Quantum Architecture and Programming

Prof. Kunal Korgaonkar

BITS-Pilani, K K Birla, Goa Campus

September 13, 2024

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Complex Numbers

Figure: Geometric Representation of Complex Number z = a + bi

⇒ A complex number z ∈ C is a number of the form a + bi.

⇒ a, b ∈ R, and i is the imaginary unit, where i 2 = −1.
√
⇒ Magnitude of z, is given by |z|. |z| = a2 + b 2
⇒ The product of two complex numbers z1 , z2 has magnitude
|z1 |.|z2 | and angle θ1 + θ2 .
⇒ The complex conjugate of a complex number z = a + bi is
defined as z = a − bi, also denoted as z ∗ or z † .
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Quantum Bits
⇒ The two most common states for a qubit (quantum bit) are
the states |0⟩ and |1⟩.
⇒ Notation ”|⟩” is used as a way of distinguishing qubits from
classical bits.
⇒ Qubit x is written inside a ‘ket’, and looks like |x⟩. This is
called Dirac Notation, named after Paul Dirac.
⇒ The actual difference though is that a qubit can be in linear
combinations of states, also know as superpositions.
⇒ General form of a qubit is given by: |ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩ where
α, β ∈ C and |α|2 + |β|2 = 1
⇒ Two other famous states which are commonly used are:
1 1 1 1
|+⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩ , |−⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2 2 2

⇒ Generally we view α and β as real instead of complex without

loosing much information.
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Multiple Qubits and Qudit System
⇒ Example of a two qubit System. Here we have four possible
computational basis states, namely |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩ and |11⟩.
⇒ General form of such a system is:
|ψ⟩ = α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ + α10 |10⟩ + α11 |11⟩

where these amplitudes satisfy |α00 |2 + · · · + |α11 |2 = 1

⇒ One of the famous states for such a system are Bell states or
EPR pair(Einsetin, Podolski and Rosen) given by:
1 1
|ψ⟩ = √ |00⟩ + √ |11⟩
2 2

⇒ A Qudit is a d-dimensional system is a superposition of d

basis states. We can write this state as:
|ψ⟩ = α0 |0⟩ + α1 |1⟩ + · · · + αd−1 |d − 1⟩

where |α0 |2 + |α1 |2 + · · · + |αd−1 |2 = 1

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Qubits as Matrices
⇒ Quantum state can be represented as a unit (column) vector
in C2 plane, spanned by basis states:
   
1 0
|0⟩ = , |1⟩ =
0 1

⇒ A general state |ψ⟩ can be written as:

 
α
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩ =
β

where |α|2 + |β|2 = 1

⇒ A quantum state |ψ⟩ is a (column) vector, also known as a

ket, whereas a state ⟨ψ| is the (row) vector dual to |ψ⟩, also
know as a bra.
⇒ A bra vector is a conjugate transpose of a ket vector.
 †
α
⟨ψ| = (|ψ⟩)† = = α† β†


β

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Inner Product
⇒ Consider the two quantum states: |x1 ⟩ = α1 |0⟩ + β1 |1⟩ and
|x2 ⟩ = α2 |0⟩ + β2 |1⟩

⇒ The inner product (or dot product) of two quantum states

|x1 ⟩ and |x2 ⟩ is defined as ⟨x1 |.|x2 ⟩, which can be further
simplified as ⟨x1 |x2 ⟩.
⇒ Inner product of two states is distance between
two states commonly referred to as fidelity of
the states.
⇒ Inner product of |x1 ⟩ and |x2 ⟩ can be carried out:
  α 
⟨x1 |x2 ⟩ = α†1 β1† .
2
= α†1 α2 + β1† β2
β2

⇒ Inner product of |x1 ⟩ with itself is always 1.

⟨x1 |x2 ⟩ = α†1 α1 + β1† β1 = |α1 |2 + |β1 |2 = 1

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Example
q
2 √i |11⟩ √1 |10⟩ √1 |11⟩.
⇒ Consider states: |ψ1 ⟩ = 3
|01⟩ + and |ψ2 ⟩ = +
3 2 2

q0
    
0 ! 0
2  0   0 
r

3
2 −i −i
⟨ψ1 |ψ2 ⟩ =   .  √1  = 0 0 √ ×  √1  =
    
 0   2 3 3  2 6
1 √1
√i √
3 2 2

⇒ Case 1: Inner Product of |0⟩ with itself:

 

1
⟨0|0⟩ = 1 0 =1
0

⇒ Case 2: Inner Product of |1⟩ with itself:

 

0
⟨0|0⟩ = 0 1 =1
1

⇒ Inner product of orthogonal states:

√1
  !

0 
1 √1

2
⟨0|1⟩ = 1 0 · = 0 , ⟨+|−⟩ = √2 · =0
1 2 − √1
2

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Outer Product
⇒ Outer product of two quantum states |x1 ⟩ and |x2 ⟩ is defined
as |x2 ⟩ · ⟨x1 |, which is often written as |x2 ⟩⟨x1 |.
⇒ When you take the outer product of two state
vectors, such as |x1 ⟩ and |x2 ⟩, you generate a
matrix |x1 ⟩⟨x2 | that can represent transitions or
interactions between these states.
⇒ This time the result would be in fact a matrix, instead of a
complex number. Take the outer product of |x2 ⟩ and |x1 ⟩:
    α α 
α2 2 1 α2 β1
|x2 ⟩⟨x1 | = . α†1 β1† =
β2 β2 α1 α2 β1

⇒ The relationship between the outer and the inner product:

tr (|x2 ⟩⟨x1 |) = ⟨x1 |x2 ⟩
⇒ Outer Product is used to get density matrices
which work as projection operator in State
Tomography.
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Example
⇒ Consider operator Z that maps computational basis states
|0⟩ 7→ |0⟩

|1⟩ 7→ −|1⟩
⇒ This operator can be written as
|0⟩⟨0| − |1⟩⟨1|

⇒ matrix representation with respect to the basis {|0⟩, |1⟩}:

 
1 0
0 −1

⇒ As a matrix multiplication with |0⟩ we can give it as:

    
1 0 1 1
= = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0

⇒ As a matrix multiplication with |1⟩ we can give it as:

    
1 0 0 0
= = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1

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Tensor Products

⇒ Tensor Product is used determine joint state of

multiple qubits.
⇒ Consider the example of |x1 ⟩ and |x2 ⟩ states:
|x1 ⟩ ⊗ |x2 ⟩ = (α1 |0⟩ + β1 |1⟩) ⊗ (α2 |0⟩ + β2 |1⟩)
= α1 α2 |00⟩ + α1 β2 |01⟩ + β1 α2 |10⟩ + β1 β2 |11⟩

⇒ |x1 ⟩ ⊗ |x2 ⟩ can be shortened to |x1 x2 ⟩

⇒ Let us look at amplitudes:
|α1 α2 |2 + |α1 β2 |2 + |β1 α2 |2 + |β1 β2 |2 = (|α1 |2 + |β1 |2 ) · (|α2 |2 + |β2 |2 ) = 1

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Examples

⇒ Consider matrices A and B given below:

   
a11 a12 b11 b12
A= B=
a21 a22 b21 b22

⇒ Tensor Product A ⊗ B is given as:

    
b11 b12 b11 b12
    a 11 a12
a11 a12 b
⊗ 11
b12 b21 b22  b21 b22 

= 
a21 a22 b21 b22 b b12 b b12 
a21 11 a22 11

b21 b22 b21 b22
 
a11 b11 a11 b12 a12 b11 a12 b12
a11 b21 a11 b22 a12 b21 a12 b22 
=
a21 b11

a21 b12 a22 b11 a22 b12 
a21 b21 a21 b22 a22 b21 a22 b22

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Tensor Product Example with a Quantum state
⇒ Consider Quantum States |a⟩ and |b⟩ given as:
   
αa αb
|a⟩ = |b⟩ =
βa βb

⇒ Tensor product of these quantum states is given as

    
αb αa αb
αa βb   αa βb 
   
αa α
|a⟩ ⊗ |b⟩ = ⊗ b =   =  
βa βb α   βa αb 
βa b

βb βa βb

⇒ For a system with 3 qubits each qubit represented as:

|γj ⟩ = αj |0⟩ + βj |1⟩

where j = 1, 2, 3 the joint state is given as:
|γ1 γ2 γ3 ⟩ = |γ1 ⟩ ⊕ |γ2 ⟩ ⊕ |γ3 ⟩
= α1 α2 α3 |000⟩ + α1 α2 β3 |001⟩ + α1 β2 α3 |010⟩ + α1 β2 β3 |011⟩
+ β1 α2 α3 |100⟩ + β1 α2 β3 |101⟩ + β1 β2 α3 |110⟩ + β1 β2 β3 |110⟩
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Characteristics of Tensor Product

⇒ For c ∈ C, |ψ1 ⟩ in H1 and |ψ2 ⟩ in H2

c |ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ = c|ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ = |ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ c|ψ2 ⟩ (1)

⇒ For |ψ1 ⟩, |φ1 ⟩ in H1 and |ψ2 ⟩ in H2

(|ψ1 ⟩ + |φ1 ⟩) ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ = |ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ + |φ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ (2)

⇒ Tensor product is not commutative:

|ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ2 ⟩ =
̸ |ψ2 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ1 ⟩ (3)

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Tensor Product use cases:

⇒ Applying Gates on multiple qubits:

⇒ Example: Hadamard gates on multiple qubits: H ⊗n |0⟩⊗n
⇒ For n = 2:
1 1 1
H ⊗2 |0⟩⊗2 = √ (|0⟩ + |1⟩) ⊗ √ (|0⟩ + |1⟩) = √ (|00⟩ + |01⟩ + |10⟩ + |11⟩)
2 2 22

⇒ For N = 3:
1
H ⊗3 |0⟩⊗3 = √ (|000⟩ + |001⟩ + |010⟩ + |011⟩ + |100⟩ + |101⟩ + |110⟩ + |111⟩)
23

⇒ We can generalize this equation as:

1 X
H ⊗n |0⟩⊗n = √ |x⟩
2n x∈{0,1}n

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Quantum Operations

⇒ Hadamard Gate:
⇒ Hadamard Gate maps |0⟩ to |+⟩ and |1⟩ to |−⟩.
1 1 1 1
H|0⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩ = |+⟩ , H|1⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩ = |−⟩
2 2 2 2
√1 !
√1 !
1 1
     
1 1 1 2 1 1 0 2
H|0⟩ = √ = 1 = |+⟩ , H|1⟩ = √ = = |−⟩
2 1 −1 0 √ 2 1 −1 1 − √1
2 2

⇒ General U Gate:
⇒ U : Cd → Cd has to map from a quantum state to
another quantum state.
⇒ U has to be linear (i.e. U(|x1 ⟩ + |x2 ⟩) = U|x1 ⟩ + U|x2 ⟩)
⇒ In other words, U is a matrix.

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Quantum Operations

⇒ Since both the input and the output should be quantum

states:
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1, (U|ψ⟩)† U|ψ⟩

(U|ψ⟩)† U|ψ⟩ = 1
⇒ |ψ⟩U † U|ψ⟩ = 1
⇒ ⟨ψ|U † U|ψ⟩ = 1
⇒ U†U = 1

⇒ In other words U : Cd → Cd is unitary.

⇒ Unitary operations are invertible (reversible) and its inverse is
its conjugate transpose.
U † (U(|ψ⟩) = |ψ⟩

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Multiple Qubit System
⇒ Consider a system with two qubit systems with |ψ1 ⟩ and |ψ2 ⟩.
⇒ |ψ1 ⟩ and |ψ2 ⟩ individually would be described as 2 × 1 column
vectors
⇒ Collectively we maintain joint state of the entire system,
written as 4 × 1 column vector.
⇒ Consider system where we apply U gate on |ψ1 ⟩ and V gate
on |ψ2 ⟩. We can represent this system as follows:
(U|ψ1 ⟩) ⊗ (V |ψ1 ⟩) = (U ⊗ V )(|ψ1 ⟩ ⊗ |ψ1 ⟩)

⇒ Consider 2-qubit state |ψ⟩.

|ψ⟩ = α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ + α10 |10⟩ + α11 |11⟩

⇒ When we apply (U ⊗ V ) on |ψ⟩:

(U ⊗V )|ψ⟩ = α00 (U ⊗V )|00⟩+α01 (U ⊗V )|01⟩+α10 (U ⊗V )|10⟩+α11 (U ⊗V )|11⟩

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Example:

Single Z gate on Two qubit which are part of a

superposition:
Here we consider that Identity gate is applied on other qubit, and take
tensor product of the 2 before application on the qubits.
    
    1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 −1 0  0
0    0
Z |00⟩ = (Z ⊗ I )|00⟩ = ⊗ |00⟩ =  =   = |00⟩
0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0  0 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
    
    1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 
 1
−1 = −|01⟩
 
Z |01⟩ = (Z ⊗ I )|01⟩ = ⊗ |01⟩ =    =
0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0  0  0 
0 0 0 −1 0 0
    
    1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 
 0
  0
Z |10⟩ = (Z ⊗ I )|10⟩ = ⊗ |10⟩ =  =   = |10⟩
0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0  1 1
0 0 0 −1 0 0
    
    1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 
 0
   0 
Z |11⟩ = (Z ⊗ I )|11⟩ = ⊗ |11⟩ =  =   = −|11⟩
0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0  0  0 
0 0 0 −1 1 −1

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Measurement

⇒ Consider qubit |ψ⟩ = α0 |0⟩ + α1 |1⟩, measurement results in 0

or 1 with probabilities |α0 |2 and |α1 |2 respectively.
⇒ Consider a 2-qubit system:

|ψ⟩ = α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ + α10 |10⟩ + α11 |11⟩

⇒ Then following holds true:

|00⟩ with the probability of |α00 |2

|01⟩ with the probability of |α01 |2
|10⟩ with the probability of |α10 |2
|11⟩ with the probability of |α11 |2

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Partial Measurement

⇒ Consider a 2-qubit system:

|ψ⟩ = α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ + α10 |10⟩ + α11 |11⟩

⇒ Alice has one of the qubits and Bob measures other.

⇒ Consider that Alice measures its qubit first. Probability for
Alice can be given as:
|0⟩ with the probability of |α00 |2 + |α01 |2
|1⟩ with the probability of |α10 |2 + |α11 |2

⇒ Suppose Alice observed |0⟩.

⇒ Probability for Bob’s measurements follow rules of conditional
probability.

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Partial Measurement

⇒ After Alice measured her qubit becomes:

α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ α00 |0⟩ + α01 |1⟩

p = |0⟩ ⊗ p
2
|α00 | + |α01 | 2 |α00 |2 + |α01 |2

⇒ Now when Bob measures, the probabilities will look like:

|0⟩ with the probability of |α00 |2 + |α01 |2

|1⟩ with the probability of |α10 |2 + |α11 |2

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