Overview of Automation and Computerization in Manufacturing

In modern manufacturing, companies strive to improve efficiency and quality by

automating processes and using computers for support tasks. Automation in
manufacturing reduces the need for human intervention in repetitive and high-risk tasks,
while computerized systems help with planning, design, and control. Together, these
elements increase productivity, reduce costs, improve safety, and enhance product quality.
There are two main areas where automation and computerization are applied:

1. Automation of manufacturing systems in the factory - This involves using

machines and technology to handle physical production, such as assembling parts
or inspecting finished products.
2. Computerization of manufacturing support systems - This focuses on using
computers for designing products, planning production, and handling business
functions (e.g., ordering materials).

These systems are typically integrated with a larger system called a management
information system (MIS), which coordinates information across the entire company to
support decision-making and manage operations efficiently.

Types of Automated Manufacturing Systems

Automated manufacturing systems differ in their complexity and flexibility, and they are
classified into three main types:

1. Fixed Automation

● Definition: Fixed automation involves machinery that is set up to perform a

specific series of operations. Once installed, it cannot easily switch to making other
products without major changes.
● Examples: Assembly lines in car manufacturing are a classic example. They
perform the same tasks in a sequence—like welding, painting, and
assembly—designed for high-volume production with little variation.
● Advantages and Limitations: Fixed automation is efficient and cost-effective for
making large quantities of the same product but lacks flexibility. Changing the
setup is difficult and expensive, so it's only suitable for products that are not
frequently modified.

2. Programmable Automation

● Definition: Programmable automation uses equipment that can be reprogrammed

for different tasks. Machines are flexible enough to handle various products,
though some setup adjustments are needed between tasks.
● Examples: Examples include CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines and
programmable robotic arms, which are often used in batch production to make
smaller quantities of different products.
 ● Advantages and Limitations: While it offers greater flexibility than fixed
automation, programmable automation has a moderate production rate and is best
for small to medium production runs where product designs may change.

3. Flexible Automation

● Definition: Flexible automation is the most advanced type. It allows for automatic
switching between tasks without needing any time for reconfiguration.
● Examples: A flexible manufacturing system (FMS), where computer-controlled
machines can quickly switch between producing different items, is an example.
Such systems are common in industries requiring frequent changes, like
electronics or custom manufacturing.
● Advantages and Limitations: Flexible automation offers high adaptability and
minimal downtime, making it ideal for companies that need to produce various
products without slowing down.

Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems

In addition to automating the physical manufacturing process, computers assist with

essential support tasks. These tasks include designing products, planning production
schedules, and managing business operations. The system that integrates these support
functions is called Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), which ensures that the
design, manufacturing, and business processes work in harmony.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

● Purpose: CAD software is used to create detailed 2D and 3D models of products

before they are manufactured.
 ● Example: Engineers can design parts on a computer screen, test them virtually,
and make adjustments. This reduces the need for physical prototypes and allows
for precise control over the design process.

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

● Purpose: CAM systems are used to plan and control the manufacturing process,
often by linking with CAD systems to automate tasks based on digital designs.
● Example: In CNC machining, CAM software interprets CAD models and generates
the machine instructions to produce the part. This ensures accuracy and
consistency in production.

Reasons for Automation

There are several reasons why companies choose to automate:

1. Increase Labor Productivity: Automation increases the output per worker by

performing tasks faster and with greater precision than humans can.
2. Reduce Labor Costs: By reducing reliance on manual labor, companies can lower
wage expenses and the associated costs of employee benefits.
3. Address Labor Shortages: Automation can help address worker shortages by
substituting machines for human labor, especially in regions where it’s hard to find
skilled workers.
4. Reduce Routine Tasks: Machines take over repetitive tasks, reducing worker
fatigue and increasing job satisfaction, as employees can focus on more engaging
work.
5. Enhance Safety: Automated systems handle dangerous tasks, such as working
with heavy machinery or hazardous chemicals, thereby improving workplace
safety.
6. Improve Product Quality: Automation maintains consistent quality, reducing
variability and human error, which leads to fewer defects and better overall product
reliability.
7. Reduce Manufacturing Lead Time: Automated systems speed up the
manufacturing process, allowing for quicker delivery of products to customers.
8. Enable Complex Processes: Some manufacturing processes, like making
microchips or 3D printing intricate components, require automation to achieve the
necessary precision.
9. Avoid Cost of Non-Automation: Companies that don’t automate may find
themselves at a competitive disadvantage as they struggle with higher costs and
slower production speeds.

Example of Integrated Automation in a Car Manufacturing Plant

Consider a car manufacturing plant that uses a combination of these automation types.
The factory might have a fixed automation assembly line for welding car frames, which
is highly efficient for large production volumes. In other areas, programmable
automation is used to produce different parts in batches, like engine components or
interior fittings. The final assembly might use flexible automation, where robots switch
between assembling various models with minimal downtime. The entire process is
overseen by a CIM system that integrates CAD for design, CAM for production, and
management software to track orders, inventory, and schedules.

This approach allows the car manufacturer to maximize efficiency, adjust production
based on demand, and maintain high quality across different models. Automation here
helps ensure that cars are produced quickly, meet safety and quality standards, and can
be adapted for new designs without costly factory reconfiguration.

1. Specialization of Operations

● Explanation: This strategy uses special-purpose equipment designed to perform a

single operation as efficiently as possible. It’s similar to specialization in labor,
where workers focus on a single task to increase productivity.
● Example: In a car manufacturing plant, a robotic arm programmed specifically for
welding car frames operates at high efficiency, producing consistent welds faster
than a multipurpose machine.

2. Combined Operations

● Explanation: Complex parts often require multiple processing steps. By combining

multiple operations on a single machine, manufacturers reduce the need to route
parts through separate machines, cutting setup time and minimizing material
handling.
● Example: In a metalworking factory, a machine could be designed to both cut and
drill metal sheets in a single step, saving time and reducing the need for moving
the metal between different machines.

3. Simultaneous Operations

● Explanation: This strategy builds on combined operations by performing multiple

tasks at the same time at one workstation. This reduces overall processing time for
each part.
● Example: In an electronics manufacturing plant, a workstation may be set up to
solder multiple components on a circuit board simultaneously, reducing the time
needed for assembly.

4. Integration of Operations

● Explanation: This strategy links multiple workstations using automated systems

that transfer parts between stations, creating a continuous workflow and reducing
the need for separate scheduling for each workstation.
 ● Example: In a factory producing smartphone cases, several molding and finishing
stations could be linked by conveyor belts, allowing cases to move seamlessly
from one process to the next without manual intervention.

5. Increased Flexibility

● Explanation: By using flexible automation, manufacturers can produce various

products or parts on the same equipment, which is especially useful for job shop or
medium-volume production. The goal is to minimize setup and programming time
to adapt quickly to different jobs.
● Example: A CNC machine in a small factory can be reprogrammed to produce
different parts, allowing the factory to handle custom orders and adjust production
schedules as needed.

6. Improved Material Handling and Storage

● Explanation: Automated material handling and storage systems reduce the time
parts spend waiting to be processed, lower work-in-process, and decrease the
need for manual labor.
● Example: An automated guided vehicle (AGV) system in a warehouse transports
materials between different production areas, improving efficiency and freeing up
workers for other tasks.

7. On-line Inspection

● Explanation: Instead of inspecting products only after they’re finished, this

strategy incorporates inspection directly into the production line, allowing real-time
corrections and reducing the amount of scrap.
● Example: A camera-based quality inspection system on a production line for
plastic bottles checks each bottle for defects as it’s produced, immediately
identifying and discarding any faulty bottles.

8. Process Control and Optimization

● Explanation: Process control strategies use sensors and data analysis to optimize
individual processes, aiming to reduce processing times and improve product
quality.
● Example: In food processing, temperature and humidity sensors monitor the
cooking process, adjusting conditions automatically to ensure consistent quality in
every batch.

9. Plant Operations Control

● Explanation: This strategy involves managing and coordinating the entire plant’s
operations to enhance efficiency on a large scale. It often relies on computerized
control systems to oversee production, inventory, and scheduling.
 ● Example: A factory uses a centralized production scheduling system that monitors
each workstation’s progress, allowing managers to adjust schedules in real-time if
delays occur in one area.

10. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

● Explanation: CIM integrates all factory and business operations through computer
systems and networks. This strategy aims to create a seamless information flow
from product design to production and business functions like sales and inventory.
● Example: In an automotive company, CIM allows design, engineering,
manufacturing, and sales departments to access shared data, ensuring that
production aligns with market demands and inventory levels.

ower is a fundamental element of an automated system, as it is essential for operating

both the manufacturing processes and the control systems that govern those processes.
Here’s a detailed explanation of how power is utilized in an automated system based on
the provided content:

1. Types of Power Sources

● Electric Power: The primary source of power in most automated systems. It is

favored due to its:
○ Widespread Availability: Electric power is readily accessible and
generally cost-effective, making it an integral part of industrial
infrastructure.
○ Versatility: It can be easily converted into various other energy forms
required for different processes, such as:
■ Mechanical Power: For driving motors and moving components.
■ Thermal Power: For heating processes (e.g., casting, heat
treatment).
■ Light and Acoustic Power: For specific applications like laser
cutting and signaling.
○ Low-Level Applications: Electric power can also handle functions that
require minimal energy, such as signal transmission and data processing.
● Alternative Power Sources: While electric power is predominant, alternative
sources can also drive processes:
○ Fossil Fuels: Used in applications like furnaces or engines where direct
combustion is more practical.
○ Solar, Wind, and Hydropower: Sometimes used, but usually converted to
electrical power for system controls.
○ Atomic Power: Less common in direct manufacturing but can contribute to
electricity generation for automated systems.
2. Power for the Manufacturing Process

● Power is required to perform the actual manufacturing operations on work units

(products being manufactured). Different processes have distinct power
requirements, such as:
○ Casting: Needs thermal power to melt metal before pouring into molds.
○ Machining: Relies on mechanical power to cut or shape materials.
○ Welding: Utilizes thermal (and sometimes mechanical) power to fuse
metals.

3. Power for Material Handling Functions

● In addition to the power required for the main manufacturing processes, automated
systems also need power for various material handling tasks:
○ Loading and Unloading: Work units must be positioned correctly for
processing. This can involve mechanized systems or manual effort,
depending on automation levels.
○ Transporting Materials: Work units are moved between different
processing stations, requiring power for conveyor systems, robotics, or
other material handling technologies.

4. Power for Automation

● Beyond basic manufacturing power needs, additional power is necessary for

automation tasks:
○ Controller Units: Digital controllers require electric power to read
instructions, perform calculations, and send commands.
○ Actuators: Devices that carry out the controller's commands (like motors
and switches) need sufficient power to operate effectively, often requiring
amplification of control signals.
○ Data Acquisition: Collecting and processing data from the manufacturing
process requires power to ensure systems monitor performance and quality
effectively.

4.1.2 Program of Instructions

Definition:
The program of instructions is the blueprint for automated processes, outlining the specific
actions required to manufacture parts or products. Each part requires distinct processing
steps during a work cycle, which is the sequence of operations leading to the completion
of that part.

Work Cycle Programs:

● Purpose: Work cycle programs dictate the series of operations during

manufacturing.
 ● Example: A simple automated process might involve maintaining a constant
process parameter, such as temperature in a heat treatment furnace, using
set-point control.

Key Concepts

1. Process Parameter vs. Process Variable:

○ Process Parameter: The desired input for the system (e.g., set
temperature).
○ Process Variable: The actual output of the system (e.g., current
temperature).
○ Discrepancies can arise between these due to rapid adjustments in the
process.

Types of Work Cycle Programs

1. Set-point Control: Maintains a constant parameter (e.g., furnace temperature).

2. Logic Control: Parameter values are dependent on other variables.
3. Sequence Control: Changes parameters based on time, accommodating both
discrete and continuous variations.
4. Interactive Program: Involves operator interaction during operations.
5. Intelligent Program: Integrates human-like decision-making and learning
capabilities.

Typical Steps in Discrete Manufacturing: Most processes involve three main steps:
loading, processing, and unloading parts.

manual Participation and Decision-Making

● While many processes are automated, some work cycles involve human input. For
example, operators might load and unload parts and initiate operations manually.

Decision-Making Features

1. Operator Interaction: Human input may be needed for certain actions.

2. Variations in Product Styles: Systems adapt to different product types using
sensors.
3. Variations in Work Units: Adjustments may be necessary for inconsistent starting
materials, like sand castings.

4.1.3 Control System

The control element of an automated system executes a program of instructions to

accomplish its defined function, typically involving a manufacturing operation. This section
provides a brief introduction to control systems, with further elaboration in the following
chapter.
Control systems in automation can be categorized as either closed-loop or open-loop
systems:

Closed-Loop Control System

A closed-loop control system, or feedback control system, compares the output variable
to an input parameter. Any difference between the two drives the output towards
agreement with the input. Figure 4.3 illustrates a closed-loop control system, which
consists of six basic elements:

1. Input Parameter: The desired value of the output (e.g., thermostat setting).
2. Process: The operation or function being controlled.
3. Output Variable: The process variable that is being controlled.
4. Feedback Sensor: Measures the output variable to close the loop between input
and output.
5. Controller: Compares the output with the input and adjusts the process to reduce
the difference.
6. Actuator: The hardware devices (e.g., electric motors, flow valves) that carry out
the control actions.

In industrial settings, multiple loops may be required, one for each process variable that
needs control.

Open-Loop Control System

In contrast, an open-loop control system operates without a feedback loop, as depicted

in Figure 4.4. This system functions without measuring the output variable, meaning no
comparison is made between the actual output and the desired input. The controller relies
on an accurate model of the actuator's effect on the process variable. While open-loop
systems are simpler and less expensive, they carry the risk of not achieving the intended
effect on the process.

Open-loop systems are suitable under specific conditions:

1. The control actions are simple.

2. The actuating function is very reliable.
3. Any opposing reaction forces on the actuator are minimal.

If these conditions do not apply, a closed-loop control system may be more appropriate.

Example: Positioning System

The difference between closed-loop and open-loop systems can be illustrated using a
positioning system, commonly used in manufacturing to locate a work part relative to a
tool or work head.

● Closed-Loop Positioning System: Figure 4.5 depicts a closed-loop positioning

system. Here, the system directs a worktable to a specified location based on a
coordinate value. The actual position is measured by a feedback sensor (e.g., an
 optical encoder), which allows the controller to adjust the motor driving the
leadscrew until the actual position matches the desired input value.
● Open-Loop Positioning System: In an open-loop system, the design would be
similar but without a feedback loop. A stepper motor would replace the dc
servomotor. The stepper motor receives pulses from the controller, which
translates into precise movements of the worktable. Given the right conditions, an
open-loop positioning system can operate reliably.

The engineering analysis of closed-loop and open-loop systems will be discussed in the
context of numerical control in Section 7.4.

Overview of Advanced Automation Functions

Advanced automation functions are additional capabilities in automated systems that go

beyond just carrying out specific tasks. These functions are generally aimed at improving
safety and performance. There are three main advanced automation functions:

1. Safety Monitoring
 2. Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics
3. Error Detection and Recovery

1. Safety Monitoring

● Purpose: To keep human workers safe while they are near automated systems
and to protect the equipment itself.
● How it Works: Automated systems use sensors to monitor their operations for
unsafe conditions.
● Responses: When a hazard is detected, the system can:
○ Stop operations completely.
○ Sound an alarm to alert workers.
○ Slow down the operation.
○ Take corrective actions automatically.

Examples of Sensors Used for Safety Monitoring:

● Limit switches: Ensure parts are in the correct position.

● Photoelectric sensors: Detect if a part or worker is present.
● Temperature sensors: Check if a part is hot enough to proceed with
manufacturing.
● Smoke detectors: Sense fire hazards.
● Pressure-sensitive floor pads: Detect if someone steps into a dangerous area.
● Machine vision systems: Use cameras to monitor surroundings.

Limitation: The effectiveness of the safety system depends on how well the designers
anticipated potential hazards. If a hazard wasn’t foreseen, the system might not be able to
detect it.

2. Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics

● Purpose: To help identify and troubleshoot problems in the automated system.

● Three Modes of Operation:
1. Status Monitoring: Regularly checks system health and alerts if
something is wrong.
2. Failure Diagnostics: When a problem occurs, it analyzes what went wrong
and why.
3. Recommendation of Repair Procedures: Suggests steps to fix the
identified problems, sometimes using expert systems (AI) to guide repairs.

Benefits:

● Helps technicians understand failures and predict future issues, allowing for
preventive maintenance.

3. Error Detection and Recovery

 ● Purpose: To identify errors in the system and correct them automatically to
prevent production loss.
● Error Detection:
○ The system uses sensors to identify when something has gone wrong and
classifies the type of error.
○ Errors can be:
■ Random errors: Unexpected variations in the process.
■ Systematic errors: Result from specific issues (e.g., wrong
materials).
■ Aberrations: Major issues like equipment failure or human
mistakes.

Example: In an automated machining cell, possible errors might include:

● Machine and process: Power loss, overheating.

● Cutting tools: Breakage or wear.
● Workholding fixture: Misalignment.
● Part storage: Wrong parts or absence of parts.
● Load/unload robot: Dropping parts or improper handling.
● Error Recovery Strategies:
1. Adjustments after the current cycle: Correct the error once the current
task is done.
2. Adjustments during the cycle: Fix the problem immediately while
continuing operations.
3. Stop the process for corrective action: Halt operations to fix the
problem.
4. Stop and call for help: If the system can't fix itself, human intervention is
needed.

1. Device Level

● Description: This is the foundational level of automation, consisting of basic

hardware components.
● Components:
○ Sensors: Devices that detect physical conditions (like temperature,
pressure, or position) and convert them into signals.
○ Actuators: Mechanical devices that convert electrical signals into physical
movement (e.g., motors).
○ Control Loops: The integration of sensors and actuators into feedback
systems, like those used in CNC machines.
● Example: A feedback control loop in a CNC machine where a sensor detects the
position of the cutting tool and adjusts its position accordingly.
2. Machine Level

● Description: At this level, the individual hardware components from the device
level are assembled into complete machines.
● Examples:
○ CNC Machine Tools: Machines that automate machining processes by
following programmed instructions.
○ Industrial Robots: Automated arms that perform tasks such as welding,
painting, or assembly.
○ Powered Conveyors: Systems that move materials from one place to
another automatically.
● Control Functions: Ensuring that machines execute programmed steps in the
correct sequence and verify that each step is completed accurately.

3. Cell or System Level

● Description: This level consists of interconnected machines or workstations that

work together to produce a product.
● Components:
○ Manufacturing Cells: Groups of machines designed for a specific product
or task, supported by material handling systems.
○ Production Lines: Series of processes that convert raw materials into
finished products.
● Functions:
○ Part Dispatching: Coordinating which parts go to which machines.
○ Machine Loading: Ensuring machines are loaded with the correct
materials.
○ Data Collection: Gathering inspection data to monitor quality and
performance.
● Example: An automotive assembly line where various robots and machines work
together to assemble cars.

4. Plant Level

● Description: This level encompasses the entire factory's operations and manages
production processes.
● Functions:
○ Order Processing: Managing customer orders and translating them into
production tasks.
○ Process Planning: Developing plans for how products will be made.
○ Inventory Control: Keeping track of raw materials and finished products.
○ Quality Control: Monitoring the quality of products throughout the
manufacturing process.
● Example: A factory management system that integrates all functions to ensure
that production runs smoothly and meets demand.

5. Enterprise Level
 ● Description: The highest level of automation, managing the entire organization’s
functions and resources.
● Functions:
○ Corporate Information Systems: Comprehensive systems that oversee
various business functions, including marketing, sales, finance, and
research.
○ Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Software that integrates all
departments and functions across a company into a single system to
streamline processes and information.
● Example: An ERP system that helps a manufacturing company manage
everything from production scheduling to accounting and human resources.

Visual Representation

In a hierarchical model, these levels can be visualized as a pyramid:

● Base (Device Level): Sensors and actuators.

● Second Level (Machine Level): Individual machines like CNC tools and robots.
● Middle (Cell/System Level): Groups of machines working together
(manufacturing cells).
● Fourth Level (Plant Level): Overall factory management and operations.
● Top Level (Enterprise Level): Corporate-wide management, overseeing all
functions of the business.