Chapter -1 COMPUTER SYSTEM

 Computer is an electronic device designed to accept the input

automatically, process them and generate the output according to
the instructions by the user.
 The user can fulfil their needs by using application software. But it
is possible to control devices, automate the task, efficient
communication etc., by programming using computer languages.
 A computer system needs to be directed to perform various user
specified operations.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Control Unit

Input Unit Arithmetic and

logic unit Output Unit

Registers

Memory Unit

INPUT UNIT: The devices which are used to input data into a
computer system is called input unit.
Examples: keyboard, Mouse.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 The CPU of the computer is also called processor/micro-processor.
 The CPU is commonly called as brain or heart of the computer
system. It is a fastest computing device.
 The CPU consists of three components - Register, ALU
(Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).
Register
 A register is a high-speed storage device that stores data and
instructions for processing.
 It has comparatively limited storage space.
 It is available in various sizes like 8/16/32/64 bits.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
It performs arithmetic and logical units. such as +,-,* etc,.
Control Unit (CU)
 It controls sequential instruction execution translates.
 It also controls the devices by sending the signals.
Output Unit
 The devices which are used to obtain the results from the computer
system is called output unit.
 Output devices include monitor, speaker, printer, plotter, projector
etc.
Monitor
 The monitor is used to display the results.
 It is also called Visual Display Unit (VDU).
Printer
A printer generates hard copy (printout) as output; thus, it is called hard
copy outs device.
The printer is classified into following types.
(a) Dot matrix printer is an impact printer used for printing bills. It
consumes less ink.therefore, is cheaper. It is also known as
character printer.
(b) Ink jet printer is a non-impact printer uses more ink and
generates high equals output. It used for printing sale deed,
invitation etc.
(c) Laser printer is a high-quality printer, used much in industries.
It is also know as page printer.
(d) 3-D printer is an advanced device used for printing physical
replica of digital 3-D design in manufacturing industries.
Evolution of Computer System
The study of computer history is called evolution of computer,
The different sequential stages (time line) described below.
1. Abacus (500 BC) The first mechanical calculating device used for
arithmetic calculations.
2. Pascaline/Pascal Calculator (1642) It was invented by Blaise
Pascal, a French mathematician? It performs addition and
subtraction directly It also performs multiplication and division
using repeated addition and subtraction method.
3. Analytical Engine (1834) - Analytical Engine, a general purpose
mechanical, computing device was invented by Charles Babbage
 He used the punched cards to encode the machine
instructions.
 Charles Babbage is known as father of computer.
  He also invented Difference Engine in 1822 to evaluate
differential equations.
4. Tabulating Machine (1890)
 This machine was invented by Hermann Hollerith, an
American scientist invented the first electromechanical
punched card tabulator for programming.
 He used the punched cards for input, data storage and output
purpose.
 A punched card is a piece of stiff paper that stores digital
data in the form of holes at predefined positions,
5. Turing Machine (1936)
 The Turing machine was invented by Alan Turing
 A Turing Machine (TM) is a mathematical model which has
a tape divided into cells on which input is given.
6. EDVAC/ENIAC (1945)
 The EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) and
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)
were developed based on John Von Neumann's stored
program computer concept.
 It was capable of storing data as well as program in the
computer's memory.
7. Transistor (1947)
 The vacuum tubes used in I generation computers were
replaced by transistors.
 A transistor is a semiconductor device that controls the flow
of electrical signals in electronic circuits.
 It invented at Bell Lab, USA.
Integrated Circuit (1970)-
 Integrated Circuit (10) or micro-chip was invented by Jack Kilby.
 As it is a small sized component and made up of semiconductor
material (silicon).
  The size of the computer drastically reduced due to existence of
these Is in modern computer.
Von Neumann Architecture
 This architecture was invented by John Von Neumann in 1945.
 The Von Neumann Architecture is also known as the Princeton
Architecture, a fundamental computer architecture.
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) is the
first computer which is programmed using binary digits based on
Von Neumann architecture.
It has following components.
 Central Processing Unit This includes an Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit and processor registers like, program
counter(PC). Accumulatori ACC), Memory Address
Register(MAR) and Memory Data Register(MDR).
 Memory Unit - It stores both data and instructions.
 External Mass Storage - It is used for data storage for future use.
 Input and Output Units - These units are used for communication
with external devices.
The step by step technological developments in the field of computer
are:
 1970-CPU on a single chip called micro-processor using LSI
(Large Scale Integration)circuits.
 1980- Micro-processor with millions of electronic components
using VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology Further
SLSI (Super Large Scale Integration) technology was used to add
more number of electronic components (transistors) on to a single
chip.
 1981-Introduction of first Personal Computer (PC) by IBM
company.
 1984-Apple introduced Macintosh machines.
 1990-World Wide Web (WWW) was launched and started
revolution in the field of computer and internet by using Graphical
User Interfaces (GUI) like Windows.
 Later, introduction of laptops, smart phones, tablets and various
digital devices have been introduced.
 As common public started using these digital devices for fulfilling
their needs, many other gadgets like smart watches, head phones
were introduced.
 Today, we find Internet of Things (IoT), e-commerce, online
transactions, Robots, Artificial Intelligence (Al) technology and
many more.
Computer Memory
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the fastest computing unit.
 It has few registers to store the data during processing.
 A register can store small amount (some bits) of data.
 So that there is a need of large memory space for keeping data and
instructions.
 A computer system stores data and instructions in the form of
binary digits (0 and 1).
 These bits are called Binary digITs(BITs).
 For example, in ASCII standard, letter 'A' is stored as 01000001.
Because ASCII value of 'A' is 65, it is converted into binary
number.
The data is measured using following units.
Units of Memory
Units with description Units with description
4 bits 1 nibble 1024 GB 1 TB (Terra Byte)
8 bits-1 byte 1024 TB1 PB (Peta Byte)
1024 bytes=1 KB (Kilo Byte) 1024 PB-1 EB (Exa Byte)
1024 KB-1 MB (Mega Byte) 1024 EB1 ZB (Zetta Byte)
1024 MB 1GB (Giga Byte) 1024 ZB-1 YB (Yotta Byte)

There are two types of memory.

i) Primary memory
ii) Secondary memory
Primary memory - The CPU interacts directly with the primary
memory to perform read or write operation.
 It includes Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory(ROM). It is also called as semi-conductor memory.
RAM
 The data/instructions must be loaded into RAM for processing.
 The RAM is volatile. That means, RAM retains the contents until
electricity is present, the moment power supply is turned off, it
loses its contents.
 The RAM is also called main memory of the computer system.
 It is faster than the secondary memory.
 The amount of data loaded for processing is depending on RAM
size.
It is of two types static RAM and dynamic RAM.
Static RAM retains the stored information as long as the power supply is
continuously present.
 It consumes more electric power compared to dynamic RAM.
Because it does not have refreshing circuits.
 It is costlier and faster compared to Dynamic RAM.
Dynamic RAM has refreshing circuits and loses its stored information in
a very short period of time even though the power supply is on.
 Therefore, it conserves the electric power.
 But it is slower than the Static RAM.
 The types of dynamic RAM's available in market are DDR
(Double Data Rate), DDR2, DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5.
ROM
 ROM It is non-volatile memory, which means its contents are not
lost even when the power is turned off.
 It is not changeable and stores the contents permanently.
 The startup program (boot loader) present in the ROM loads the
operating system into main memory for booting.
 The types of ROM chips available are PROM (Programmable
Read Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory).
Cache Memory
 There is a very high speed and small memory is placed between
the CPU and the main memory of computer system is called cache
memory.
 It is designed to speed up the operations of the CPU.
  It stores the copies of frequently accessed data, when the CPU
needs same data, it first checks the cache.
 If it is available, it is read from the cache, otherwise the main
memory is accessed.
 The cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
 The cache memory has limited capacity.
 the types of cache memory includes Level l (L1) cache which is
CPU resident, Level2 Level3 (L3) cache are located in the
motherboard.
SECONDARY MEMORY
 The primary memory is used for accessing of data.lt cannot store
the data permanently.
 Thus, there is a need of secondary or auxiliary memory pr
permanently store the data or instructions for future use.
 The secondary memory is non-volatile and has larger storage
capacity than primary memory.
 It is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. But it cannot be
accessed directly by the CPU.
 The contents of secondary storage need to be first brought into the
main memory for the CPU to access.
 The commonly used secondary memory devices include Hard Disk
Drive (HDD), CD/DVD, Memory Card, etc.
Difference between primary memory and secondary memory
PRIMARY MEMORY SECONDARY MEMORY
Primary memory is made up of Secondary memory is made up
semiconductor material. either magnetic or optical.
It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.
It is faster and expensive compared It is slower and less expensive.
to secondary memory.
It is directly accessed by the It is not directly accessed by
processor. processor.
It can store small amount of data. It can store large amount of data.
Example: RAM and ROM Example: HDD, SSD, pendrive etc.

Data transfer between Memory and Processor (CPU)

 The instruction execution and data process take place by the CPU.
 The data need to be transferred between CPU, main memory and
finally into secondary memory during the process.
 It is also important to transfer memory locations and control
signals from one device to another.
 All these contents can be transferred through group of wires called
a bus.
A bus is an electronic communication system that transfers
data/instructions between components inside a computer or between
computers.
There are two types of buses internal bus and external bus.
The internal bus connects all the internal components of a computer,
such as CPU and memory to the motherboard.
 Internal buses are also known as local bus, because they are
intended to connect to local devices.
 The various internal buses are described below.
Data bus is a bi-directional bus, sometimes it is called the memory bus,
handles the transfer of data between the devices.
Address bus is a unidirectional bus. To write the data into memory, the
CPU places the data into data bus, which is then written to specific
address provided by the address bus.
 In case of read operation, the CPU specifies the address, and the
data is placed on the data bus by a dedicated hardware, called
memory controller.
 The memory controller manages the flow of data into and out of
the computer's main memory.
Control bus is also unidirectional bus. It transmits the control signals to
carry out the operations of the computer system.
 It is also used to direct and monitor the actions of different
computer components.
Above three buses are collectively called as system bus.

The external bus is made up of the electronic pathways that connect the
different external devices such as printer, peripheral devices etc., to the
computer.
MICROPROCESSOR
 A Microprocessor is an important component of a computer
system without which you will not be able to perform anything on
your computer.
 It is a programmable device that takes in input, performs some
arithmetic and logical operations over it and produces the desired
output.
 In simple words, a Microprocessor is a digital device on a chip that
can fetch instructions from memory, decode and execute them and
generates results.
Microprocessor performs three basic things while executing the
instruction:
1. It performs some basic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and some logical operations (AND OR NOT)
using its Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
2. Data in microprocessor can move from one location to another.
3. It has a Program Counter (PC) register that stores the address of the
next instruction to be executed.
Generations of Micro-Processor
Generation Chip type Word size Examples
First LSI 4-bits 4004
generation(1971-
72)
Second LSI 8-bits Intel 8008,8085
Generation Motorola 6800/6801
(1973-78)
Third Generation VLSI 16-bits Intel 8086
(1979-80) Motorola 68000

Fourth VLSI 32-bits Intel 80386 Motorola

Generation 68030
(1981-95)
SLSI 64-bits Pentium,Celeron,
Fifth Generation (multicore) Dualcore,Quadcore,Octa-
(1995 to present) core and Intel i3, i5 and
i7 series.

1. First Generation Microprocessors (1971-1972):

 LSI chip type, upto 1 KB memory size, 108 KHz to 200 KHz clock
speed.
 4/8 Bits Microprocessors (single core) - Intel 4004 and 8008.
2. Second Generation Microprocessors (1973-1978);
 LSI chip type, upto 1 MB memory size, upto 2 MHz clock speed.
 8 Bits Microprocessors (single core) -Intel 8008, 8085, Motorola
6800/6801.
3. Third Generation Microprocessors (1979-1980):
 VLSI chip type, upto 16 MB memory size, 4 MHz to 6 MHz clock
speed.
 16 Bits Microprocessors (single core) -Intel 8086, Motorola 68000.
4. Fourth Generation Microprocessors (1981-1995):
 VLSI chip type, upto 4 GB memory size, upto 133 MHz clock
speed.
 32 Bits Microprocessors (single core) - Intel 80386, Motorola
68030.
5. Fifth Generation Microprocessors (1995-present):
 SLSI chip type, upto 64 GB memory size, 533 MHz to34 GHz
clock speed.
 64 Bits Microprocessors (multi core) Intel 80386, Motorola 68030.
Microprocessor Specifications
Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different features which
include chip type, word size, memory size, clock speed etc.
These features are briefly explained below:
Word size
 A byte is a group of 8 bits and a word is the smallest unit that can
be addressed on memory.
 The most common word sizes a register can hold are 8, 16, 32 and
64 bits.
Memory size
 The memory size is a measure of the amount of data that can be
stored in a computer's memory.
 Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies.
  Memory size is usually measured in bytes, Kilobytes (KB),
Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), Terabytes (TB) etc.
Clock speed
 The Clock speed also known as Clock rate.
 The operating speed of a computer or its microprocessor,
expressed in cycles per second is called clock speed.
 It will be measured in hertz(Hz) and kilohertz(Kz).
Cores
 Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. CPU with two, four,
and eight cores is called dual-core, quad-core and octa-core
processor, respectively.
MICROCONTROLLER
 The microcontroller is a small computing device which has a CPU,
a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other peripherals.
 All embedded on a single chip as compared to microprocessor that
has only a CPU on the chip.
 Keyboard, mouse, washing machine, digital camera, pendrive,
remote controller, microwave are few examples of
microcontrollers.
DATA AND INFORMATION:
DATA: Data is a collection unorganised fact to get meaningful information.
INFORMATION: the processed data is known as information
Types of Data
I. Structured Data
II. Semi structured data
III. Unstructured Data

I. Structured Data:
  Structured data is a type of data which is organized formatted in predefined
record format.
 It can be easily readable and understandable by humans and machines.
 Data are arranged in tabular format (rows and column)
Ex:
Roll NO Name Percentage Result
100001 Roshan 87 Pass
100002 Kiran 90 Pass
100003 Naveen 30 Fail

II. Unstructured Data:

 Data which is not organised in the pre-defined record format.
 It is not easily understandable.
 It requires lot of storage space
Ex: audio file, image file etc
III. Semi structured Data:
 The combination of structured and unstructured data is known as semi
structured data.
 It maintain internal tags to separate data elements.
Ex: Monthly sales report
DATA CAPTURING, STORAGE, RETRIEVAL.
Data capturing:
 The process of collecting different kinds of Data and converting them into
digital form for data process is known as Data capturing.
 The devices used for data capturing are, scanner, camera, keyboard etc.
Data Storage:
 Data storage is the process of storing the captured data permanently for
future use.
 The devices used to store the data are CD/DVD, pen drive, hard disk
memory card etc.
Data retrieval:
 The process of fetching the stored data from the file for future use is known
as data retrieval.
DATA DELETION AND RECOVERY.
Data deletion:
 The biggest threats associated with digital data is deletion.
 The storage devices can malfunction or crash down resulting in the deletion
of data stored.
 Deleting digitally stored data means changing the details of the data at bit
level,
 When a data is deleted, its address is marked as free and the space is shown
as empty to the user.
Data recovery:
Data recovery is the process of retrieving deleted, corrupted and lost data
from secondary storage devices.
Steps to protect our data.
 Allow only authorized person to use your system.
 Use password to protect the important or confidential data.
 Discard our old or damaged storage device carefully by using proper tools.
SOFTWARE:
Set of programs are known as a Software.
Ex: MS Word, MS Excel
A document or image stored on the hard disk or pen drive is referred as Soft-
copy.
The document or image which is printed on the paper is known as Hard copy.
Need of a software:
 The main purpose of a software is to make the computer hardware useful
and operational.
  Software knows how to make different hardware component of a computer
work and communicate with each other.
 Software act as an interface between user and the hardware.
Types of Software:
 System software.
 Programming Tools.
 Application Software.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
The System Software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing
the computer itself, such as the operating systems, system utilities, device drivers,
language translators etc.
1. Operating System:
 The operating system is a system software that operates the computer.
 OS is the most basic system software, without which other software
cannot work.
 Operating system is a software that manages and handles the hardware
and software resources of a computer system.
 It provides interaction between user and the computer hardware.
 It is a low-level software which manages basic functions like, process
management, memory management, error detection etc.
 Some of the popular OS are, Windows, Unix, Linux, Macintosh, Ubuntu,
Fedora, Android, iOS etc.
2. System utilities.
 Utility software is a type of software that is designed to help users to
manage, maintain and optimize their computer system.
 Utility software includes a wide range of tools and applications that
performs specific tasks.
 Some utilities are the part of Operating System. For example, disk
fragmentation tool, formatting utility, system restore utility etc.
3. Device Drivers.
 A device driver is a special kind of software program that controls a
specific hardware device that enables different hardware devices to
communicate with the Operating System.
  The purpose of a device driver is to ensure proper functioning of a
particular device.
 The device drivers act as an interface between the device and the
operating system.
PROGRAMMING TOOLS.
In order to get some work done by the computer, we need to give instruction to
access input data to get desired result. The computer languages are developed for
writing these instructions.
1. Classifications of Programming Language.
 Computer languages are used for programming.
 Computer can understand only binary language.
 It is difficult for humans to write instruction in the binary form( 0’s
and 1’s).
 Different types of computer programming languages are developed to
make coding easy.
There are two types of Programming Languages.
 Low-Level-language
 High- level-language
Low-level-language:
 Low level language are machine dependent languages, it includes
Machine level language and Assembly level Language
 Machine Level Language: It uses 0’s and 1’s to write instruction
which are directly understood and executed by the computer.
 It is difficult to remember and understand the code written in Machine
level language.
 It is difficult to debug and find the errors in Machine Level Language.
 it does not need translator and consume less time.
 Assembly level language: it uses English-like words and symbols
instead of 1’s and 0’s for programming.
 It is easy to understand compare to machine level language.
 The code written for one CPU type, cannot be used for another type of
CPU.
  The code used to represent instruction in assembly level language is
called Mnemonics.
 Ex: ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV
 Assemble is the translator used to translate assembly level language to
Machine code.
2. High level language:
 High level language uses English words as commands and follows a
set of rules which is similar to natural language.
 These languages are not directly understood by the computer.
 Compiler and Interpreter are used to translate High level Language to
machine level language.
 Ex: JAVA, C++, C, PYTHON etc.
3. Language translators:
 Translators are use to convert the programs written in assembly or
high-level language into machine level language.
 The program code written in assembly or high-level languages are
called as Source Code.
 The source code is converted by a translator into the machine
understandable form called as object code.
 The three types of Translators are: Compiler, Interpreter, Assembler.
 The translator used to convert the code written in assembly language
to machine language is called assembler.
 The compiler converts the source code into machine code. It compiles
the code as whole. Once translated, the compiler is not needed.
 An interpretertranslates the code line by line. Interpreter is always
needed whenever a source code is to executed.
The difference between Compiler and Interpreter.
Compiler Interpreter
Compilation is at one go Interpretation is done line by line
Needs more memory space for Needs less memory Space for
translation translation

Source code is not required for Source code is required for

execution execution
 Debugging is difficult and Debugging is easy and requires
requires more time less time

4. Program Development tool.

 Text editor: this is the software that allows text for typing instruction
and store the file as the source code.
 Translator: it is used to translate assembly or high-level language to
Machine level language.
 IDLE(Integrated Development Environment): The software consist
of text editor, building tools and debugger is known as IDE. A
program can be typed, compile and debugged from the IDE directly.
Python IDLE is an example for IDLE.
 Debugger: this is the software to detect and correct errors in the
source code.
 Linker:This is a special program that combines the object files,
generated by compiler/assembler and other pieces of code to originate
an executable file has .exe extension.
 Loader: this is a special program that takes input of executable files
from linker, loads it to main memory and prepares this code for
execution by computer.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
The users who uses computer for fulfilling their needs requires some sort of
software it is known as Application Software. Application software is designed for
specific purpose.
Types of Application Software are:
 General purpose Software:
 General purpose application software is a type of software that can
perform many related tasks and can be used for different purpose of
larger community.
 These types of software are also called as Generic Software.
 Ex: Spreadsheet, databases, word processor.
 Customised Software
  Customised software is a type of software that is developed specially
for particular organisation or user with specific purpose.
 It is also called as Tailor-made software.
Ex: accounting software like Tally, school or college software.
PROPRIETARY, FREE AND OPEN-SOURCE SOFTWARE.
 Proprietary Software: A software which is purchased from the vendor who
has the copyright of the software is called as proprietary software.
 Ex: Tally, Microsoft office etc.
Open-Source Software:
 Some application software provides their source code as well as the software
freely to the public to develop and improve further, such software is called
as open-source software.
 Ex: Python, MySQL, LibreOffice, Mozilla Firefox etc.
Free Software:
 The software which is freely available, but the source code may not be
available, such software are called as Free Software.
 Ex: Skype, Adobe etc.

Operating System (OS):

 An operating system is system software that acts as an interface between the
user and the computer hardware and manages all the resources of a
computer.
 The main goal of an operating system is to provide a user-friendly
environment, to use the available resources in an optimal and efficient
manner and to provide services for building and running applications.
OS User Interface
There are types of interfaces to perform different tasks on the basis of
requirement.
1. Command Line Interface
  where the user interacts with the system through commands. All the
operations are carried out on the basis of commands entered by the user.
 Eg. Creating, opening, deleting etc.
2. Graphical Based User Interface:
 It is the interface that allows users to interact with the system through
graphical icons, menu, taskbar etc.
3. Gesture Based User Interface:
 It is the interface that uses physical gestures to operate the computer system.
 It allows users to perform tasks without physically touching the system.
 Eg. waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking.
4. Voice Based User Interface:
 It is the interface that allows users to interact with a computer through voice
commands.
 Examples of Voice User Interfaces are Google Assistant, Siri and Alexa.
5. Touch Based User Interface:
 Touch based user interface requires a physical touch through the input
device.
 Eg. Touch screen.
Functions of Operating System
Memory Management :
The operating system manages the memory resources of a computer
system. It keeps a record of used and available memory.
It includes:
● Memory Allocation, Reallocation and Deallocation
● Memory Mapping
● Memory Swapping .
Device Management:
Operating system manages communication among all the devices, keeps
track of all the devices, allocates and deallocates devices.
It includes:
● Device initialization
● Device Configuration
● Device Scheduling
Process Management:
It manages all the programs in execution (processes).
It includes:
● Process Creation & Termination
● Process Scheduling
● Context Switching.
File Management:
The operating system manages all the file management tasks. It keeps
track of location, status, storage and operations of a file.
It includes:
● File Creation and Deletion .
● File Permissions and Security File Compression and Encryption
● File Sharing.