Session One, Lecture Two DR - Fawzizayr AL-fahdawi 2019

Session one , Lecture two
Dr.Fawzizayr AL-fahdawi
2019
Define homeostasis and explain its importance.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.
A dynamic equilibrium. Homeostatic mechanisms act to counteract
changes in the internal environment. Homeostasis occurs at all
levels: cellular,organ/system and whole body.
Controls supply of nutrients, oxygen, blood blow, body
temperature, removal of waste, removal of CO2 and pH.
Homeostasis underpins physiology and failure of homeostasis
leads to disease.
Describe the main features of control systems in the body
There are some key features which are common to all control systems
1. Communication – The main communication pathways are the nervous system and the endocrine system
(hormones). Local release (via ducts/exocrine) and action is known as Paracrine control. Agents released by a
cell which affects the releasing cell is known as autocrine control. The peripheral nervous system can be
divided into the afferent branch (sensory input) and the efferent branch (motor output).
1. Control Centre – Establishes the
reference set point, analyses the
afferent input and determines the
appropriate response. Two important
control centres in the brain are in the
hypothalamus in the diencephalon and
the medulla oblongata in the brain
stem. The hypothalamus is involved in
the control of the endocrine system.
Regions of the medulla are involved in
the control of ventilation and the
cardiovascular system.
3.Receptor – These are required to detect stimuli
such as changes in the internal environment.
These are usually specialised nerve endings such
as chemoreceptors and thermoreceptors. Sensors
communicate input to the control centre via the
afferent nerves.
4.Effector – These cause change. The control
Center produces an output, which is
communicated via the efferent pathways to the
effectors. E.g. sweat glands are activated to
produce more sweat, causing heat loss.
Eg .the Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis

Feedback:
is also an important feature of control systems. In negative feedback the output inhibits
the function of the control Centre and the effecter acts to oppose the stimulus. An
example of negative feedback in the body would be hyperglycaemia stimulating the
release of insulin from beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, which acts to
decrease the level of glucose in the blood, thus returning the glucose level to the normal
range. In positive feedback the stimulus produces a response which increases its effect,
rather than counteracts it.
Fortunately there are not many examples of positive feedback in the body.
One example is blood clotting, which involves a complex signaling cascade incorporating
positive feedback resulting in a change of state in blood from liquid to solid.
Another example is ovulation in which a build up of the hormone follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) causes release of an oocyte from a follicle in the ovary
Homeostasis:
The living processes in the cells depend on the activity of enzymes.
These enzymes work best in specific conditions such as those of
temperature and pH. Any change in these conditions affects the function of
the enzymes and may lead to the death of the cells or, ultimately, the whole
organism. This is why the internal environment needs to be regulated and
kept constant.
In fact, the internal conditions are not absolutely constant, but allowed to
vary within very narrow limits. Human body temperature, for example,
varies between 36.1 – 37.8 o C.
The average temperature is usually expressed as 36.8o C
So, a better definition of ‘homeostasis’ is the maintenance of the internal environment
within narrow limits
The skin, kidneys, liver, endocrine system, nervous system and sensory system all play a
part in maintaining the internal environment within narrow limits.
The skin is a homeostatic organ which helps maintain the body temperature within the
limits given in the previous slide
The external temperature varies during the day and from season to season, sometimes by
as much as 40oC, but the human body temperature stays at about 37oC
This is achieved by sweating, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, and shivering
If the body temperature rises, the sweat glands in the skin are activated and secrete sweat
on to the surface of the skin .
When the sweat evaporates, it takes heat from the body and cools it down
To carry out its living processes, every cell in the body needs a supply of oxygen and food.
Waste products such as carbon dioxide have to be removed before they reach harmful
levels and damage the cell.
These conditions are maintained by tissue fluid bathing the cells. Tissue fluid is derived
from the blood.
The tissue fluid contains oxygen and food which the cells can absorb, and also accepts the
carbon dioxide and other waste products produced by the cells.
In the cells, the chemical breakdown of proteins produces the nitrogenous compound, urea. If this were allowed to
accumulate in the cells it would damage or kill them.
The concentration of the blood and tissue fluids tends to vary. If water is lost through evaporation and sweating, the fluids
become more concentrated. The intake of water dilutes the fluids. It is important that the concentration of blood and
tissue fluid is kept within narrow limits if the cells are to function properly
These homeostatic functions are carried out by the kidneys
The glucose concentration in the blood is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas contains
cells which produce digestive enzymes but it also contains cells (alpha and beta cells) which
produce the hormones insulin and glucagon
If the glucose concentration rises, the beta cells release insulin
If the glucose concentration falls, the alpha cells release glucagon
Insulin stimulates the liver and muscles to remove excess glucose from the blood and store it as
glycogen
Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert its stored glycogen into glucose which is then
released into the bloodstreamIn this way, the concentration of glucose in the blood is kept
within narrow limits. One important method of achieving homeostasis is negative feedback
It applies to many systems in the body. Temperature regulation is one example
If the blood temperature rises, a ‘heat gain’ center in the brain sends nerve impulses to the skin,
which causes vasodilation and sweating, which cool the blood.
If the blood temperature falls, it stimulates a ‘heat loss’ center in the brain which sends impulse
to the skin causing vasoconstriction and the cessation of sweating. These changes reduce heat
loss from the skin. The warmer or cooler blood provides negative feedback to the
thermoregulatory center in the brain.
Another example of negative feedback is the control of the hormone estrogen.
The pituitary body produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which promotes the development of the ovarian follicles
and causes the ovaries to produce oestrogen
oestrogen also acts on the uterus and causes its lining to thicken
When the oestrogen reaches a certain level in the blood, it acts on the pituitary and stops the production of more FSH
In this case, oestrogen is exerting a negative feedback on the pituitary
If the oestrogen level in the blood falls, the pituitary begins to secrete FSH again
Biological Rhythms:
Rather than the set point being a fixed, steady value it can vary over time, giving rise to
biological rhythms. For example the levels of the hormone cortisol in the blood varies during the
day from a peak at about 7.00 am to a trough at about 7 pm. The menstrual cycle is an obvious
example of a biological rhythm and women’s body temperature varies during the cycle. A
sudden increase in body temperature can be used as a marker of ovulation.
Discuss examples of biological rhythms
Rather than the set point being fixed, it can vary over time – biological rhythms.
The level of the hormone cortisol in the blood varies during the day, from a peak at about 7am
to a trough at about 7pm. This is known as a circadian rhythm. For this reason time should
always be noted when taking a sample of blood for cortisol measurement and when repeating a
measurement it should be taken at the same time of day, or 24hr urinary excretion of cortisol.
Hypoactivity of the adrenal cortex (Addison’s disease) – low blood cortisol
Hyperactivity of the adrenal cortex (Cushing’s syndrome) – high blood cortisol
The menstrual cycle is an obvious example of a biological rhythm. Women’s core body
temperature varies during the cycle. A sudden increase in core body temperature can be used as
a marker of ovulation.
Thank you for
attention

Session One, Lecture Two DR - Fawzizayr AL-fahdawi 2019

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Session One, Lecture Two DR - Fawzizayr AL-fahdawi 2019

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Session One, Lecture Two DR - Fawzizayr AL-fahdawi 2019

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Session one , Lecture two

Eg .the Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis

You might also like