Lesson 1 CELL THEORY In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist,

In 1665, Robert Hooke, examined a thin slice of stated that all plants are composed of cells. After one year,
cork under the microscope which he owns invented. He in 1839, Theodore Schwann, a German zoologist, concluded
observed that the piece of cork uses composed of many that all animals are comprised of cells. Jointly, Schleiden and
tiny compartments he named these “cell” Schwann came out with the theory that all living things are
composed of cells and cell is the basic unit of living things,
the first two postulates of the cell theory.

In 1674, Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek Twenty years later, in 1858, another German
contemporary of Robert Hooke, became curious and biologist Rudolph Virchow, theorized that all living cell
interested to Robert Hooke’s discovery. come from pre-existing cells. This becomes the third
He made a more powerful compound microscope. He postulates of the cell theory. His conclusion arose from
discovered free cell (moving cell) like red blood cell, sperm observing dividing cells while he was at work, this
cell and protist in pond water. He called it “animalcules” and conclusion also sealed or end the theory of spontaneous
stated that motility (movement) is characteristics of living generation. However, there is some evidence that this
things. He is the first person to observe living cell. idea was stolen from Polish scientist Robert Remak.

After two century, In 1831, Robert Brown

discovered that there are small bodies in the cell. This
structure is fundamental and a constant component of
the cell, he called it nucleus. Expanded or Modern Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cell
2. Cell is the basic unit of living things
3. New cell arise from pre-existing cells
4. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry)
occurs within cell
5. Cell carry genetic materials (DNA) passed to
In 1835, Felix Dujardin found out that living cell daughter cell through cell division
contained an internal substance. Not knowing exactly 6. All cell are essentially the same in chemical
what this substance was, he named it “sarcode”. It was composition
Johannes Purkinje, who made a thorough investigation of
this internal materials. He called it “protoplasm” which is
currently known as “cytoplasm”
Lesson 2 Cellular Structure Organelles can be group into four categories based on
Cell membrane or plasma membrane their function:
• the boundary of every cell, the selective barrier or 1. Manufacturing
check point, controls the entry and exit of materials or 2. Breakdown
substances 3. Energy processing
4. Support, movement and communication
Manufacturing
1. Nucleus
Nucleus 2. Ribosomes – protein factories or site of protein
synthesis
• the control center of the cell, contain the genetic
materials DNA (chromatin, chromosomes, genes) 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum – found near the nucleus,
Nuclear membrane serves as the pathways for the transport of
materials throughout the cell.
• protect the nucleus and act as the barrier
between the nucleus and other organelles 4. Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Bodies – serve as
Nucleolus processing, packaging, storing, distribution and transport
of materials, it also manufacture certain macromolecules.
• synthesize ribosomes and RNA

Cytoplasm
• main parts or flooring of the cell, made up of jelly
– like substance that holds the cell organelles
called cytosol, site of many chemical reaction

5.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• lacks ribosomes, involve in lipid synthesis,
metabolism of carbohydrates and detoxification of drugs
and poison. Liver have plenty of smooth ER.
Organelles Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Organelles or little organ = are tiny subcellular • contain ribosomes, synthesize secretory protein,
structure that perform specific function within a cell formation of transport vesicles and membrane
production. Pancreas have plenty of rough ER
Breakdown
1. Lysosome – are digestive compartment which
contains enzymes that can digest all major classes of
macromolecules. White blood cell have plenty of
lysosomes.
2. Vacuoles – storage of water, organic compound,
and ions, also act as waste disposal.
3. Peroxisomes – form bile that breaks down fats, 4. Centrioles
detoxify alcohol and other harmful compound.
• help to organize the assembly of microtubule
during cell division.

4.
Energy processing
Mitochondria
• powerhouse of the cell, site of ATP production or
5. Cell wall
cellular respiration
• provide strength and rigidity

Chloroplast
• site of photosynthesis, unlimited source of ATP.

Support, movement and communication

1. Cell membrane or plasma membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cytoskeleton – are network of protein fibers that
help maintain the shape of the cell
3 types of protein fiber
1. Microfilaments – function in cellular movement,
provides rigidity and shape to the cell
2. Intermediate filament – maintain shape and
anchor the nucleus and other organelles in place.
3. Microtubules – provide a track along which
vesicles move through the cell and pull sister chromatids
to opposite ends of a dividing cell.
LESSON 3 Prokaryotes vs. 3. Have other structure: such as cell wall, plasma
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes membrane, DNA, ribosomes, cytoplasm,
• is a simple, single celled (Unicellular) organism, cytoskeleton and centrioles.
relative small that lacks nucleus or any other membrane- Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes cell
bond organelles.
• The earliest or primitive organism, eukaryotes
have just evolve from prokaryotes.
• Is one of the two types of cell, the other one is
the eukaryotes.
• Are autotrophs, they can make their own food.
• Are bacteria, archaebacteria and cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae).
• Can survive even in the most extreme, harsh
environment.
• The success of the prokaryotes is based on Importance of Prokaryotes
diverse adaptation of forms and functions. • Produce oxygen.
Parts of Prokaryotes
• Helps in digestion.
Cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosome, DNA, • Act as nitrogen fixer.
Nucleoid
• Act as decomposer.
• the region where the genetic material (DNA) is • Use in fermentation.
found.
• Use as vector or medium for genetic engineering.
Inclusion/granules
• storage of the carbohydrate and fats.
Glycocalyx
• function as receptor.
Endospore
• helps in surviving during harsh condition due to
resistance to environmental destruction.
Mesosomes
• functions like mitochondria.
Capsule
• additional protection.
Pili
• used to exchanged genetic materials during
conjugation (reproduction)
Fimbriae
• used to attach to a host cell.
Flagellum
• used for movement for locomotion.
Plasmid
• facilitate the process of replication in bacteria.
Characteristics of Eukaryotes
1. Have membrane-bound nucleus.
2. Have membrane-bound organelles such as:
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
chloroplast, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes.
LESSON 4 Cell Modifications
Specialized Cell
• Are the cell which are differentiated, modified or have become specialized to perform a specific function
• Specialized cells have physical and chemical differences that allow them to perform one job or task very well.
Cell specialization involves a change in form and in functions. Specialized cell can look very different from each other.
Specialized cell is
cellular differentiation
Example of Specialized Plant Cell/Tissue and its
modifications
LESSON 5 Cell Types (Plant and Animal Tissue)

Two general types of Plant Tissues

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with tissue
systems made of various cell types that carry out specific
functions. Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general
types: meristematic tissue and permanent (or non-
meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic tissue are
found in meristems, which are plant regions of
Plant Tissue continuous cell division and growth. Meristematic tissue
• Tissues is plants that divide throughout their life.
cells are either undifferentiated or incompletely
differentiated, and they continue to divide and contribute
• Plant tissues can be classified as
to the growth of the plant. In contrast, permanent tissue
• Growing or Meristematic Tissue
consists of plant cells that are no longer actively dividing.
• Permanent Tissue
Meristematic tissues
Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based
on their location in the plant. Apical meristems contain
meristematic tissue located at the tips of stems and roots,
• which enable a plant to extend in length. Lateral
meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a
maturing plant. Intercalary meristems occur only in
monocots, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes (the
areas where leaves attach to a stem). This tissue enables
the monocot leaf blade to increase in length from the leaf
base; for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate
even after repeated mowing.
Permanent Tissue
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate,
or specialize, and become permanent tissue. Such cells take
on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further. They
differentiate into three main types: dermal, vascular, and
ground tissue. Dermal tissue covers and protects the plant,
and vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to
different parts of the plant. Ground tissue serves as a site
for photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for the
vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars.
Dermal Tissue
The dermal tissue of the stem consists primarily Parenchyma
of epidermis, a single layer of cells covering and often the most common ground tissue, takes its
protecting the underlying tissue. Woody plants have a name from the Greek para, meaning beside, and
tough, waterproof outer layer of cork cells commonly egchnma, meaning the contents of a pitcher (literally,
known as bark, which further protects the plant from something poured beside), indicating its ubiquitous
damage. Epidermal cells are the most numerous and least nature throughout the plant body. It forms, for example,
differentiated of the cells in the epidermis. The epidermis the cortex and pith of stems, the photosynthetic tissue
of a leaf also contains openings known as stomata, layer within the epidermis of the leaves (mesophyll), the
through which the exchange of gases takes place (Figure cortex of roots, the pulp of fruits, and the endosperm of
2). Two cells, known as guard cells, surround each leaf seeds. Parenchyma is composed of relatively simple,
stoma, controlling its opening and closing and thus undifferentiated parenchyma cells. In most plants,
regulating the uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of metabolic activity (such as respiration, digestion, and
oxygen and water vapor. Trichomes are hair-like photosynthesis) occurs in these cells because they, unlike
structures on the epidermal surface. They help to reduce many of the other types of cells in the plant body, retain
transpiration (the loss of water by aboveground plant their protoplasts (the cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
parts), increase solar reflectance, and store compounds organelles) that carry out these functions.
that defend the leaves against predation by herbivores. Collenchyma
is found chiefly in the cortex of stems and in leaves.
For many herbaceous plants it is the chief supporting tissue,
especially during early stages of development. In plants in
which secondary growth occurs, the collenchyma tissue is
only temporarily functional and becomes crushed as woody
tissue develops. Collenchyma is located along the periphery
of stems beneath the epidermal tissue. It may form a
complete cylinder or occur as discrete strands that
constitute the ridges and angles of stems and other
supporting structures of the plant.
Ground Tissue
Sclerenchyma tissue
Ground tissue is mostly made up of parenchyma
is composed of sclerenchyma cells, which are
cells, but may also contain collenchyma and sclerenchyma
usually dead at maturity (i.e., have lost their protoplasts).
cells that help support the stem. The ground tissue towards
They characteristically contain very thick, hard secondary
the interior of the vascular tissue in a stem or root is known
walls lined with lignin; consequently, sclerenchyma provides
as pith, while the layer of tissue between the vascular tissue
additional support and strength to the plant body.
and the epidermis is known as the cortex.’
The two principal types of sclerenchyma cells are
sclereids and fibres. Sclereids vary in shape and size and
may be branched. They are common in seed coats and
nutshells. Apart from providing some internal support for
various plant organs, sclereids deter desiccation of hard
seeds, such as beans, and discourage herbivory of certain
leaves.
Fibres are slender cells, many times longer than
they are wide. They are highly lignified cells with tapering
(oblique) end walls. The side walls of fibres are often so
thick that the centre of the cell (the lumen) is often
occluded. Fibres have great tensile strength and yet are
also elastic. These qualities are significant in the flexible
support of the stems of large herbs and leaves of many
monocotyledons, such as palms. Leaf fibres are the source of
abaca, or Manila hemp (Musa textilis; Musaceae), sisal
(Agave sisalana; Asparagaceae), and many other fibre
products. Fibres are found in various parts of the plant
Vascular Tissue
• Xylem and phloem form the vascular system of
plants to transport water and other substances
throughout the plant.
• Xylem transports and stores water and water-
soluble nutrients in vascular plants. Phloem is responsible Connective Tissue
for transporting sugars, proteins, and other organic
Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal
molecules in plants. cells of the embryo. they support and bind other tissues
in the body. These are made up of three components:
Intercellular Matrix
• it is made up of mucopolysaccharide, specifically
hyaluronic acid.
Cells
• The major cells include fibroblasts, adipocytes,
plasma cells and mast cells.
Fibres
• Connective tissues are made up of three types of
fibres, namely, collagen fibre, elastic fibre,
reticular fibre.
The connective tissues perform the following functions:
1. They attach organs and tissues together.
2. They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
3. They help in repairing tissues.
4. They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
5. The organs also help in defense.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues form the protective covering
and inner lining of the body and organs. These tissues
were the first to evolve during evolution and were first
formed during embryonic development. They develop
from the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm of the
embryo. Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
Following are the important characteristics of epithelial
tissues: Muscular Tissue
1. These can be single-layered or multi-layered. The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the
2. The tissues have the power to regenerate. embryo. It is classified into three types:
3. These are held together by gap junctions, tight • Cardiac
junctions, zonula adheren, desmosomes, or • Smooth
interdigitation. • Skeletal
4. The plasma membrane of these cells is specialized Muscular tissue performs the following functions:
into flagella, cilia, and microvilli. 1. It helps in movement and locomotion.
2. It supports the bones and other structures.
3. It is responsible for peristalsis and parturition.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue makes up the peripheral and the
central nervous system. It develops from the ectoderm of
the embryo. It possesses the ability to initiate and
transmit the nerve impulse. Its main components include:
Neurons
• These are the structural and functional unit of nervous system. It comprises an axon, cell body
and dendrites.
Neuroglia
• These are special cells found in the brain and spinal cord. They provide support to the neurons and fibres.
Neurosecretory Cells
• These function as endocrine organs. They release chemical from the axons direcly into blood.
Lesson 6 cell cycle and their S – phase
control Cell Cycle • To produce two similar daughter cells, the
• is an orderly sequence of events that describes complete DNA instructions in the cell must be duplicated
the stages of a cell’s life from the division of a single (DNA replication)
parent cell to production of daughter cell. • During this phase, the cell synthesizes a complete
copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a
microtubules – organizing structure called the
centrosome. The centrosome helps separate
chromosomes during M – phase.

G2 Phase (Growth Phase 2)

Two major phases of cell cycle
1. Interphase the cell grows and DNA is replicated • In the G2 phase, the cell grows more, replenishes
its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for
2. M- phase or division phase – the replicated DNA
and cytoplasmic contents are distributed, and the cell chromosomes manipulation. Some cell organelles are
divides. duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide
Interphase resources for M – phase. The final preparation for the M –
phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter
• During interphase, the cell undergo normal growth
the first stage of M – phase
processes while also preparing for cell division. In order for a
cell to move from interphase into M phase, many internal
and external conditions must be met. The three stages of
interphase are G1, S-
phase, and G2
G1 – phase (Growth Phase 1)
• During this stage, the cell grows and more
organelles are produced, increasing a volume of the
cytoplasm. The cell is quite active at the biochemical
M – phase (Mitosis or Meiosis)
level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of
chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins as well as • The M – phase is multistep process during which the
accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the duplicated chromosome are condensed, aligned, separated
task of replicating each chromosomes in the nucleus. and moved to opposite poles of the cell, and then divided
into new daughter cell.
G0 Phase (Inactive Phase)
• Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern Regulation at Internal Checkpoints
in which a newly form daughter cell immediately enters • It is essential that the daughter cells produced be
the preparatory phases of interphase, closely followed by exact duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the
the M – phase. Cells in G0 phase are not actively duplication or distribution of the chromosomes lead to
preparing to divide. mutations that may be passed forward to every new cell
produced from an abnormal cell. To prevent a compromised
cell from continuing to divide, there are internal control
mechanisms that operate at three main cell cycle
checkpoints. A checkpoint is one of several points in the
eukaryotic cell cycle at which the progression of a cell to the
next stage in the cycle can be halted until conditions are
favorable. These checkpoints occur near the end of G1, at
the G2/M transition,
and during metaphase.
The G1 Checkpoint
• • The G1 checkpoint determines whether all
• The cell is in quiescent (inactive) state that occur conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed. The G1
when cell exit the cell cycle. Some cell enter G0 checkpoint, also called the restriction point (in yeast), is a
temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of point at which the cell irreversibly commits to the cell
G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide division process. External influences, such as growth factors,
such as mature muscles and nerves cells, play a large role in carrying the cell past the G1 checkpoint.
permanently remain in G0 In addition to adequate reserves and cell size, there is a
Control of the cell cycle check for genomic DNA damage at the G1 checkpoint. A cell
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by External Events that does not meet all the requirements will not be allowed
to progress into the S phase. The cell can halt the cycle and
• Both the initiation and inhibition of cell division
attempt to remedy the problematic condition, or the cell can
are triggered by events external to the cell when it is
advance into G0 and await further signals when conditions
about to begin the replication process. An event may be
improve.
as simple as the death of a nearby cell or as sweeping as
the release of growth-promoting hormones, such as
human growth hormone (HGH). A lack of HGH can inhibit
cell division, resulting in dwarfism, whereas too much
HGH can result in gigantism. Crowding of cells can also
inhibit cell division. Another factor that can initiate cell
division is the size of the cell; as a cell grows, it becomes
inefficient due to its decreasing surface-to-volume ratio.
The solution to this problem is to divide. The G2 Checkpoint

• Whatever the source of the message, the cell • The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic
receives the signal, and a series of events within the cell phase if certain conditions are not met. As at the G1
allows it to proceed into interphase. Moving forward checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are assessed.
from this initiation point, every parameter required However, the most important role of the G2 checkpoint is
during each cell cycle phase must be met or the cycle to ensure that all of the chromosomes have been
cannot progress. replicated and that the replicated DNA is not damaged. If
the checkpoint
 mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the wide-ranging and possibly fatal to the cell if
cell cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to either multiple processes are affected.
complete DNA replication or repair the damaged
DNA. Positive Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• Two groups of proteins, called cyclins and cyclin-
dependent kinases (Cdks), are responsible for the progress
of the cell through the various checkpoints. The levels of the
four cyclin proteins fluctuate throughout the cell cycle in a
predictable pattern (Figure 2). Increases in the concentration
of cyclin proteins are triggered by both external and internal
signals. After the cell moves to the next stage of the cell
cycle, the cyclins that were active in the previous stage are
The M Checkpoint degraded.
• The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the
metaphase stage of karyokinesis. The M checkpoint is
also known as the spindle checkpoint, because it
determines whether all the sister chromatids are
correctly attached to the spindle microtubules. Because
the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is
an irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the
kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids are firmly Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are protein kinases that,
anchored to at least two spindle fibers arising from when fully activated, can phosphorylate and thus activate
opposite poles of the cell. other proteins that advance the cell cycle past a
checkpoint. To become fully activated, a Cdk must bind to
a cyclin protein and then be phosphorylated by another
kinase.

Regulator Molecules of the Cell Cycle

• In addition to the internally controlled
checkpoints, there are two groups of intracellular
molecules that regulate the cell cycle. These regulatory
molecules either promote progress of the cell to the next
phase (positive regulation) or halt the cycle (negative
regulation). Regulator molecules may act individually, or
they can influence the activity or production of other
regulatory proteins. Therefore, the failure of a single
regulator may have almost no effect on the cell cycle,
especially if more than one mechanism controls the same
event. Conversely, the effect of a deficient or non-
functioning regulator can be
Negative Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• The second group of cell cycle regulatory molecules are negative regulators. Negative regulators halt the
cell cycle. Remember that in positive regulation, active molecules cause the cycle to progress.
• The best understood negative regulatory molecules are retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53, and p21.
Retinoblastoma proteins are a group of tumor-suppressor proteins common in many cells. The 53 and 21
designations refer to the functional molecular masses of the proteins (p) in kilodaltons. Much of what is known
about cell cycle regulation comes from research conducted with cells that have lost regulatory control. All three of
these regulatory proteins were discovered to be damaged or non-functional in cells that had begun to replicate
uncontrollably (became cancerous). In each case, the main cause of the unchecked progress through the cell cycle
was a faulty copy of the regulatory protein.
LESSON 7 MITSOSIS
Mitosis
• is a type of cell division in which a single mother
cell formed two genetically identical daughter cell
with diploid chromosome number.
Mitosis Anaphase
• divides the nucleus (Karyokinesis) and its 1. The cohesion protein degrade, and the sister
chromosomes. Cytokinesis division of cytoplasm. chromatids separate at the centromere
Mitosis is divided into four stages, namely, prophase, 2. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome
metaphase, anaphase and telophase (became each posses its own centromere) is pulled
rapidly towards the centrosome to which its microtubule
is attached
3. The cell become visibly elongated (oval shaped)

Telophase
1. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
begin to decondense (unreal), relating into a chromatin
Prophase configuration
1. Nuclear envelop starts to disassociate into smack 2. The mitotic spindles are depolymerized into
vesicle tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble
2. Nucleolus – disappear cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell
3. The centrosome (centrioles) begins to move to 3. Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosome
opposite poles of the cell
4. Chromosomes condensed (begin to shorten and
thicken) and become visible under a light microscope
5. Kinetochores appear at the centromeres and
attached to the mitotic spindle
Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) – is the second
main stage of the mitotic phase during which cell division
is completed via the physical separation of the
cytoplasmic components into two daughter
cell.
Cytokinesis in Animal Cell
Metaphase
• Cytokinesis follows the onset of anaphase. A
1. All the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called
the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane contractile ring composed of actin filaments form just
inside the plasma membrane at the former metaphase
2. The sister chromatids (two duplicate halves of
plate. The actin filaments pull the equator of the cell
chromosome) are still tightly attached to each other by
inward, forming a tissue. This tissue, or “crack”, is called
cohesion protein
the cleavage furrows. The furrows deepens as the actin
3. The chromosomes are maximally condensed
ring contract, and eventually the membrane is cleaved
into two.
Cytokinesis in Plant Cell
• In plant cell, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cell. During interphase the Golgi apparatus
accumulates enzymes, structural protein, and glucose molecules (which will be used to make the cellulose
compose of the cell wall) prior to breaking into vesicles and dispersing throughout the center toward the cell
walls, this structure is called a cell plate.
LESSON 8 MEIOSIS Metaphase I
Meiosis 1. Chromosomes are now arranged in the center of
• is a type of cell division exhibited by the the cell, still in homologous pairs
reproductive cell whereby the chromosome number of the 2. The homologous pairs orient themselves
four daughter cell is reduced to half. randomly at the equator. This event – the random or
• occurs only in certain kinds of cell. In animals it independent assortment of homologous chromosomes at
takes place in the gonads, or reproductive organ (testis the metaphase plate – is the second mechanism that
and ovaries). In flowering plants, the process takes place introduces variation into the gametes or spores.
in the stamen and pistil.
• employs many of the same mechanism as mitosis.
It is also preceded by G1 , S – phase, and G2
phases. Because the events that occur during each
of the division stages are analogous to the events of
mitosis, the same stage names are assigned.
Meiosis is divided into two rounds of nuclear division,
Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
• Meiosis I is reductional division Anaphase I
• Meiosis II is equational division 1. Homologous pairs of chromosomes are pulled apart
Meiosis I by microtubules attached to the kinetochore and move
Prophase I towards the opposite poles
1. The chromosome begins to condense 2. Sister chromatid remain attached at their
2. Homologous chromosomes come together to form centromere and move as a single unit toward the
3. bivalent or tetrad. The pairing is called “synapsis” opposite poles
4. Synaptonemal complex (a lattice of protein)
formed to hold the homologous chromosomes together
5. Synaptonemal complex support the exchange of
chromosomal segments (genes) between non – sister
homologous chromatids (a process called crossing over).
The cross over events are the first source of genetic
variation in the nuclei produced by meiosis.
Telophase I
1. The separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles
2. Each pole now has a haploid chromosomes set,
but each chromosome still has two chromatids
3. Daughter cell of telophase I immediately begin
preparation for the second meiotic division
Meiosis II
• In some species, cell enter a brief interphase, or interkinesis, before entering meiosis II. Interkinesis lacks an S –
phase, so no further replication of the genetic materials prior to the second division of meiosis. The mechanics of
meiosis II is similar to mitosis, except that each dividing cell has only one set of the homologous chromosomes which
where originally present in the parental cell.
LESSON 9 APPLICATION OF MITOSIS AND
MEIOSIS APPLICATION OF MITOSIS I. Asexual
Reproduction
• Produce offspring that are genetically identical to •
the parent because the offspring are all clones of III Cloning
the original parent • Is a technique employed in biotechnology to
Examples produce identical copies of cells or DNA fragments. In
• Fission also called binary fission – after a period of cloning, the number of organism is increase by the
growth, an organism splits into two separate organisms. process of mitosis.
Some unicellular eukaryotic organism undergo binary
fission by mitosis.

IV Tissue Culture
• Tissue culture is based on the process of mitosis,
where a cell undergoes division to form multiple tissues.

2. Budding
• form of asexual reproduction that results from the
outgrowth of apart of a cell leading to a separation from the V Stem Cell Regeneration
original animal into two individual. • Stem cell are a group of cell that can be directed
to form specialized cells in the body
• Stem cell can undergo mitosis to regenerate and
repair diseased or damaged tissue in human.

3. Fragmentation
• cutting or fragmenting of the original animal into
parts and growth of a separate animal from each other

APPLICATION OF MEIOSIS
Biotechnology/ Genetic Engineering
• Meiosis is use in biotechnology to acquire a
gametic conditions in cells and to generate
variation which aids in studies regarding
evolutionary process.
In–vitro gamete formation
• In various gamete failure – derived in fertility
issues, the embryonic stem cell are differentiated in two
I Vegetative Propagation germ – like cells through miotic division.

• Any form of asexual reproduction occurring in • These gametes are formed in – vitro via meiosis
plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment of the and are inserted into the individuals with such disorder.
parent plant or grows from a specialized reproductive
structure.
LESSON 10 CHROMOSOMAL DISORDER
Normally, humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23
pairs, the pairs vary in size and shape and are numbered
by conventions. Twenty – two of the pairs are autosomes,
and one pair, number 23, is the sex chromosome. Any
variation from this pattern causes abnormalities.

Chromosomal disorder
• any syndrome characterized by malformation or malfunctions in any of the body’s systems and caused by
abnormal chromosome number or constitution.
LESSON 11 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PLASMA PLASMA MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
MEMBRANE 1. It is the boundary, which separates the living cell
PLASMA MEMBRANE from their non – living surroundings
• Plasma membrane can define as biological 2. It is phospholipid bilayer
membrane or an outer membrane of a cell, which is 3. Plasma membrane is an amphipathic, which
composed of two layers of phospholipids and embedded contains both hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
with proteins. It is a thin semi permeable membrane layer, 4. It is a fluid mosaic of lipids, protein and
which surrounds the cytoplasm and other constituents of carbohydrates
the cell. 5. It is lipid bilayer, which contain two layers of
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE phospholipid, phosphate head is polar (water
1. It separates the contents of the cell from its loving), fatty acid tails non – polar (water fearing)
outside environment and it regulates what enters and and the proteins embedded in membrane.
exits the cells FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
2. Plasma membrane plays a vital role in protecting • The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma
the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing only membrane as a fluid structure with a mosaic of
selected substances into cell and keeping other components – including phospholipids, cholesterol,
substances out proteins and carbohydrates - that gives the membrane a
3. It also serves as a base of attachment for the fluid character.
cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in COMPONENTS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
others. Thus the cell membrane supports the cell and • The principal components of a plasma membrane
helps in maintaining the shape of the cell
are lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol), proteins and
4. The cell membrane is primarily composed of carbohydrates that are attached to some of the lipids
proteins and lipids. While lipids helps to give membrane (glycolipids) and some of the
their flexibility and proteins monitor and maintain the cell’s proteins (glycoprotein)
chemical climate and assists in the transfer of molecules PHOSPHOLIPID
across the membrane
• The phospholipid molecule is composed of a
5. The lipid bilayer is semi – permeable, which allows
hydrophilic head and to hydrophobic tails. The
only selected molecules to diffuse across the
hydrophilic head group consist of a phosphate –
membrane.
containing group attached to a glycerol molecule, which
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
has a polar character or negative charge. The
1. The plasma membrane is made of two layers of hydrophobic tails, each containing either a saturated or
phospholipids
unsaturated fatty acids, are long hydrocarbon chain,
2. The plasma membrane has many proteins which has no charge or non – polar.
embedded with it
• A molecule with this arrangement of a positively
3. The plasma membrane regulates the entry and or negatively charge area an uncharged or non - polar
exit of the cells material. Many molecules cross the
area is referred to as amphipathic or “dual – loving”
plasma membrane by diffusion and osmosis
PROTEIN
4. The fundamental structure of the membrane is
• Protein make up the second major component of
phospholipid bilayer and it forms a stable barrier between
plasma membrane. Integral protein are integrated
two aqueous compartment
completely into the membrane structure. Peripheral protein
5. The protein present in the plasma membrane, act
are found in the exterior and interior surface of membrane,
as pumps, channels, receptors, enzymes or structural
attached either to integral protein or to phospholipid.
component
• Peripheral protein are sometimes referred to as “cell – specific” protein. The body recognizes its own protein
and attacks foreign protein associated with invasive pathogens like viruses and bacteria.
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates are the third major components of plasma membrane. They are always found on the
exterior surface of cells and are bound either to protein (forming glycoprotein) or to lipids (forming glycolipids).
Along with peripheral protein, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell surface that allow cell to recognize
each other.
LESSON 12 TRANSPORT MECHANISM 2. They pump out the water
PASSIVE TRANSPORT • Many single – celled organisms pump out water
• In passive transport substances cross the plasma as quickly as it enters. This organism rely on
membrane without the cell expending energy. The specialized structure such as the contractile
substances literally transport themselves. Substances moves vacuoles.
down the concentration 3. They bathe cells in blood
gradient (concentration difference). • Animals bathe their cells in blood or blood like
DIFFUSION liquids which have nearly the same
• Diffusion – the tendency for molecules of any concentrations of dissolved substances
substance to spread out into the available space. (isotonic) TONICITY/OSMOLARITY
• Molecules have intrinsic kinetic energy called Tonicity/ Osmolarity refers to solution with varying
thermal motion or heat. One result of thermal motion is solute concentration
diffusion. Diffusion is a spontaneous process because it 1. Hypotonic/ Low osmolarity – the solution with a
decreases free energy. Any substance will diffuse down its lower concentration of solute, water will move into the
concentration cell
gradient (move from higher concentration to 2. Hypertonic/ High osmolarity – the solution with
lower concentration). Water, alcohol, oxygen a higher concentration of solutes, water will move toward
and carbon dioxide diffuse directly across the the solute.
plasma membrane. 3. Isotonic – solution of equal concentration (no net
FACILITATED DIFFUSION movement of water)
• Many membrane contain protein channels that ACTIVE TRANSPORT
allows some substances to pass through. For example, • Movement of a substance against a
the cell membrane of red blood cell, contain a protein concentration gradient is called active transport, and is
channels that allows free passage to glucose. As a result, always requires energy.
glucose can diffuse into or out of the cell through this • Active transport is a major factor in the ability of
channel. Because the diffusion of glucose is facilitated, or a cell to maintain internal concentration of small
help, by the protein this process facilitated diffusion. molecules that differs from concentration in the
OSMOSIS surrounding environment.
• The diffusion of water through a selectively PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT: SODIUM
permeable membrane is called osmosis. Like any other POTASSIUM PUMP
substance water diffuses from region of high
concentration to low concentration. When water moves
by osmosis, it can produce powerful pressure – osmotic
pressure, powerful enough to destroy a cell. If
uncontrolled, the cell would swell like a balloon and
burst.

THREE WAYS TO DEAL WITH OSMOTIC

PRESSURE 1. They use cell wall
• Bacteria and plants are surrounded by strong,
tough cell walls. This prevent the cell from SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
expanding, thus counteracting the osmotic • Secondary active transport bring sodium ions, and
pressure.
possibly other compounds, into the cell. As sodium ion
concentration build outside of the plasma membrane
because of the action of the primary active transport
process, an electrochemical gradient is created. If a channel
 protein exist and is open, the sodium ions will be
pulled through the membrane. This movement is
used to transport other substances that can
attach themselves to the transport protein in the
membrane. Many amino acids, as well as glucose
enter a cell this way.
BULK TRANSPORT ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
TRANSPORT LARGE MOLECULE
• One way in which cells import large materials is literally to turn part of the plasma membrane inside out.
This process called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecule and particulate matter by forming
vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.
THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
• Phagocytosis – a cell engulf a particle (cell eating) by wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it
within a membrane – enclose sac large enough to be classified as a vacuoles. The particle is digested after the
vacuole fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.
• Pinocytosis - the cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid in tiny vesicles (cell drinking). Pinocytosis
results in a much smaller vesicles than does phagocytosis, and the vesicle does not need to merge with a
lysosome.
• Receptor – mediated endocytosis – is very specific. Embedded in the membrane are protein with specific
receptor sites exposed to the
extracellular fluid.
EXOCYTOSIS
• During exocytosis, a vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma
membrane. When the vesicle membrane and plasma membrane come into contact, the lipid molecule of the two
bilayers rearrange themselves. The two membranes then fuse to become continuous, and the content of the vesicle
spill to the outside of the cell. Examples release of insulin from pancreas, secretion of neurotransmitter (dopamine)
from neuron.
LESSON 13 ENZYMES of the enzyme structure, it is a true
Enzyme prosthetic group.
• is an organic molecule that catalyze (speeds up) o – If the nonprotein component is weakly
chemical reaction without itself being used up in bound, and easily separated from
the reaction. the rest of the protein, it is called a
TWO TYPES OF ENZYME cofactor.
1. Anabolic Enzyme – enzymes that help build new o • When the cofactor is an organic
cells or a assemble important compound. substance, it is a coenzyme. The cofactor may also be an
2. Catabolic Enzyme – enzymes that break down inorganic ion (usually a
their substrate like digestion and oxidation of metal cation, such as Mg2+, Zn2+, or
glucose. Fe2+).
ENZYME STRUCTURE o • The protein portion is called an
• Enzymes are proteins, and their function is apoenzyme: apoenzyme + cofactor
determined by their complex structure. The reaction (coenzyme or inorganic ion) active
takes place in a small part of the enzyme called the active enzyme
site, while the rest of the protein acts as "scaffolding". THE EFFECT OF ENZYME ON RATE OF REACTION
This is shown in this diagram of a molecule of the enzyme • The way enzymes work can also be shown by
trypsin, with a short length of protein being digested in its looking at the energy changes during a chemical reaction. In
active site. The amino acids around the active site attach a reaction where the product has a lower energy than the
to the substrate molecule and hold it in position while the substrate, the substrate naturally turns into product (i.e. the
reaction takes place. This makes the enzyme specific for equilibrium lies in the direction of the product). Before it can
one reaction only, as other molecules won't fit into the change into product, the substrate must overcome an
active site – their "energy barrier" called the activation energy.
shape is wrong. • The larger the activation energy is, the slower the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES reaction will be. This is because only a few substrate
• The catalytic behavior of proteins acting as molecules will have sufficient energy to overcome the
enzymes is one of the most important functions that they activation energy barrier. Imagine pushing boulders over a
perform in living cells. hump before they can roll down hill, and you have the idea.
• Without catalysts, most cellular reactions would Most biological reactions have large activation energies, so
take place too slowly to support life. they without enzymes they happen far too slowly to be
• With the exception of some RNA molecules, all useful. Enzymes reduce the activation energy of a reaction
enzymes are globular proteins. so that the kinetic energy of most molecules exceeds the
• Enzymes are extremely efficient catalysts, and activation energy required
and so they can react.
some can increase reaction rates by 1020
times that of the uncatalyzed reactions. THE MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
• Enzymes are well suited to their roles in three • Enzymes differ widely in structure and specificity,
major ways: they have enormous catalytic power, but a general theory that accounts for their catalytic
behavior is widely accepted.
they are highly specific in the reactions they
catalyze, and their activity as catalysts can be • The enzyme and its substrates interact only over
regulated. a small region of the surface of the enzyme, called the
ENZYME COFACTORS active site.

• Conjugated proteins function only in the presence • When the substrate binds to the active site via
of specific nonprotein molecules or metal ions called some combination of intermolecular forces, an enzyme-
prosthetic groups. substrate (ES) complex is formed.
o – If the nonprotein component is tightly
bound, and forms an integral part
• Once the complex forms, the conversion of the FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME
substrate (S) to product (P) takes ACTIVITY Temperature
place: • Like all reactions, the rate of enzyme-catalyzed
LOCK-AND-KEY THEORY reactions increases with temperature.
• The lock-and-key theory explains the high • Because enzymes are proteins, beyond a certain
specificity of enzyme activity. Enzyme surfaces temperature, the enzyme denatures.
accommodate substrates having specific shapes and sizes, • Every enzyme-catalyzed reaction has an optimum
so only specific substances “fit” in an active site to form temperature at which the enzyme activity is highest,
an ES complex. usually from 25º-40ºC; above or below that value, the
• A limitation of this theory is that it requires rate is lower.
enzymes conformations to be rigid. Research The Effect of pH
suggests that instead enzymes are at least • Raising or lowering the pH influences the acidic
somewhat flexible. and basic side chains in enzymes. Many enzymes are also
INDUCED-FIT THEORY denatured by pH extremes. (E.g., pickling in acetic acid
• A modification of the lock-and-key theory called [vinegar] preserves food by deactivating bacterial
the induced-fit theory proposes that enzymes have enzymes.)
flexible conformations that may adapt to incoming • Many enzymes have an optimum pH, where
substrates. activity is highest, near a pH of 7, but some operate
• The active site adopts a shape that is better at low pH (e.g., pepsin in the stomach).
complementary to the substrate only after the FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME
substrate is bound. ACTIVITY Inhibitors
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY • Inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes, reducing
Enzyme Concentration the rate of their reactions. They are found naturally, but
• The concentration of an enzyme, [E], is typically are also used artificially as drugs, pesticides and research
low compared to that of the substrate. Increasing [E] also tools. There are two kinds of inhibitors.
increases the rate of the reaction: • • A competitive inhibitor molecule has a similar
• The rate of the reaction is directly proportional to structure to the substrate molecule, and so it can fit into the
the concentration of the enzyme (doubling [E] doubles the active site of the enzyme. It therefore competes with the
rate of the reaction), thus, a graph of reaction rate vs. substrate for the active site, so the reaction is slower.
enzyme concentration is a straight Increasing the concentration of substrate restores the
line: reaction rate and the inhibition is usually temporary and
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME reversible.
ACTIVITY Substrate Concentration • b) A non-competitive inhibitor molecule is quite
• The concentration of substrate, [S], also affects different in structure from the substrate and does not fit
the rate of the reaction. into the active site. It binds to another part of the enzyme
• Increasing [S] increases the rate of the reaction, molecule, changing the shape of the whole enzyme,
but eventually, the rate reaches a maximum (vmax), and including the active site, so that it can no longer bind
remains constant after that. substrate molecules. Non-competitive inhibitors
• The maximum rate is reach when the enzyme is therefore simply reduce the amount of active enzyme.
saturated with substrate, and cannot react any faster
under those conditions. Goodluck love!