Chapter 2

Fundamental Concepts

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 Main Topics

 Fluid as a Continuum
 Velocity Field
 Stress Field
 Viscosity
 Surface Tension
 Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Main Topics

►Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
Stress Field
Viscosity
Surface Tension
Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Fluids consist of molecules; are not nearly continuous

media; lot’s of empty space between molecules.

But on macroscopic scale, normal fluids can be

considered as a continuum.

Properties of fluid will be smoothly varying quantities;

each property is assumed to have definite value at
every point in space.

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Consider volume V
with mass m

Average density in volume

m
ρ=
V
But how about density at
point C (x0,y0,z0) ?

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Value of density at C will differ from average.

But at C exactly likely no molecules present.

Must consider a small volume element δV

Which cannot become too small  consider lower limiting
value of small volume δ V '

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 Fluid as a Continuum
- def
- space coordinates and time
- sg
-kn

Density at a point C

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Density at a point C

Density is a scalar field

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Consider
 Mean free path (of particles) λ
 Characteristic length of application L

Continuum: 𝝀𝝀 ≪ 𝑳𝑳
𝝀𝝀
Knudsen number: 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 =
𝑳𝑳
Continuum: typically, 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 ≪ 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
[Note: for ideal gas: Kn = Ma
Re
, with Mach en Reynolds numbers]
𝜅𝜅𝜅𝜅
2

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 Fluid as a Continuum

Additional terminology in F&M

Specific Gravity SG
SG ≡ ρ / ρ H 2O
Example: SG of Hg = 13.6

Specific Weight γ
γ ≡ ρg
Example: γ = 9.81 kN/m3

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 Main Topics

Fluid as a Continuum
► Velocity Field
Stress Field
Viscosity
Surface Tension
Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Velocity Field

Fluid velocity at point C is instantaneous velocity of the

center of volume δ V ′ instantaneously surrounding point C

A fluid particle is defined as a

small mass of fluid of fixed
identity of volume δ V ′ ;
then the velocity at point C is
the velocity of the fluid particle
that at a given instance passes
through point C.
   
= ( r , t ) V ( x, y , z , t )
V V=

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 Velocity Field


V = u iˆ + v ˆj + wkˆ


= ( r , t ) u ( x, y , z , t )
u u=
 
V (u , v, w) = ( r , t ) v ( x, y , z , t )
v v=

= (r , t ) w( x, y, z , t )
w w=


V = u iˆ + v ˆj + wkˆ

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 Velocity Field

Consider also

 Steady and Unsteady Flows

 1D, 2D, and 3D Flows
 Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines &
Timelines

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 Velocity Field
Steady & Unsteady Flows

Steady flow; all fluid properties independent of time

∂η
=0
∂t

With η any fluid property

E.g., ∂ρ
= 0=or ρ ρ ( x, y, z , t )
∂t

∂V  
= 0=or V V ( x, y, z , t )
∂t

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 Velocity Field
1D, 2D, and 3D Flows

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 Velocity Field
1D, 2D, and 3D Flows

For simplicity sometimes:

1 - D flow; but
-ignores the no-slip condition
at wall;
-must keep flow constant

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 Velocity Field Streamlines
- vergelijking

 A Streamline is a curve that is

everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity
vector.
 Consider an arc length
   
dr = dxi + dy j + dzk

 dr must be parallel to the local
velocity vector
   
V = ui + vj + wk
 Equation of a streamline

dr dx dy dz
= = =
V u v w
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 Velocity Field Streamlines

Note: ‘Velocity’ V

‘Speed’ V = V

Equation of streamline
dr dx dy dz
= = =
V u v w
Equation of streamline in
xy plane, for 2-D flow
dy  v
 =
dx along a streamline u

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 Velocity Field Streamlines
Airplane surface pressure contours,
NASCAR surface pressure contours volume streamlines, and surface
and streamlines streamlines

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 Velocity Field Streamlines

A bundle of streamlines is a streamtube

Fluid can never leave a streamtube through its mantle

Accelerating Decelerating
Because of conservation of mass; smaller
cross section  larger velocities

Dutch: ‘stroomlijn’ and ‘stroombuis’

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 Velocity Field Pathlines
 A Pathline is the actual path
traveled by an individual fluid
particle over some time period

 Same as the fluid particle's

material position vector
(x particle ( t ) , y particle ( t ) , z particle ( t ) )
 Particle location at time t:
t
  
=x xstart + ∫
tstart
Vdt
Dutch:
‘Stroombaan’ of ‘trajectorie’

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 Velocity Field Streaklines
 A Streakline is the locus
of fluid particles that have
passed sequentially
through a prescribed
point in the flow.

 Easy to generate in
experiments: dye in a
water flow, or smoke in
an airflow.

Dutch: ‘emissielijn’

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 Velocity Field Streaklines

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 Velocity Field Comparisons

 For steady flow,

streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines identical.
 For unsteady flow, they can be very different:
• Streamlines are an instantaneous picture
of the flow field (Eulerian philosophy)
• Pathlines and Streaklines are flow patterns that have
a time history associated with them.
• Streakline: instantaneous snapshot of a
time-integrated flow pattern.
• Pathline: time-exposed flow path of an individual
particle (Lagrangian philosophy)

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 Velocity Field Timelines

 A Timeline is a set of
adjacent fluid particles
that were marked at the
same (earlier) time.

Timelines are formed by marking a

line of fluid particles, and then
watching that line move (and deform)
through the flow filed:
Timelines shown at t=0, t1, t2 and t3

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 Example

Consider oscillating sprinkler (ref: Munson et al p 158-159)

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 Example

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 Example

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FYI –
The detail
computation

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Fluïdummechanica 31 D’haeseleer, Meyers – 2024-2025
 Main Topics

Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
► Stress Field
Viscosity
Surface Tension
Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Stress Field

Must understand forces acting on fluid ‘particles’

Must distinguish between
- surface forces due to contact with other
fluid particles or a solid surface
e.g., pressure, friction
- body forces experienced throughout the
particle

e.g., gravity per unit volume ρ g
or per unit mass g

electromagnetic ρ E E

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- situatie
Stress Field

Surface forces on fluid ‘particles’ lead to stresses

Consider fluid particle in contact with

other fluid particles;

Consider contact surface between

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
two fluid particles; 𝛿𝛿

𝛿𝛿

Consider point small area dA

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 Stress Field

𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 Normal Stress
δ Fn
σ n = lim
δ A →0 δ A
𝛿𝛿
n
n

Shear Stress
δ Ft
τ n = lim
δ A →0 δ A
n
n

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 Stress Field
Likewise:

δ Fx δ Fy δ Fz
σ xx = lim τ xy = lim τ xz = lim
δ A →0 δ A
x δ A →0 δ A
x
δ A →0 δ A
x
x x x

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 Stress Field

Stress at point fully determined by

stresses on any three mutually
perpendicular planes through point

 σ xx τ xy τ xz 
 
 τ yx σ yy τ yz 
 τ zx τ zy σ zz 
(Note 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜏𝜏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑝𝑝; see later)  
Notation: τ ij ; i = plane; j = direction

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 Stress Field

More general way of writing stress

tensor

⃡ = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ̂îi + 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 ̂îj + 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 ̂ik�

𝜎𝜎
+𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 ̂ĵi + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ̂ĵj + 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 ̂jk�
+𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 k� ̂i + 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑦𝑦 k� ̂j + 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 k� k�

Basis vectors of second order tensor

consists of combinations of first order
basis vectors. Formally, these form 6
unit dyads ̂îi, ̂îj, etc.

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 Main Topics

Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
Stress Field - situatie
-def ==> diff

► Viscosity
Surface Tension
Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Viscosity

In fluids, shear stresses originate from viscous flow

Consider fluid element between

two plates;
Upper plate moves
with constant velocity u = V
due to constant force F
Shear stress applied to fluid
element:
F
Note on notation: τ=
Most quantities here may be differential; A
e.g., F should be δ Fx etc (see F&McD Fig 2.7)

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 Viscosity

But quantities should in fact de differential

Hence;
shear stress applied to fluid
element:

δ Fx dFx
=τ yx lim
=
δ A →0 δ A dAy y
y

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 Viscosity

Deformation rate dα can be found as:

dt
δl δu δt δu dα
or, = δα du
δα  tan δα
= = = δt lim
=
δy δy δy dt δ t →0 δt dy

Shear stress leads to deformation rate

Somehow τ  deformation rate

Two types: linear Newtonian

non linear  non-Newtonian

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 Viscosity

 Newtonian Fluids
• Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
• “Linear” fluids

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- evenredig
- constant
-v Viscosity

 Newtonian Fluids
• Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
• “Linear” fluids

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 Viscosity
‘Longest continuous lab experiment
in the world’ (Guinness Book)

The pitch drop experiment at the

university of Queensland

Started 1927

9 drops have fallen since. Last one

in 2014

http://thetenthwatch.com/

𝜇𝜇 ≈ 230 × 109 𝜇𝜇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

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 Viscosity
 Viscosity coefficient

dynamic or absolute viscosity

µ unit kg/(m s) = Pa s

µ
ν= ρ
kinematic viscosity

unit m2/s

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 Viscosity
 Older units

dynamic or absolute viscosity

µ old unit Poise = g/(cm s)

(viscosity water at 20 °C = 1 centipoise)

µ
ν= ρ
kinematic viscosity

old unit Stokes = cm2/s

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 Viscosity
- relatie schijf- du/dy
-

 Non-Newtonian Fluids
• Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids,
toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
• “Non-linear” fluids  power law model

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 Viscosity

 Non-Newtonian Fluids

n ‘behavior’ index
k ‘consistence’ index
η ‘apparent viscosity’
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 Viscosity

Newtonian vs Non-Newtonian Fluids

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 Main Topics

Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
- stretched elastic membrane
- 2 redenen
- liquid vc surface
- cap effect

Stress Field
Viscosity
► Surface Tension
Description and Classification of
Fluid
Motions
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Fluïdummechanica 52 D’haeseleer, Meyers – 2024-2025
- stretched elastic membrane
- 2 redenen
- liquid vc surface
Surface Tension
 Liquid droplets behave like small
spherical balloons filled with liquid, and
the surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane under
tension.

 The pulling force that causes this is

• due to the attractive forces between
molecules
• force per unit length called surface
tension σs

 In liquid, attractive and repulsive forces

balance on average
 At surface: no repulsive forces from
outside – molecules can sit farther apart
on average, so that they are in tensile
regime [see next slide]
 Thickness of surface layer is 𝑂𝑂 𝑑𝑑0
[see next slide] – interfacial stress

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 Surface Tension
(distance between molecules)
Picture from Batchelor, Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics 1967

𝑑𝑑0 = 𝑂𝑂(3 × 10−10 𝑚𝑚)

Mean distance Amplitude of

molecules thermal vibrations
solid 𝑑𝑑0 ≪ 𝑑𝑑0
liquid 𝑑𝑑0 𝑂𝑂(𝑑𝑑0 )
Gas (room conditions) 10𝑑𝑑0 ≫ 𝑑𝑑0

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See Cengel & Cimbala
Surface Tension

Surface Tension
= force per unit length ► N/m

Consider liquid film on frame (double film)

- liquid film tends to pull movable wire inward
to minimize the surface area
- a force F must be applied in opposite direction
to balance this pulling effect
- two films → length along which tension acts
= 2b ; hence
F
F = 2bσ s σs =
2b
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See Cengel & Cimbala
Surface Tension
Surface Tension
-turns out to be a surface energy, i.e.,
work to increase the surface area by a unit
amount ► J/m2

Increase in area: ∆A = 2b ∆x

∆W = F × ∆x = 2bσ s ∆x = σ s ∆ A

∆W dW
σs
= →
∆A dA
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See Cengel & Cimbala
Surface Tension
Surface Tension
-also, can de defined as surface energy, or the
work to increase the surface
area by a unit amount
► J/m2

dW ∆W
σ s = lim
=
dA ∆A

∆W F × ∆x F × ∆x F
= = =  σs
∆A ∆A 2b∆x 2b

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 Surface Tension

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 Capillary Effect

 Capillary effect is the rise

or fall of a liquid in a small-
diameter tube.
 The curved free surface in
the tube is call the
meniscus.
 Water meniscus curves up
because water is a wetting
fluid.
 Mercury meniscus curves
down because mercury is a
nonwetting fluid.

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 Capillary Effect

Due to competition cohesive

and adhesive forces

Force balance can describe

magnitude of capillary rise.

(2π R ) σ S cos φ = ρ g (π R 2 h)

For H2O angle Φ almost 0 2σ S cos φ

h=
For 2R=0.6 mm glas tube; h=5 cm ρ gR
For 2R=1cm glas tube; h=0.3mm

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 Capillary Effect

Example 2.3 F&McD to be read carefully.

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 Main Topics

Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
Stress Field
Viscosity
Surface Tension
► Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions

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 Description and Classification
of Fluid Motions

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 Description and Classification
of Fluid Motions

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 Description and Classification
of Fluid Motions

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 Description and Classification
of Fluid Motions

Text F&McD pp35 – 41 to be read carefully;

- for time being read ‘superficially’
- later (after concepts have been defined) to
be studied

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