INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY ARUSHA

MODULE NAME: Introduction to Business Mathematics and Statistics

PROGRAMS: ODBM I & ODPLM I - 2024/2025

Lecture notes: Set

Introduction
In our daily life we use phrases like a bunch of keys, a set of books, a tea set, a pack of cards, a team of
players, a class of students, etc. Here the words bunch, set, pack, team, class – all indicate collections
of aggregates. In mathematics also we deal with collections.
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects may be anything—numbers, people, books, letters of
the alphabet, rivers, etc. Each object of the set is called its element or member. Sets are usually
represented by capital letters like A, B, M, etc. and the elements by small letters such as a, b, c and m.

Methods of Describing a Set.

There are two methods to describe a set. These are:
(a) Roster Method
In this method of representation, elements of the set are listed between two curly brackets {}
separated by commas. For example: P = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) Formula Method or Set-builder Method
In this method of representation, elements of the set are described by their characteristics or property by
using a symbol ‘x’ or any other variable followed by a colon. The symbol ‘:’ or ‘|’ is used to denote “such
that” and then we write the characteristics or property possessed by the elements of the set and enclose
the whole description in braces. In this, the colon stands for ‘such that’ and braces stand for ‘set of all’.
For example:
 Let E be a set of natural numbers less than 10.
Then, in Rule method, set E is written as: E = {x : x is natural numbers less than 10} or
E = {x | x is natural numbers less than 10}
 Let F be a set of odd numbers between 5 and 15. It can be written in the Rule method as:
F = {x | x is an odd numbers, 5 < x < 15} or F = {x : x ∈ N, 5 < x < 15 and N is an odd number}
Note: The symbol ∈ is used to denote ‘is an element of’ or is a member of’ or ‘belongs to’. Thus, for x
∈N. read as x is an element of N or x belongs to N.
Example 1:
Represent the following set by using roster and rule methods.
The set of integers lying between 5 and 10.
Solution:
Let A be the required set

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Roster method: A = {6, 7, 8, 9}
Rule method: A = {x: x ∈ N, 5 < x < 10 and N is an integer}

(c) Description method

Another way of representing a set is to provide a word description of a set. For example.
Set A = {Months of the year that begin with a letter J}
Types of Set
(i) Finite Set: This is a set containing a definite number of elements. Example: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
(ii) Infinite Set: It is a set containing infinite number of elements. Example: P = {1, 2, 3, ..........}
(iii) Null or empty Set: It is a set having no element in it. Empty set is denoted by a Greek letter φ (read
as phi) or {}. Example: A = {A set of positive numbers less than zero}

Relation between sets

(a) Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if both have same elements. Every element of A is an element of
B and every element of B is an element of A. The symbol to denote an equal set is = . The order of writing
the elements or any repetition of elements does not alter the equality of two sets. When two sets A and
B are not ‘equal’, we write A ≠ B
For example:
(a) If A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {5, 4, 3, 2} then A = B
(b) A = {3, 7, 8} and B = {8, 3, 7} are ‘equal’ sets: because A and B have the same elements, namely 3,
7 and 8.
(c) C = {x, y, z, w} and D = {y, x, w, x, x, x, y, z, z} are ‘equal’ sets, i.e., C = D; because C and D have the
same elements w, x, y and z.
(e) The sets A = {2, 3}, B = {x : x2 – 5x + 6 = 0} and C = {3, 2, 2, 3} are ‘equal’. A = B = C.
(f) The sets P = {a, b, c, d} and Q = {a, c, d, e} are not ‘equal’. P ≠ Q.
(g) The sets X = {x : x2 + 4 = 0, x real} and Y = {x : x2 + 9 = 0, x real} are ‘equal’: because X and Y are
null sets. X = Y = φ.
(h) Let R = {x : x is a letter of the word SET}, S = {x : x is a letter of the word TEST}
T = {x : x is a letter of the word ESTATE}. Then R = S, R ≠ T, S ≠ T.

(b) Equivalent Set

Two sets are equivalent if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements. It is denoted by
A≡ B. Two ‘equivalent’ sets may not have the same elements, but the number of elements in two finite
equivalent sets must be the same. For example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {b, a, l, 1}. A ≡ B because in A, there
are 4 elements, that is, 1, 2, 3, 4 and in B, there are also 4 elements, b, a, I,1.

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(c) Subset
If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is said to be a subset of B. This is read
“A is contained in B” or “B contains A”. If A is a subset of B, then B is said to be a superset of A. For
example: If, X = {3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13} and N = {5, 11, 13}. Then, N is a subset of X.

(d) Number of Subsets

If, M = {a, b, c}, the subsets of M are: {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, {}
Therefore, the number of subsets, S = 8
The formula, S = 2n, where, S is the number of sets and n is the number of elements of the set. From
above, M = {a, b, c}, S = 23 = 8.

(e) Universal Set

In any application of set theory, all the sets under investigation are likely to be considered as subsets of
a particular set. This set is called the Universal Set. It means that, a universal set is the collection of all
objects in a particular context or theory. All other sets in that framework constitute subsets of the universal
set, which is denoted by U. For example: A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d, e}, C = {d, e, f, g, h} and U = {a, b, c,
d, e, f, g, h, i, j}. Clearly, all the sets A, B, and C are subsets of the set U.
Therefore, U is the Universal set of the sets A, B and C

(f) Complementary set

If a given set A is contained in a universal set then we can say the complement of the set A, denoted by
Ac is a set of all elements found in the universal set but not in set A.

(g) Operations on Sets

Like in arithmetic where we have addition and subtraction that enable us to combine numbers, in sets we
have also similar mechanisms that enable us to combine sets. These are the union and intersection of
sets.
 Union of sets: The ‘union’ of sets A and B is the set of all elements that belong either to A or to B
or to both A and B (i.e., that belong to at least one of the sets A and B). This is written as, A ∪ B and
read “A union B”

Example
(i) If A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 6, 7, 9}. Then, A ∪ B = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}
(ii) If A = {a, b} B = {b, c, d} and C = {c, d, e, f}. Then, A ∪ B ∪ C = {a, b, c, d, e, f}

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 Intersection of sets: The ‘intersection’ of sets A and B is the set of all elements that belong to both
A and B (i.e., that are common to the sets A and B). This is written as A ∩ B and read “A intersection
B”.
Example:
(i) If A = {5, 6, 7, 8} and B = {7, 8, 9, 10}. Then, A ∩ B = {7, 8}
(ii) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d} and C = {c, d, e}. Then, A ∩ B ∩ C = {c}

Laws of set Operations

Set laws Set Operations
Commutative laws (a) A∪B = B∪A
(b) A∩B = B∩A
Associative laws (a) A∪ (B ∪ C) = (A∪B) ∪ C
(b) A∩(B ∩C) = (A∩B) ∩C
Distributive laws (a) A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪ C)
(b) A∩ (B ∪ C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩ C)
Idempotent laws (a) A∪ A = A
(b) B∩B = B
Identity laws (a) A ∪ μ = μ
(b) B ∩ μ = B
(c) A∪ φ = A
(d) A∩ φ = φ
Complement laws (a) φ′ = μ
(b) μ′ = φ
(c) (Ac)c = A
(d) A∪Ac = μ
(e) A ∩ A′ = φ
De-morgan’s laws (a) (A∪ B)′ = A’∩ B′
(b) (A∩ B)′ = A’∪ B′

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagram is a diagram representing mathematical or logical sets pictorially as circles or closed curves
or oval shape within an enclosing rectangle. It shows all possible relations between a finite collection of
different sets. John Venn, an English logician, invented this diagram. According to his name the diagram
is known as ‘Venn Diagram”

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 U

Overlapping Sets
If the two sets A and B are not equal but they have some common elements, then they are called
overlapping sets. See figure 1.2

Suppose A = {5, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B = {6, 8, 10} since both the sets have common elements 8 and 10 but they
are not equal, so they are called overlapping sets.
Disjoint Sets
Sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they have no common element; i.e., no element of A belongs to B
and no element of B belongs to A.

Examples.
(a) Let A = {1, 3, 7, 8} and B = {2, 5, 6, 9, 10}. Then A and B are ‘disjoint’ sets because they have no
common elements.
(b) C = {2, 4, 6, 8, …} and D = {–1, –2, –3, –4, …} are ‘disjoint’ sets.
(c) A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} are not ‘disjoint’ sets because the elements 2 and 4 are common to
both the sets.
(d) E = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and F = {x : ½ ≤ x ≤1} are not ‘disjoint’ sets.
(e) If A is a non-empty subset of B, then A and B are not ‘disjoint’ sets

Cardinal Number of a set

The cardinal number of a finite set A is the number of elements of the set A. It is denoted by n(A). e.g.
(a) A = {1, m, n}, B = {1, 2, 3} then n(A) = n(B)
(b) B = {x : x ∈ N, x < 7}. Then, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Therefore, n(B) = 6

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 (c) C be the set of letters in the word ARITHMETIC, i.e. C = {A, R, I, T, H, M, E, C}. Then, n(C) = 8

Number of elements in a finite set

In a finite set, if operations are made, some new subsets will be formed. Here, we find the values of these
new subjects. Since A is a finite set, we shall denote it by n (A) for the finite elements in A, which may be
obtained by actual counting. But for unions of two or more sets, we have different formulae:
n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B) for two sets A and B
Let A = {a, b, c, d}. and B = {a, b, d, e}.
We consider Left hand side (LHS)
A∪B = {a, b, c, d,e}. Then n(A∪B) = 5
We consider Right hand side (RHS)
n(A) = 4, n(B) = 4 and A∩B = {a, b, d}. Hence, n(A∩B) = 3
n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B) = 4 + 4 – 3 = 5
Since, LHS = RHS, then, n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)

Note: The result can be extended to more than two sets. If we have three sets, A, B and C, then
n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(A∩ 𝐂) – n(B∩ 𝐂) + n(A∩B∩ 𝐂)

Example: If n (A) = 20, n(B) = 12, n (A ∩ B) = 4, find n (A ∪ B)

Solution: n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)
n(A∪B) = 20 + 12 – 4
n(A∪B) = 28

Questions (To be done by students)

1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 5, 8}, C = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, find (i) A ∩ B, (ii) B ∪ C,
(iii) A ∩ (B ∪ C) (iv) A ∪ (B ∩ C).
2. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 5, 6}, C = {1, 3, 4, 6, 8}, verify that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
3. In a class of 100 students, 45 students study business mathematics, 52 students study business law
and 15 students study both the subjects. Find the number of students who study neither business
mathematics and business law.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. With an example briefly describe the following:
Empty set, Singleton Set, Finite sets, Infinite Sets, Equal Sets and Equivalent Sets

2. Dhaka city has a total population of 8000000. Out of it 1800000 are service holders and 1000000 are
businessmen while 120000 are in both positions. Indicate how many people are neither service
holders nor businessmen.

3. Out of 1200 students of a college, 400 played cricket, 350 played football and 512 played table tennis:
of the total 100 played both cricket and football; 142 played football and table tennis; 95 played cricket
and table tennis; 50 played all the three games.
(i)How many students did not play any game? (ii) How many students played only one game?
4. Out of 400 students of a university, 102 studied Business Mathematics, 110 studied Management
and 152 studied Business Law: of the total 27 studied Management and Business Law; 36 studied
Business Mathematics and Business Law; 18 studied Business Mathematics and Management; 11
studied all the three subjects. (i) How many students did not study any subject?
(ii) How many students studied only one subject?
5. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak French. How many can
speak English only? How many can speak French only and how many can speak both English and
French?
6. A market research group conducted a survey of 1000 consumers and reported that 720 consumers
liked product A and 450 consumers like product B. What is the least number that must have liked
both products?
7. Write the following sets in the roster form.
(i) A = {x : x is a letter in the word ‘MATHEMATICS’}
(ii) B = {x : x ∈ N and 2 < x < 8}
8. (a) If A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {2, 8, 3, 5}. Find the union of two sets A and B.
(b) Given that P = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and Q = {1, 3, 8, 4, 6}. Find the intersection of two sets A and B.
(c) Let P and Q be two finite sets such that n(P) = 25, n(Q) = 30 and n(P ∪ Q) = 40, find n(P ∩ Q).
(d) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 5, 8}, C = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, find: (i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) (ii) A ∩ (B ∪ C)