®

Because learning changes everything.

Programmable
Logic
Controllers
Frank D.
Petruzella

Sixth Edition

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 Chapter 2

PLC Hardware
Components
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 Section 2.1

The I/O Section

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 Input/Output Section
The input/output (I/O) section of a PLC is the
section to which all field devices are connected.

Input/output Modular types use external

arrangements I/O modules that plug into
are built into a the PLC.
fixed PLC.

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 Input and Output Interface Modules

Input interface modules accept signals from the

machine or process devices and convert them into
signals that can be used by the controller.
Output interface modules convert controller signals
into external signals used to control the machine or
process.
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 Communication Module
The ability to locate the I/O modules near the field
devices minimizes the amount of wiring required.
The remote rack is linked to the local rack
through a pair of communications modules.
A rack is referred
to as a remote rack
when it is located
away from the
processor module
and local when
located within the
same rack as the
processor.
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 Address Comparison
An address is a label or number that indicates where
a certain piece of information is located in memory.

Rack/slot-based addressing
schemes are used with SLC
500 controllers.

Tag-based addressing is
used with Allen-Bradley
ControlLogix controllers.
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 Logix 500 rack/slot-based addressing format.

O:4/15 - Output module in slot 4, terminal 15

I:3/8 - Input module in slot 3, terminal 8
O:6.0 - Output module, slot 6
I:5.0 - Input module, slot 5
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 Bit Addressing
Every device connected to a discrete I/O
module is addressed to a specific bit in the
PLC’s memory.

A bit is a binary digit that can be either 1 or 0.

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 Word Addressing with analog I/O

Analog I/O
modules use
a word
addressing
format.

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 Tag-based addressing
Allen-Bradley ControlLogix controllers use a
tag-based addressing format.

• Instead of a fixed numeric format, a tag

(alphanumeric name) is used to address data.
• The field devices are assigned tag names when the
PLC ladder logic program is developed.
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 PC based control
PC-based control runs on personal or industrial
hardened computers. Also known as soft PLCs,
they simulate the functions of a PLC on a PC,

This implementation uses an input/output card in

conjunction with the PC as an interface for the
field devices.
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 Parts of an I/O module
An I/O module is
made up of a printed
circuit board and a
terminal assembly.

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 Plug-in wiring
Many PLC modules have plug-in wiring terminal
strips that plug into the actual module.

If there is a problem
with a module, the
entire strip is
removed, a new
module is inserted,
and the terminal
block is plugged into
the new module.

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 I/O modules points
I/O modules can be 8, 16, 32, or 64 point cards.

• The points refers to the number of inputs or outputs

available.

• A high-density 64 point card provides a greater

space saving but with less rated current output per
output.

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 Section 2.2

Discrete I/O Modules

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 Discrete field devices
The discrete I/O
interface module
connects field
input devices of
the ON/OFF
nature.

The classification of
discrete I/O covers
bit oriented inputs
and outputs.
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 Discrete I/O voltages
Each discrete I/O module is powered by
some field supplied voltage source.
Since these voltages can be of different magnitude or
type, I/O modules are available at various AC and DC
voltage ratings.
Table 2-1 Common Ratings for Discrete I/O Interface Modules
Input Interfaces Output Interfaces
12 V AC/DC /24 V AC/DC 12-48 V AC
48 V AC/DC 120 V AC
120 V AC/DC 230 V AC
230 V AC/DC 120 V DC
5 V DC (TTL level) 230 V DC
5 V DC (TTL level)
24 V DC
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 Backplane voltage
Modules receive their voltage and current
operation from the backplane of the rack
enclosure into which they are inserted.
Backplane power is provided by the PLC module
power supply and is used to power the electronics that
reside on the I/O module circuit board.

Currents required
by the loads are
normally provided
by user-supplied
power.
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 AC discrete input module block diagram.

• The circuit is made up of a power section and a logic

section.
• An optical isolator is used to provide electrical
isolation between the power and logic circuitry.
• The input LED turns on or off, indicating the status
of the input device.
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 AC discrete input module schematic diagram.

• When the pushbutton is closed AC is applied to the

bridge rectifier input.
• This results in a low-level DC output voltage that is
applied across the LED of the optical isolator.
• When light from the LED strikes the phototransistor,
it switches it into conduction.
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 AC discrete output module block diagram.

• The module is composed of the power section and

the logic section, coupled by an isolation circuit.
• The power output interface can be thought of as
an electronic switch that turns the output load
device on and off.
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 AC discrete output module schematic diagram.

• When the processor calls for the output load to be

energized, a voltage is applied across the LED of the
opto-isolator.
• This in turn triggers the triac AC semiconductor
switch into conduction allowing current to flow to the
output load.
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 Individual AC outputs are usually limited
by the size of the triac to 1 A or 2 A.

For controlling larger

loads an interposing
relay is connected to
the output module.
The contacts of the
relay can then be used
to control a larger load
or motor starter,

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 Discrete output modules are used to turn
field output devices either on or off.

Output modules can be purchased with

transistor, triac, or relay output

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 Current source or sinking input modules
Certain DC I/O modules specify whether the
module is designed for interfacing with
current-source or current-sink devices.

If the module is a current-sourcing module, then the

input or output device must be a current-sinking device.
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 Current sinking – current sourcing
If the module is a current-sinking module,
then the input or output device must be a
current-sourcing device.

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 Section 2.3

Analog I/O Modules

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 Analog Input and Outputs
Analog input
and output
devices have an
infinite number
of values.
• Typical analog inputs and outputs vary from 0 to
20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts.
• The analog input interface module accepts an
analog signal and converts it to a digital signal.
• The analog output module accepts a digital signal
and converts it to an analog signal that operates
the output.
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 Types of analog I/O
The two basic types of analog input modules are
voltage sensing and current sensing.

A varying DC voltage in the low millivolt range,

proportional to the temperatures being monitored,
is produced by the thermocouples.
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 Analog to digital converter
The main element of the analog input module is
an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter
• Bipolar input modules can accept signals that
swing between a negative and positive value.
• Unipolar input modules can accept an input
signal that varies in the positive direction only.
• Resolution refers to the smallest change in input
signal value that can be sensed.

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 Transducers
The transducer converts the temperature probe
variable (temperature) into a very low-level electric
signal that is first amplified by the transmitter before
being sent on to the analog input module.

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 Sensor wiring
Wiring two-, three-, and four-wire sensors to
an analog input module.

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 Wiring single-ended analog input devices.

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 Sensitivity of current signals
Unlike voltage input signals, current signals
are not as sensitive to noise and typically are
not distance limited.
The current sensing loop power may be supplied
by the sensor or the analog output module.

Shielded twisted pair cable is normally recommended

for connecting any type analog input signal.
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 Digital to analog converter
The main element of the analog output module is
an digital-to-analog (D/A) converter
The analog output module receives from the
processor digital data, which are converted into
a proportional voltage or current to control an
analog field device.
The analog output
signal is varied
under the control of
the PLC program
and can be used for
control of an analog
control valve.
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 Analog I/O control system
The PLC controls the
amount of fluid
placed in a holding
tank by adjusting the
percentage of the
valve opening.

• The valve is initially opened 100 percent.

• As the fluid level in the tank approaches the
preset point, the processor modifies the output,
which adjusts the valve to maintain a set point.
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 Scaling
Scaling refers to the changing a quantity from
one notation to another and involves:

Engineering units: The units a human uses

and understands [e.g. (temperature) ℉,
(length) cm]

Transducer units: Either a voltage or current

[e.g. volts, mA]

Binary, raw, or machine units: The units the

processor requires [e.g. 11001010111 0001]
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 SCP (Scale with Parameters) Instruction

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 Section 2.4

Special I/O Modules

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 High-speed counter modules
High-speed counter modules are used to count
pulses from sensors, encoders, and switches
that operate at very high speeds.

They have the

electronics needed to
count independently
of the processor.

A typical count rate available is 0 to 100 kHz, which

means the module would be able to count 100,000 pulses
per second.
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 TTL module and encoder counter
An encoder-counter module
allows the user to read the
signal from an encoder on a
real-time basis and stores this
information so it can be read
later by the processor. Encoder

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 Stepper-motor module
The stepper-motor module provides pulse trains
to a stepper-motor translator, which enables
control of a stepper motor.

The commands for the module are determined by the

control program in the PLC.

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 Motion and position modules
Motion and position control modules are used
in applications involving accurate high-speed
machining and packaging operations.

Intelligent position
and motion
control modules
permit PLCs to
control stepper
and servo motors.
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 Serial communications modules
are used to establish point-to-point connections
with other intelligent devices for the exchange
of data.

Communication modules provide for connection

to PLC networks.

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 Section 2.5

I/O Specifications

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 Discrete I/O Module Specifications I
Nominal Input Voltage - Specifies the magnitude (e.g.,
5 V, 24 V, 230 V) and type (AC or DC) of user-supplied
voltage that a module is designed to accept.
Input Threshold Voltages - Specifies the minimum
ON-state voltage at which logic 1 is recognized and the
maximum OFF-state voltage at which logic 0 is
recognized.
Nominal Current Per Input - Specifies the minimum
input current that the discrete input devices must be
capable of driving to operate the input circuit.

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 Discrete I/O Module Specifications II
Ambient Temperature Rating - Specifies what the
maximum temperature of the air surrounding the I/O
modules should be for best operating conditions.
Input ON/OFF Delay (response time) - Specifies the
maximum time duration required by an input module’s
circuitry to recognize that a field device has switched ON
(input ON-delay) or switched OFF (input OFF-delay).
Output Voltage - This AC or DC value specifies the
magnitude (e.g., 5 V, 115 V, 230 V) and type (AC or DC)
of user-supplied voltage at which a discrete output
module is designed to operate.
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 Discrete I/O Module Specifications III
Output Current - Specifies the maximum current that a
single output and the module as a whole can safely
carry under load (at rated voltage).
Inrush Current - Specifies the maximum inrush current
and duration (e.g., 20 A for 0.1 s) for which an output
circuit can exceed its maximum continuous current
rating.
Short Circuit Protection - Specifies whether the
particular output module’s design has individual
protection for each circuit or if fuse protection is
provided for groups (e.g., 4 or 8) of outputs.
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 Discrete I/O Module Specifications IV
Leakage Current - This value specifies the amount of
current still conducting through an output circuit even
after the output has been turned off.
Electrical Isolation - The specification for
electrical isolation, typically 1500 or 2500
volts AC, rates the module’s capacity for
sustaining an excessive voltage at its input
or output terminals.
Points Per Module - This specification defines the
number of field inputs or outputs that can be
connected to a single module.
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 Discrete I/O Module Specifications V
Backplane Current Draw - This value indicates the
amount of current the module requires from the
backplane. The sum of the backplane current drawn
for all modules in a chassis is used to select the
appropriate chassis power supply rating.

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 Analog I/O Module Specifications I
Channels Per Module - Whereas individual circuits on
discrete I/O modules are specified as points per module,
circuits on analog I/O modules are specified as channels
per module.
Input Current/Voltage Range(s) - These are the voltage
or current signal ranges that an analog input module is
designed to accept.
Output Current/Voltage Range(s) - This specification
defines the current or voltage signal ranges that a
particular analog output module is designed to output
under program control.
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 Analog I/O Module Specifications II
Input Protection - Analog input circuits are usually
protected against accidentally connecting a voltage that
exceeds the specified input voltage range.
Resolution - The resolution specifies how accurately an
analog value can be represented digitally. This will
determine the smallest measurable unit of current or
voltage change that can be detected.
Input Impedance and Capacitance - For analog I/Os,
these values must be matched to the external device
connected to the module. Typical ratings are in the
Megohm and Picofarad range.
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 Analog I/O Module Specifications III
Common-Mode Rejection - Noise is generally caused by
electromagnetic interference, radio frequency
interference, and ground loops.

Noise that is picked up equally in parallel wires is

rejected because the difference is zero. Twisted pair
wires are used to ensure that this type of noise is equal
on both wires.

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 Section 2.6

The Central Processing Unit [CPU]

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 CPU
CPU is built into fixed PLCs while modular
types typically use a plug-in processor module.

CPU, controller, and processor are all terms used by

different manufacturers to denote the same module that
performs basically the same functions.
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 Processor
A processor module can be divided into two
sections: the CPU section and the memory section
The CPU
executes the
program.

The memory
stores the
program along
with other
retrievable
data.
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© McGraw Hill LLC 57

 PLC power supply
The PLC power supply provides the necessary
power to the processor and I/O modules plugged
into the backplane of the rack.

The power supply

converts the AC input
voltage into the usable
DC voltage required by
the CPU, memory, and
I/O electronic circuitry.

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 PLC microprocessor
The CPU contains the similar type of
microprocessor found in a personal computer.

A PLC microprocessor is designed to facilitate

industrial control rather than provide general
purpose computing.
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 Fault-tolerant PLC systems
Fault-tolerant PLC systems support dual
processors for critical processes. These systems
allow the user to configure the system with
redundant (two) processors, which allows
transfer of control to the second processor in the
event of a processor fault.

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 Status indicators
Status LED indicators are used to provide
system diagnostic information to the operator.

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 Electrostatic voltage
Many electronic components found in
processors and other types of PLC
modules are sensitive to electrostatic
voltages that can degrade their
performance or damage them.

When not in use, store modules

in a static-shield bag!

© McGraw Hill LLC 62

 Section 2.7

Memory Design

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 Memory Size
Memory is the element that stores information,
programs, and data in a PLC.

A bit is a binary digit

A byte is 8 bits
10
There are 1024 (2 ) bytes in 1k of memory

The complexity of the program determines

the amount of memory required.
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 Memory location
Memory location refers to an address in the
CPU’s memory where a binary word can be
stored. Each binary piece of data is a bit
and eight bits make up one byte.

The program is stored in the memory as 1s

and 0s, which are typically assembled in the
form of 16-bit or 32-bit words.
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 Input status
Sections of memory used to store the status of
inputs are called input status files or tables.

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 Output status
Sections of memory used to store the status of
outputs are called output status files or tables.

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 Section 2.8

Memory Types

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 Volatile and nonvolatile
Memory types can be placed into two general
categories: volatile and nonvolatile.
Nonvolatile memory has the ability to retain stored
information when power is removed accidentally or
intentionally.

Volatile memory will lose its stored information if all

operating power is lost or removed.

PLCs have programmable memory that allows users

to develop and modify control programs. This
memory is made nonvolatile so that if power is lost,
the PLC holds its programming.
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 Read Only Memory
Nonvolatile Read Only Memory (ROM) stores
programs, and data that cannot be changed
after the memory chip has been manufactured.

ROM is used by the PLC for the operating

system and controls the system software that
the user uses to program the PLC.

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 Random Access Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) is designed so
that information can be written into or read
from the memory.
PLCs use RAM as a
temporary storage area of
data that may need to be
quickly changed.
RAM is volatile so
battery backup is
required for it to avoid
losing data in the event
of a power loss
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 EPROM
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EPROM) provides some level of security
against unauthorized or unwanted changes in
a program.

EPROMs are designed so that data stored in them

can be read, but not easily altered without special
equipment.

UV EPROM memory can only be erased with an

ultraviolet light.

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 EEPROM
Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM) is a nonvolatile memory
that offers the same programming flexibility
as does RAM.

The EEPROM can be

electrically overwritten
with new data instead
of being erased with
ultraviolet light.

Because the EEPROM is nonvolatile memory, it does

not require battery backup.
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 Flash EEPROM
Flash EEPROMs are similar to EEPROMs in
that they can only be used for backup storage.

Flash memory is
extremely fast at
saving and
retrieving files.

Flash memory is also sometimes built into

the processor module, where it
automatically backs up parts of RAM.
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 Section 2.9

Programming Terminal Devices

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 Hand-held programming device
A programming terminal device is needed to enter,
modify, and troubleshoot the PLC program.

The hand-held proprietary

programming terminal has
a connecting cable so that it
can be plugged into a PLC’s
programming port.

Hand-held programmers are compact and

inexpensive but have limited display capabilities.
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 Programming software
The most popular method of PLC programming
is to use a personal computer in conjunction with
the manufacturer’s programming software.

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 Section 2.10

Recording and Retrieving Data

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 Printers
Printers are used to provide hard-copy printouts
of the processor’s memory in ladder program
format.

A printout
can show
programs of
any length
and analyze
the complete
program.

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 Memory cartridge
The program in the PLC is entered directly
from the keyboard or downloaded from the
computer hard drive or thumb drive.

Some CPUs support the use

of a memory cartridge that
provides portable EEPROM
storage for the user program.

The cartridge can be used to copy a program

from one PLC to another similar type PLC.
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 Section 2.11

Human Machine Interfaces [HMIs]

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 HMI
A Human Machine
Interface (HMI) can be
connected to
communicate with a
PLC and to replace
pushbuttons, selector
switches, pilot lights,
thumbwheels, and other
operator control panel
devices

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 HMI package
HMIs provide a means of controlling,
monitoring, managing and/ or visualizing
device processes.

Tag database variables are programmed to

interact with the graphic screen objects and
communicate with the PLC through the I/O server.
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 HMI screens
HMI operator panels typically contain screens. That
can communicate directly with the PLC to read or
write memory locations.

HMI environmental certification refers to the type of

electrical enclosure used to protect their contents
from troublesome operating conditions
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 HMI Alarms
HMI alarms are
messages which
indicate that a fault
condition is present.
Inactive - The condition being monitored does not have
any faults present.
Active - A fault condition is present and the alarm
message has not been acknowledged.
Acknowledged - The fault condition is present and
acknowledged.
OK - The fault condition is no longer present, but has
not acknowledged.
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 Events and Trends
An event history presents a time-stamped
list of all significant events that have
occurred in the process.

A trend display
provides the ability to
chart the progress of
the process in real time

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 Graphics library
A graphics library provides buttons,
lights, switches, sliders, meters, fills,
and other graphic objects.

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