maturity Decline

development
Time
Figure 6. Profit and loss for the product life cycle of automotive brake rotor

Maturity Stage

It is in the stage where competition is most intense because the production rates are
most efficient, the investment used in the MMC brake rotor development is recovered,
and most profits are made. In order to prolong the maturity stage, efforts should be
made to develop new design modification with new materials and manufacturing
processes for the MMC brake rotor and also adopting new marketing strategies.
Introducing an improved version of the brake rotor can also prolong its life cycle. This
will improve efficiency or extend the use of the product to new applications and
environments. Improving fuel economy by reducing weight, reducing aerodynamic drag
forces, or improving the efficiency of the engine can extend the maturity stage.

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Decline Stage

At this stage, as a result of the appearance of other competitive advanced material brake
rotor, processing technique, or technological advances the MMC brake rotor may
become less competitive causing the sales to decrease and the rotor to reach the decline
stage. From the above study it is not sufficient to design and manufacture a successful
brake rotor. Researchers and engineers should continue to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of the brake rotor by making use of new technologies in order to improve the
performance of the rotor.

STIR CASTING OF ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Stir casting is a unique and prominent technique for the development of reinforced
aluminium matrix composite materials. This technique is utilized as a result of its
simple process and ability to overcome the problem of expensive processing method
which has restricted the widespread application of metal matrix composite which are
considered potential material candidate for various structural and non structural
applications in the field of aerospace, automotive, biomedical, military defence and
sports industries. The development of this promising technique evolved as a result of
modern technological advancement in material application and the demand for light
weight materials with improved mechanical and thermal properties. This process
involves a liquid state fabrication technique which requires the incorporation of
reinforcing phase (discontinuous form) into a molten matrix metal (continuous form) to
obtain a uniform distribution through stirring as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. A schematic diagram showing (a) incorporation of reinforcing phase into

matrix metallic material (b) the stir casting setup (Gupta and Sharon, 2011).

Ibrahim et al. (1991) and Lloyd (1994) report that vortex-mixing technique for
the preparation of ceramic particle dispersed aluminium matrix composites (AMC) was
originally developed by (Surappa and Rohatgi, 1981) at the Indian Institute of Science.
Subsequently several aluminium companies further refined and modified the process
which are currently employed to manufacture a variety of AMCs on commercial scale

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 Metal matrix composite brake rotor: Historical development and product life cycle analysis

in various industries. The cost of production is about one-third (Skibo and Schuster,
1988) to half compared to other competitive methods such as centrifugal casting and
powder metallurgy for large volume production. It is also anticipated that the cost of
production will fall to one-tenth with further research and development. Figure 8 shows
the material flow process for MMC brake rotor production using stir casting process.

Figure 8. Material flow process for MMC brake rotor production

From Figure 8, the aluminum alloy was heated up to 953 K in a resistance-heated

furnace. The molten metal is transferred to a graphite crucible in a semi solid state and
the silicon carbide particles were added. The mixture was then stirred to optimize
uniform particle distribution into the melt. After stirring, the mixture was reheated and
the developed composite was poured into a mold for solidification. The final product
gives the fabricated desired product AMC brake rotor.

CONCLUSION

The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study;

a. The historical development revealed that there was a gradual development of
material and processing technique for aluminium metal matrix composite.
b. The stir casting technique for aluminium matrix composite brake rotor is better
than other technique because it provides ease of operation, higher performance
and better quality.
c. Developing new design modification with advanced materials and
manufacturing processes prolong the life cycle of the MMC brake rotor.
d. Reviewing the present development gives opportunity for further improvement
of the aluminium matrix composite brake rotor.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge the support of the department of Manufacturing and Materials
Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia and also grateful to the Research
Management Centre, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), for financial
support to conduct this research work under project EDW B 0906-332.

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