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2
FLUID MECHANICS
References:
1- Frank M. White, “Fluid Mechanics”, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,2010

2- YUNUS A., ÇENGEL," Fluid Mechanics " 1st edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
2006.
3- R.K. Bansal, " A textbook of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines", 3rd
edition, LAXMI PUBLICATIONS, 2011.
***
Important units' conversion
1- Mass:
1 kg = 1000 g
1 kg = 2.2 lbm
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 slug = 32.17 lbm
2- Length:
1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1000 mm
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 m = 39.37 in
1 ft = 12 in
3- Time:
1 hr = 60 min
1 hr = 3600 sec
1 min = 60 sec
4- Pressure:
1 atm = 1.013 bar
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 Kpa
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 Kpa
1 psi = 6894.744825 pa
1 bar =14.5 psi
5- Area:
1 m2= 104 cm2
1 m2= 106 mm2
1 cm2= 102 mm2
‫ مها علي‬.‫ م‬:‫اعداد‬
3
7- Volume:
1 m3 = 1000 litre
Example: Convert the following quantity:
1- 12 (L/min) to (m3/s) , 2- 33 (KN/cm2) to (N/m2) , 3- 10 (lb/ft3) to (Kg/m3)
12 L 1 m3 1 min 33 KN 1000 N 104 cm2 10 lb 1 Kg (3.28)3 ft3

1000 L 60 s min cm2 1 KN 1 m2 ft3 2.2 lb
1m3
= 12 / (60000) = 0.0002 m3/s = 33*107 N/m2 = 10*3.283/ 2.2
= 160.4 Kg/m3
Density of Water (𝛒) = 1000 Kg/m3 in SI units
= 62.4 lb/ft3 in UN units
Density of Air (𝛒) = 1.225 Kg/m3 in SI units
= 0.076 lb/ft3 in UN units
Gravitational acceleration (g) = 9.81 m/s2 in SI unit
= 32.17 ft/s2 in UN unit

4
Chapter One: Introduction to fluid mechanics

1.1 Fluid mechanics may be defined as that branch of engineering science which deals
with the behavior of fluid under the conditions of rest and motion.
The fluid mechanics can be divided into three parts:
Statics. The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is called

hydrostatics.
Kinematics. It deals with the velocities, accelerations and the patterns of flow only.
Dynamics. It deals with the relations between velocities, accelerations of fluid with
the forces or energy causing them.
What Is a Fluid?
Fluid. Is a substance which is capable of flowing and deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress. Fluid can be classified as:
1- Liquid, is a fluid which possesses a definite volume and varies only slightly with
temperature and pressure.
2- Gas, It possesses no definite volume and is compressible.
Or
1- Ideal fluid, An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is
incompressible.
2- Real fluids, A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility in addition to the density. The real fluid are actually available in
nature.
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics:
Fluid mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design
of modern engineering systems from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. Fluid mechanics
plays a vital role in the human body. The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the
human body through the arteries and veins, and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating
directions. In houses is, the piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage for an
individual house and the entire city are designed primarily on the basis of fluid mechanics. The
same is also true for the piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning systems. A
refrigerator involves tubes through which the refrigerant flows, a compressor that pressurizes the
refrigerant, and two heat exchangers where the refrigerant absorbs and rejects
heat. Fluid mechanics plays a major role in the design of all these components.
We can also see numerous applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All components
associated with the transportation of the fuel from the fuel tank to the cylinders—the fuel line, fuel
pump, fuel injectors, or carburetors—as well as the mixing of the fuel and the air in the cylinders.
Fluid mechanics is also used in the design of the heating and air-conditioning system, the hydraulic
brakes, the power steering, automatic transmission, and lubrication systems, the cooling system of
the engine block including the radiator and the water pump, and even the tires. On a broader scale,

5
fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines,
rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic components, and
the transportation of water, crude oil, and natural gas. It is also considered in the design of
buildings, bridges. Numerous natural phenomena such as the rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise
of ground water to the top of trees, winds, ocean waves, and currents in large water bodies are also
governed by the principles of fluid mechanics.
1.2 Properties of Fluids:
1- Mass Density (𝝆)
Mass per unit volume at a standard temperature and pressure:

𝐦
𝛒= 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
𝐕
2- Weight Density or specific weight (𝜸)
Also called specific weight can be defined as weight per unit volume at a standard
temperature and pressure:
𝑊 𝑚. 𝑔
𝜸= = = 𝝆. 𝒈 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑉 𝑉
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏000 × 9.81 = 9810 𝑁/𝑚3 in SI unit
𝟏 𝒔𝒍𝒖𝒈 𝒇𝒕
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒 𝒍𝒃𝒎 × 𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕 𝒍𝒃 × 𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒 lbf/ft3 in UN unit
𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
3- Specific volume
Defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass
of a fluid:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1 1 𝑚3
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = = ( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌 𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
4- Specific gravity (S)

Defined as the ratio of the specific weight of the fluid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units.
𝛾𝑓 𝜌𝑓 .𝑔 𝜌𝑓
𝑆= = =
𝛾𝑤 𝜌𝑤 .𝑔 𝜌𝑤

6
H.W: 10 m3 of mercury weights 136× 104 N. Calculate its specific weight, density,
specific volume and specific gravity.

7
5- Viscosity
Viscosity may be defined as the property of fluid which determines its resistance to
shearing stresses.
When a fluid is sheared, it begins to move at a strain rate inversely proportional to a
property called its coefficient of viscosity . Consider a fluid element sheared in one
plane by a single shear stress 𝜏, as in Fig. 1.1a. The shear strain angle will
continuously grow with time as long as the stress 𝜏 is maintained, the upper surface
moving at speed u larger than the lower. Such common fluids as water, oil, and air
show a linear relation between applied shear and resulting strain rate:
From the geometry of Fig. 1.1a we see that,

In the limit of infinitesimal changes, this becomes a relation between shear strain rate and
velocity gradient
then, the applied shear is also proportional to the velocity gradient for the common linear
fluids. The constant of proportionality is the viscosity coefficient:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇.
𝑑𝑦
Fig. 1.1 Shear stress causes continuous shear deformation in a fluid: (a) a fluid element straining at a
rate; (b) newtonian shear distribution in a shear layer near a wall.

8
Fig. 1.2 Rheological behavior of various viscous materials: stress versus strain rate
There are two types of viscosity:
a- Dynamic viscosity (𝝁)

The shear stress is max near the solid boundary,
While the velocity is max in the centre.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝛼
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇.
𝑑𝑦
Where:
𝜇 : Constant proportionality known as viscosity
𝑑𝑢
: Rate of shear stress or velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑦
𝑁
𝜏 𝑚2
𝜇= 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑚/𝑠 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2 or Pa.s
( ) 𝑚
𝑑𝑦
Also the viscosity can be measured in (poise) (1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒)
( 1 poise=100 cP)
b- Kinematic viscosity (𝒗)
It is the dynamic viscosity per mass density:

𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇
𝑣= = 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌
Also the kinematic viscosity can be measured in (stoke) (1 m2/s = 104 stoke)

9
1.3 Variation of viscosity with temperature
1.3

‫‪10‬‬
‫‪1.4:‬‬
‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

‫‪11‬‬
‫‪1.6‬‬

‫‪12‬‬
‫‪1.7‬‬
‫‪1.8‬‬

‫‪13‬‬
‫‪Problem 1.9‬‬

14
1.4 Surface tension and Capillarity
1.12

‫‪15‬‬

‫‪16‬‬
‫‪1.13‬‬
‫‪1.14‬‬

17
1.5 Elasticity , Compressibility (E):
All fluids compress if the pressure increases resulting in an increase in density. Modulus
of Elasticity of fluid must be defined as the changes in pressure to changes in volume. The
elasticity is often called the compressibility of the fluid
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝐸= 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑑𝑉 𝑃𝑎
𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝐸= = 𝜌 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌
𝜌
Problem 1.16: Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid if the pressure of the
liquid is increased from 60 N/cm2 to 120 N/cm2. The volume of liquid decreases by 0.12
percent.
𝑑𝑃 120 − 60
𝐸= = = 5 × 104 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑉 0.12⁄
𝑉𝑜 100
1.6 Vapor Pressure:
The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given temperature, is called its
vapor pressure.
-Boiling occurs whenever the local pressure equals the vapor pressure.
-Vapor pressure increases with temperature.
There are two ways to boil a liquid:
1. Raise the temperature, assuming that the temperature is fixed (For water at 101.3 kPa,
the boiling temperature is 373 K).
2. Reduce the pressure in liquid to its vapor pressure (If the pressure in water at 323 K (10
⁰C ) is reduced to 1.23 kPa, the water boils).
Boiling can occur in localized low-pressure zones of flowing liquids. They can then
collapse in regions of high pressure. This phenomenon, which is called cavitation, can
cause extensive damage to fluid systems.

18
Figure: Pump Cavitation

19
Chapter Two: Pressure Measurement

2.1 Fluid pressure at a point:
Consider a small area A in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the
force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area A will always be perpendicular to the
surface A. Let F is the force acting on the area A in the normal direction. Then the ratio
F/A is known as pressure.
Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is:
𝐹 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑁
𝑃= = 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚2
2.2 Pascal's Law:
It states that the pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions. This is
proved as in figure (2.1) : The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy, and
ds.
Ps ds
θ
dy
Px
w θ
dx
Py
Fig.(2.1): pressure on a fluid element at rest
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑃𝑥 . 𝑑𝑦 .1 − 𝑃𝑠 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑠. 1 = 0
𝑃𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥. 1 − 𝑃𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠. 1 − 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = → 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠
𝑃𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠
20
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑃𝑦 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 − 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉 = 0 w= neglect(very small)
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑠
∴ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑠
2.3 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest:
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the hydrostatic law which
states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal
to the specific weight of the fluid at that point. This is proved as consider a small fluid
element as shown in figure (2.2)
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑃 P.dx
𝑃𝑑𝑦 − (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝑃𝑑𝑦 − 𝑃𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 P.dy (𝑃 +
𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥)𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑃
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑥 (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
Fig.(2.2): Forces on a fluid element
𝝏𝑷
−𝑷𝒅𝒙 + (𝑷 + 𝒅𝒚) 𝒅𝒙 − 𝝆. 𝒈. (𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚) = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑷
−𝑷𝒅𝒙 + 𝑷𝒅𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒙 − 𝝆. 𝒈. 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑷
𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 − 𝝆. 𝒈. 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑷
𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚 = 𝝆. 𝒈. 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚
𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝑷
= 𝝆. 𝒈 𝜸 = 𝝆. 𝒈
𝝏𝒚
𝒑𝟐 𝒚𝟐
∫𝒑𝟏 𝒅𝑷 = ∫𝒚𝟏 𝜸. 𝒅𝒚
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝜸. (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) , 𝒉 = (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )
The equations above state that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.

21
𝑷
𝒉= ℎ = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜸
Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical
distance and is independent of the shape of the container. The pressure is the same
at all points on a given horizontal plane in the fluid. The pressure increases with
depth in the fluid.
An illustration of this is shown in Figure below The free surface of the container is
atmospheric and forms a horizontal plane. Points a, b, c, and d are at equal depth in a
horizontal. plane and are interconnected by the same fluid, water; therefore all points have
the same pressure. The same is true of points A, B, and C on the bottom, which all have the
same higher pressure than at a, b, c, and d. However, point D, although at the same depth
as A, B, and C, has a different pressure because it lies beneath a different fluid, mercury
Problem 2.2

22
2.4 Absolute, Gage, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressure
1- Atmospheric pressure: The atsmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all
surfaces with which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric pressure.
2- Gauge pressure: is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a
pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
3- Vacuum pressure: is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
4- Absolute pressure: is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to

absolute vacuum pressure.
A schematic diagram showing the relations between the above types of pressure is given
in figure (2.3).
Fig.(2.3): Relation between pressure
Mathematically:
(1) Gauge pressure= Absolute pressure(Pabs) – Atmospheric pressure(Patm)
(2) Vacuum pressure= Atmospheric pressure(Patm) - Absolute pressure(Pabs)

23
Problem 2.3
H.W
2.5 Measurement of Pressure
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:
1- Manometers. are defined as the devices used for measuring yhe pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They
are classified as:
(a) simple Manometers, (b) Differential Manometers
2- Mechanical Gauges. are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commenly used mechanical
pressure gauges are:
(a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge : The pressure to be measured is applied to a

curved tube, oval in cross-section, and the deflection of the end of the tube is
24
communicated through a system of levers to a recording needle. This gauge is widely used
for steam and compressed gases, and frequently forms the indicating element on flow
controllers. The simple form of the gauge is illustrated in Figures below.
(b) Diaphragm pressure gauge: The diaphragm pressure gauge consists of a circular
membrane, made from sheet metal of precise dimensions, which can either be flat or
corrugated. The diaphragm is mechanically connected to the transmission mechanism
which will amplify the small deflections of the diaphragm and transfer them to the pointer.
2.6 Simple Manometers

25
2.6.2 U-tube Manometer. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in fig. (2.5). The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid
whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to
be measured.
Fig. (2.5) U-tube manometers
(a) For Gauge pressure:
PX = PY
PX = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝛾1 . ℎ1 , PY =𝛾2 . ℎ2
𝑃𝐵 + 𝛾1 . ℎ1 = 𝛾2 . ℎ2
𝑃𝐵 = 𝛾2 . ℎ2 - 𝛾1 . ℎ1
(b) For Vacuum pressure
PX = PY
PX = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝛾1 . ℎ1 + 𝛾2 . ℎ2 , PY =0
𝑃𝐵 + 𝛾1 . ℎ1 + 𝛾2 . ℎ2 =0
𝑃𝐵 = - 𝛾2 . ℎ2 - 𝛾1 . ℎ1

26
𝒑 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
= -54543.6 pa
2.7 Differential Manometers
Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressure
between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists
of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose
difference of pressure is to be measured. Most commenly types of differential manometers
are:
1- U-tube differential manometer

27
2- Inverted tube differential manometer.
2.7.1 U-tube differential Manometer
In fig.(2.6), let the two points A and B are at different level and also contains
liquids of different sp.gr. These points are connected to the U-tube manometer. Let the
Pressures at A and B are PA and PB :
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑌
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝛾1 . (ℎ1 + ℎ)
𝑃𝑌 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝛾2 . ℎ2 + 𝛾. ℎ
𝑃𝐴 + (𝑆1 × 9810). (ℎ1 + ℎ) = 𝑃𝐵 + (𝑆2 × 9810). ℎ2 + (𝑆 × 9810). ℎ
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = (𝑆2 × 9810). ℎ2 + (𝑆 × 9810). ℎ − (𝑆1 × 9810). (ℎ1 + ℎ)
Fig.(2.6): U-tube differential Manometer
2.7.2 Inverted tube differential manometer
It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube
are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for
measuring difference of low pressure. Fig. (2.7) shows an inverted manometer connected
to the two points A and B.
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑌
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝛾1 . ℎ1
𝑃𝑌 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝛾2 . ℎ2 − 𝛾. ℎ
𝑃𝐴 − (𝑆1 × 9810). ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 − (𝑆2 × 9810). ℎ2 − (𝑆 × 9810). ℎ
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = (𝑆1 × 9810). ℎ1 − (𝑆2 × 9810). ℎ2 − (𝑆 × 9810). ℎ

28
Fig.(2.7): Inverted tube differential manometer
Problem 2.8: The pressure difference between an oil pipe and water pipe is measured by a
double-fluid manometer, as shown in Fig. below. For the given fluid heights and specific
gravities, calculate the pressure difference ∆P = PB - PA.
Sol.
60 20
𝑃𝐴 = (1000 × 9.81 × ) + (13.5 × 1000 × 9.81 × )−
100 100
45 10
(1.26 × 1000 × 9.81 × ) + (0.88 × 1000 × 9.81 × )
100 100
= PB
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = 27700 𝑃𝑎
Problem 2.9: Fig. below shows an inverted manometer having an oil of Sp. gr.(0.8)
connected to two different pipes carrying water under pressure. Determine the pressure in
the pipe B. The pressure in pipe A is 19.62 KN/m2 .
Sol.
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1 . 𝑔. ℎ1 + 𝜌2 . 𝑔. ℎ2 + 𝜌. 𝑔. ℎ = 𝑃𝐵
300
19.62 × 103 − (1000 × 9.81 × )+
1000

29
150 100
(0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × ) + (1000 × 9.81 × ) = 𝑃𝐵
1000 1000
𝑃𝐵 = 18835.2 𝑁/𝑚2
2.10
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌. 𝑔. ℎ𝐴 − 𝜌. 𝑔. ℎ𝐿 + 𝜌. 𝑔. ℎ𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵
−1.2 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 − 0.7 × 1000 × 9.81 × ℎ + 1000

× 9.81 × (ℎ + 0.3) = 0
-3531.6 – 6867 h + 9810 h + 2943=0
2943 h= 588.6
h= 0.2 m
Problem 2.13
Problem 2.14

30
Problem 2.15
1) 𝑷𝑨 + (𝝆. 𝒈. 𝒉)𝒘 − (𝝆. 𝒈. 𝑳. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒎 − (𝝆. 𝒈. 𝒉)𝒐 = 𝑷𝑩
10 × 103 + (1000 × 9.81 × 0.07)w − (13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.09 × sin40)m

− (0.87 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1)o = PB
PB = 2114.99 𝑝𝑎
2) 10 × 103 + (1000 × 9.81 × 0.07)w − (13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.11 × sin40)m −

(0.87 × 1000 × 9.81 × (0.1 − 0.02 × sin40))o = PB
PB = 509.55 𝑝𝑎

31
Problem 2.16
Problem 2.17
Problem 2.18

32
Chapter Three: Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Total pressure and centre of pressure
3.3 Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid
Consider a vertical plane surface immersed in a liquid as
shown in fig.(3.1).
Let:
Fig.(3.1)
(a) Total Pressure Force (F): the total pressure force may be determined by dividing the
entire surface into a number of small parallel strips. The force on small strip is then
calculated and the total pressure force on the whole area is calculated by integrating the
force on small strip.
𝐹 = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐴 ℎ̅
(b) Centre of Pressure (h*): Centre of pressure is calculated by using the princible of
moments which states that the moment of the resultent force about an axis is equal to the
sum of moments of the components about the same axis.
𝐼𝐺
ℎ∗ = + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅

‫‪33‬‬

34
Problem 3.2
A 4-m-high, 5-m-wide rectangular plate blocks the end of a 4-m-deep freshwater channel,
as shown in Fig. P3–66. The plate is hinged about a horizontal axis along its upper edge
through a point A and is restrained from opening by a fixed ridge at point B. Determine
the force exerted on the plate by the ridge.

‫‪35‬‬
‫‪3.4‬‬
‫‪1.2‬‬
‫‪𝐹1 = 1.45 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2.4 × (1.5 +‬‬ ‫𝑁 ‪) = 71691‬‬
‫‪2‬‬

36
1.2
𝐹2 = 1000 × 9.81 × 2.4 × ( ) = 14126 𝑁
2
3.4 Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid
Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid .

As every point of the surface is at the same depth from the free
surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the
entire surface and equal to, 𝑃 = 𝛾 ℎ , where h is depth of surface.

The total force, F, on the surface, fig.(3.2), Fig.(3.2)
𝐹 = 𝛾 𝐴 ℎ̅
Where ℎ̅ = Depth of C.G from free surface of liquid
Also ℎ∗ = Depth of centre of pressure from free surface

37
3.5 Inclined plane submerged in liquid
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such a way that the
plane of the surface makes an angle θ with the free surface of the liquid as shown in figure
(3.3).
Fig.(3.3): inclined immersed surface
1) Total pressure or Force
𝐹 = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐴 ℎ̅
2) Centre of Pressure
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
ℎ∗ = ̅
+ ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ
**NOTES

38
Problem 3.6
Problem 3.7

39
3.6 Curved surface sub-merged in liquid
The resultant force exerted on curved surface analysis

into horizontal force (FH) and vertical force (FV)
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
𝐹𝐻 = Total pressure force on the projected area of the

curved surface
𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴
𝐹𝑉 = Weight of liquid supported by the curved surface

upon free surface of liquid
𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑦 + 𝑊
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴 + 𝑊
Problem (3.9): Figure below shows a curved surface LM, which is in the form of a
quadrant of a circle of radius 3 m, immersed in the water. If the width of the gate is unity,
calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting on the curved
surface?
Sol.
3
𝐹𝐻 = 1000 × 9.81 × (1 + ) × (3 × 1) = 73570 𝑁
2
𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑦 + 𝑊𝐿𝑀𝑂 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴 + 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉
𝜋. 32
𝐹𝑉 = 1000 × 9.81 × (1) × (3 × 1) + 1000 × 9.81 × ( × 1)
4
𝐹𝑉 = 98770 𝑁
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2 = √735702 + 987702 = 123158.66 N
FV 98700
tan θ = = = 1.341 , θ = 53°
FH 73570

40
Problem (3.10): Figure below shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius of 1 m
subjected to water pressure. Find the resultant force and its inclination with the horizontal.
Take the length of the gate as 2 m?
Sol.
1
𝐹𝐻 = 1000 × 9.81 × ( ) × (1 × 2) = 9810 𝑁
2
𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑦 + 𝑊𝐿𝑀𝑂 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴 + 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉
𝜋 × 12
𝐹𝑉 = 1000 × 9.81 × ( × 2) = 15400 𝑁
4
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2 = √98102 + 154002 = 18259.13 N
FV 15400
tan θ = = = 1.569 , θ = 57.5°
FH 9810
Problem (3.11):
0.9
𝐹𝐻 = 1000 × 9.81 × × (0.9 × 0.3) = 1192 𝑁
2
𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑦 + 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ̅𝐴 + 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉
𝜋 × 0.92
𝐹𝑉 = 1000 × 9.81 × ( × 0.3) = 1872 𝑁
4
𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2 = √11922 + 18722 = 2219.4 𝑁
FV 1872
tan θ = = = 1.57 , θ = 57.5°
FH 1192

41
Problem (3.12):
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A is used as an automatic gate, as
shown in Fig. 3–36. When the water level reaches 5 m, the gate opens by turning about the
hinge at point A. Determine (a) the hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder and its line of
action when the gate opens and (b) the weight of the cylinder per (1m) length of the
cylinder.
Problem (3.13):

42
Chapter Four: Dimensional Analysis

4.1 Introduction

43
4.2 Methods of Dimensional Analysis
4.2.1 Rayleigh’s Method:
This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends
upon maximum three or four variables only.

‫‪44‬‬

‫‪45‬‬

‫‪46‬‬

47
Problem 4.7 . In a static fluid, the pressure at a point is known to depend upon the
specific weight and its depth below the free surface. By the dimensional analysis
method, determine the hydrostatic law.

48
Chapter Five: Fluid Kinematics

Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics which deal with the study of velocity and
acceleration of the particle of the fluid in motion and their distribution in space without
considering any force or energy involved.
5.1 Types of Fluid Flow
5.1.1

‫‪49‬‬
‫‪5.1.2.‬‬
‫‪5.1.3.‬‬

‫‪50‬‬
‫‪5.1.4.‬‬
‫‪5.1.6‬‬

51
5.2 Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q)

Rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per second
through a section of pipe or a channel. It is generally denoted by Q. Let us consider a
liquid flowing through a pipe.
Let, A= Area of cross section of the pipe
V= Average velocity of the liquid
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴 × 𝑉
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝑚2 × =
𝑠 𝑠

52
5.3 Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It

states as follows:
"If no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length then the mass passing across
different sections shall be same"
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in figure below.
Let, A1= Area of the pipe at section 1-1
V1= Velocity of the fluid at section 1-1
ρ1 = Density of the fluid at section 1 − 1
And A2 , V2 , ρ2 are corresponding values at section 2-2
𝜕𝑚
Mass flow rate =
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑚1 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝜕𝑙1
Left side: = = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝜕𝑉1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑚2 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝜕𝑙2
Right side: = = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝜕𝑉2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
From the law of conservation of matter (theorem of continuity), we have

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜌1 = 𝜌2 for incompressible fluid , the same fluid,
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 Continuity Equation

53
Problem (5.2): A pipe (1) 450 mm in diameter branches into two pipes (2 and 3) of
diameter 300 and 200 mm respectively as shown in figure below. If the average velocity in
pipe (1) is 3 m/s find:
Discharge through pipe (1)
(ii) Velocity in pipe (3) if the average velocity in pipe (2) is 2.5 m/s
Sol.
𝜋 2 𝜋
A1 = 𝑑 = 0.452 = 0.159 𝑚2
4 4
𝜋 2
A2 = 0.3 = 0.0707 𝑚2
4
𝜋 2
A3 = 0.2 = 0.0314 𝑚2
4
(i) Discharge
𝑚3
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 0.159 × 3 = 0.477
𝑠
(ii)
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑚3
𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 0.0707 × 2.5 = 0.1767
𝑠

54
𝑚3
0.447 = 0.1767 + 𝑄3 , 𝑄3 = 0.3 𝑠
𝑄 0.3
𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑉3 , 𝑉3 = 𝐴3 = 0.0314 = 9.55 𝑚/𝑠
3
5.4 Continuity equation in three dimensions

55
5.5 Velocity and Acceleration

‫‪56‬‬

‫‪57‬‬

58
Chapter Six: Fluid Dynamics

In fluid mechanics the basic equations are: (i) Continuity equation, (ii) Energy equation,
and (iii) Impulse- momentum equation.

59
For ideal fluid
6.3 Different Types of Heads (or Energies) of a Liquid in Motion

1- Potential Head or Potential Energy: This is due to position above some suitable
datum line. It is denoted by (z).
2- Velocity head or kinetic energy: This is due to velocity of flowing liquid and is
𝑉2
measured as( 2𝑔) where v is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

60
3- Pressure head or pressure energy: This is due to the pressure of liquid and denoted
𝑃
as( 𝛾 ).
Total Head (Energy):
Total head of a liquid in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head, and
pressure head. Mathematically,
𝑃 𝑉2
𝐻 = 𝛾 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧 (m) of liquid
Final form of Bernoulli's equation for Real fluid:
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝑝 − 𝐻𝑇 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

‫‪61‬‬
‫‪6.2‬‬
‫‪24.525 × 104 0.56582‬‬ ‫‪9.81 × 104‬‬ ‫‪1.2742‬‬

‫‪+‬‬ ‫= ‪+ 𝑍1‬‬ ‫‪+‬‬ ‫‪+ 𝑍2‬‬
‫‪1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81‬‬ ‫‪1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81‬‬
‫‪25 + 0.0163 + 𝑍1 = 10 + 0.0827 + 𝑍2‬‬
‫𝑚 ‪𝑍2 − 𝑍1 = 14.9‬‬

62
CHAPTER SEVEN: FLOW IN PIPES

7.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

63
7.2 Loss of Energy in Pipes
7.2.1 Major losses (Friction losses)

Darcy-Equation used to determine the head loss in pipes due to friction:
𝑳. 𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝒇.
𝑫. 𝟐𝒈
Where:
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
f= friction factor
L= length (m)
v= velocity (m/s)
D= diameter (m)
g= 9.81 (m/s2)
To determine the pressure drop (∆𝑷 )across the pipe due to friction losses,
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
𝑧1 = 𝑍2 , 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 (equal diameters)
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝑃1 −𝑃2 𝐿.𝑣 2
= + ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓.
𝛾 𝛾 𝜌.𝑔 𝜌.𝑔 𝐷.2𝑔
𝑳.𝝆.𝒗𝟐
∆𝑷 = 𝒇.
𝟐.𝑫
Where:

64
∆𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 ,
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑚3
 LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES

We consider the steady laminar flow of an incompressible fluid with constant properties in
the fully developed region of a straight circular pipe.
Friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe,

𝟔𝟒
For laminar flow Re <2000 (𝐟 = )
𝐑𝐞
𝐿.𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. 𝐷.2𝑔
very important to calculate
64 𝜇 𝐿.𝑣 2 32𝜇 𝐿𝑣 2 128 𝜇 𝐿 𝑄
ℎ𝑓 = . = = the velocity or flow rate of
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝐷.2𝑔 𝜌 𝑔 𝐷2 𝜋 𝜌 𝑔 𝐷4
laminar flow
Problem 7.1 Glycerin at 40°C with density 1252 kg/m3 and viscosity 0.27 pa.s is flowing
through a 5-cm-diameter horizontal smooth pipe with an average velocity of 3.5 m/s.
Determine the pressure drop per 10 m of the pipe and the head loss due to friction.
𝜌. 𝑣. 𝐷 1252 × 3.5 × 0.05

𝑅𝑒 = = = 811.4 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟
𝜇 0.27
64 64
f= = = 0.078
Re 811.4
𝐿. 𝑣 2 10 × 3.52
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓. = 0.078 = 9.74 𝑚
𝐷. 2𝑔 0.05 × 2 × 9.81
𝐿. 𝜌. 𝑣 2 10 × 1252 × 3.52
∆𝑃 = 𝑓. = 0.078 = 119.62 𝑝𝑎
2. 𝐷 2 × 0.05
Problem (7.2): An oil with density of 900 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.0002 m2/s
flows upward through an inclined pipe as shown in Fig. below The pressure and elevation
are known at sections 1 and 2, 10 m apart. Assuming steady laminar flow, (a) compute hf
between 1 and 2, and compute (b) Q, (c) V, and (d) Re. Is the flow really laminar?
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓

65
𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
= + 𝟔. 𝟒𝟑 + 𝒉𝒇
𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
hf = 39.65 – 34.75 = 4.9 m
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

The experimental results obtained are presented in tabular, graphical, and functional forms
obtained by curve-fitting experimental data. In 1939, Cyril F. Colebrook (1910–1997)
combined the available data for transition and turbulent flow in smooth as well as rough
pipes into the following implicit relation known as the Colebrook equation:
The Colebrook equation is implicit in f, and thus the determination of the friction factor
requires some iteration unless an equation solver such as EES is used. An approximate
explicit relation for f was given by S. E. Haaland in 1983 as:
The results obtained from this relation are within 2 percent of those obtained from the Colebrook
equation.
the Colebrook equation was plotted in 1944 by Moody into what is now called the
Moody chart for pipe friction (Fig.7.1). The Moody chart is probably the most famous and
useful figure in fluid mechanics. It is accurate to ∓ 15 percent for design calculations over
the full range shown in Fig. 7.1. It can be used for circular and noncircular pipe flows and
for open-channel flows.

‫‪66‬‬

67
Problem (7.3) Oil, with 900 kg/m3 and 0.00001 m2/s, flows at 0.2 m3/s through 500 m
of 200-mmdiameter cast-iron pipe. Determine (a) the head loss and (b) the pressure drop if
the pipe slopes down at 10° in the flow direction.
𝜋 2 3.14
𝐴= 𝑑 = (0.2)2 = 0.0314 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄 0.2
𝑣= = = 6.4 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 0.0314
From moody chart f =0.0225
∆𝑃 = 265000 𝑃𝑎
7.2.2 MINOR LOSSES
The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends, elbows,
tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes. These
components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses because of
the flow separation and mixing they induce.
𝒗𝟐 For all types of pipe fittings and

Minor losses: 𝒉𝒎 = 𝑲𝑳 𝟐𝒈 valves
(𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐 )𝟐
For sudden expansion : 𝒉𝒎 =
𝟐𝒈

68
(a) gate valve; (b) globe valve; (c) angle valve; (d) ball valve; (e) swing check valve

69
7.3 Pipes connection

7.3.1 Pipes in series
Q = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓1 + ℎ𝑓2 + ℎ𝑓3
7.3.2 Pipes in parallel
Q = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓1 = ℎ𝑓2 = ℎ𝑓3
7.4 Pump working in Bernoulli Equation

A pump is used in a flow system to increase the energy of the fluid. The work
supplies to the pump is called shaft power (Ws), it is the actual power consumed by the
pump to generate the required head and volumetric flow rate. Since the shaft work
must be discounted by these frictional losses to give the net mechanical energy as actually
delivered to the fluid by the pump which is called water power (Wp). A pump efficiency
denoted by (η) can be expressed as:
𝑊𝑝 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑) 𝜌 𝑔 𝑄 𝐻𝑝
η= = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑊𝑝 = η. 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 (𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) 𝑊𝑠
The mechanical efficiency (η) decreases as the liquid viscosity and hence the
frictional losses increase. The mechanical efficiency is also decreased by power losses in
gear, Bering, seals, etc. These losses are not proportional to pump size. Relatively large
pumps tend to have the best efficiency whilst small pumps usually have low efficiencies.
Furthermore high-speed pumps tend to be more efficient than low-speed pumps.
Problem (7.4) Water at 10°C flows from a large reservoir to a smaller one through a 5-
cmdiameter cast iron piping system, as shown in Fig. below. Determine the elevation z1
for a flow rate of 6 L/s. Take the dynamic viscosity 0.0013 pa.s.

‫‪70‬‬

71
Problem (7.5) Water at 15°C is to be discharged from a reservoir at a rate of 18 L/s using
two horizontal cast iron pipes connected in series and a pump between them. The first pipe
is 20 m long and has a 6-cm diameter, while the second pipe is 35 m long and has a 4-cm
diameter. The water level in the reservoir is 30 m above the centerline of the pipe. The
pipe entrance is sharp-edged, and losses associated with the connection of the pump are
negligible. Determine the required pumping head and the minimum pumping power to
maintain the indicated flow rate.

72
Problem (7.6) A certain part of cast iron piping of a water distribution system involves a
parallel section. Both parallel pipes have a diameter of 30 cm, and the flow is fully
turbulent. One of the branches (pipe A) is 1000 m long while the other branch (pipe B) is
3000 m long. If the flow rate through pipe A is 0.4 m3/s, determine the flow rate through
pipe B. Disregard minor losses and assume the water temperature to be 15°C. Show that
the flow is fully turbulent, and thus the friction factor is independent of Reynolds number.
3.14
𝐴= (0.3)2 = 0.0706 𝑚2
4
𝑄 0.4
𝑉𝐴 = = = 5.66 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 0.0706
𝑄𝐵 = 𝐴. 𝑉𝐵 = 0.0706 × 3.267 = 0.231 𝑚3 /𝑠
Problem (7.7) Water with viscosity 0.001 pa.s, is pumped between two water reservoirs at
0.015 m3/s through 100 m of 50 mm diameter cast iron pipe and several minor losses, as
shown in figure below. Compute the pumping power required.

‫‪73‬‬

74
Problem(7.8) Water flows down from an upper closed tank to a lower closed tank with a
rate of flow 0.005 m3/s through piping system with different lengths and diameters pipes
all made from cast iron, as shown in figure below. Take 𝜇 = 0.001 𝑝𝑎. 𝑠 and Consider the
major and minor losses . Calculate:
1) The pressure difference between point A and B
2) If the Tank A is open to atmosphere and the atmospheric pressure equal 101.3 kpa,
what will be the pressure at tank B.

75
Problem 7.9: In Fig. below there are 125 m length and 20 cm diameter pipe made from
cast iron. There are two 90° elbows and an open globe valve. If the exit elevation is zero,
the roughness ratio is ε/d = 0.001 . What power is extracted by the turbine when the flow
rate is 0.03 m3/s . (take μ = 0.001 pa.s)

76
Problem (7.10)
Water at 20°C is pumped from a tank to an elevated tank at the rate of 0.005 m3/s.
All the piping in the Figure below is 0.1023 m in diameter. The pump has an efficiency of
η= 0.65. Calculate the kW power needed for the pump. The pipes are made from wrought
iron, Take μ= 0.001 Pa.s. Neglect minor losses.

77
Chapter Eight: Pumping of fluids

Pumps are devices for supplying energy or head to a flowing liquid in order to
overcome head losses due to friction and also if necessary, to raise liquid to a higher
level. For the pumping of liquids or gases from one vessel to another or through long
pipes, some form of mechanical pump is usually employed. The energy required by
the pump will depend on the height through which the fluid is raised, the pressure
required at the delivery point, the length and diameter of the pipe, the rate of flow,
together with the physical properties of the fluid, particularly its viscosity and density.
8.1 System Heads:

The important heads to consider in a pumping system are:
1- Suction head
2- Discharge head
3- Total head
4- Net positive suction head (NPSH)
8.1.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)- Centrifugal Pump

When pumping liquids, it is possible for the local pressure inside the pump
to fall below the vapor pressure of the liquid, Pv. (Pv is also called the saturation
pressure Psat and is listed in thermodynamics tables as a function of
saturation temperature.) When Psuction < Pv, vapor-filled bubbles called cavitation
bubbles appear. In other words, the liquid boils locally, typically on the suction side of the
rotating impeller blades where the pressure is lowest. After the cavitation bubbles are
formed, they are transported through the pump to regions where the pressure is higher,
causing rapid collapse of the bubbles. It is this collapse of the bubbles that is undesirable,
since it causes noise, vibration, reduced efficiency, and most importantly, damage to
the impeller blades. Repeated bubble collapse near a blade surface leads to
pitting or erosion of the blade and eventually catastrophic blade failure. To avoid
cavitation, we must ensure that the local pressure everywhere inside the pump stays above
the vapor pressure.
𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 − 𝑽𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑵𝑷𝑺𝑯 = − 𝑺𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 ∓ 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝝆. 𝒈
𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝒗
𝑵𝑷𝑺𝑯 = ( ) − (𝒉𝑳 )𝒔 ∓ 𝒁𝒔
𝝆. 𝒈

78
Problem 8.1: A petroleum product is pumped at a rate of 2.525 x 10-3 m3/s from a
reservoir under atmospheric pressure to 1.83 m height. If the pump 1.32 m height from the
reservoir, the discharge line diameter is 4 cm. The absolute pressure at the end of the
discharge line 446.32 kPa. The total losses along the suction pipe is 0.4 m and along the
discharge pipe is 0.4 m and the pump efficiency η=0.6 calculate:- (i) The total head of the
system Hp. (ii) The actual shaft power supplied to the pump. (iii) The NPSH. Take that:
the density of this petroleum product ρ=879 kg/m3, the dynamic viscosity μ=6.47 x 10-4
Pa.s, and the vapor pressure Pv= 24.15 kPa.

79
8.2 Pump performance and characteristic curve

The maximum volume flow rate through a pump occurs when its net head is
zero, H=0; this flow rate is called the pump’s free delivery. The free
delivery condition is achieved when there is no flow restriction at the pump
inlet or outlet—in other words when there is no load on the pump. At this
operating point, Q is large, but H is zero; the pump’s efficiency is zero
because the pump is doing no useful work. At the other extreme, the shutoff head is the
net head that occurs when the volume flow rate is zero, Q=0, and is achieved when the
outlet port of the pump is blocked off. Under these conditions, H is large but Q is zero; the
pump’s efficiency is again zero, because the pump is doing no useful
work. Between these two extremes, from shutoff to free delivery, the
pump’s net head may increase from its shutoff value somewhat as the flow
rate increases, but H must eventually decrease to zero as the volume flow
rate increases to its free delivery value. The pump’s efficiency reaches its
maximum value somewhere between the shutoff condition and the free
delivery condition; this operating point of maximum efficiency is appropriately called the
best efficiency point (BEP), and is notated by an asterisk (H*, Q*, bhp*). Curves of H,
hpump, and bhp as functions of Q are called pump performance curves (or
characteristic curves); typical curves at one rotational speed are plotted in Fig.7.2. The
pump performance curves change with rotational speed. It is important to realize that for
steady conditions, a pump can operate only along its performance curve. Thus, the
operating point of a piping system is determined by matching system requirements (required
net head) to pump performance (available net head). In a typical application, Hrequired and H available
match at one unique value of flow rate—this is the operating point or duty point of the system
see (Fig. 7.3)
Fig. 7.2 Typical pump performance curves

for a centrifugal pump

80
Fig. 7.3 The operating point of a piping Fig. 7.3 The volume flow rate at which the
system is established as the volume flow rate actual NPSH and the required NPSH
where the system curve and the pump intersect represents the maximum flow
performance curve intersect rate that can be delivered by the pump
without the occurrence of cavitation.
Problem (8.2): The performance data for a centrifugal water pump are shown in Table
below for water at 20°C. (a) For each row of data, calculate the pump efficiency (percent).
(b) Estimate the volume flow rate (Lpm) and net head (m) at the BEP of the pump. (c) plot
the pump’s performance data: H (m), bhp (W), and h pump (percent) as functions of Q
(Lpm). (d) Suppose the pump is used in a piping system that has the system requirement
Hrequired = (Z2 - Z1) + b.Q2, where the elevation difference (Z2-Z1)= 10 m, and coefficient b
=0.0185 m/(Lpm)2. Estimate the operating point of the system, namely, Qoperating (Lpm)
and Hoperating (m).
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑄. 𝐻𝑝
η= =
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙.
6
1000.9.81. (60000) . 46.2
= = 0.319
142
𝒂)η %
0
31.9
54.4
64.8
59.7
42.2
0

81
c)
d) 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑞. = 10 + 0.0185 𝑄2
Q Hreq.
0 10
10 11.85
20 17.4
30 26.65
40 39.6
8.3 Pumps in Series and Parallel

When faced with the need to increase volume flow rate or pressure rise by a small amount,
you might consider adding an additional smaller pump in series or in parallel with the
original pump.
1- In series:
Htotal= H1 + H2
Q total = Q1 = Q2
2- In parallel:

82
2-In Parallel
Htotal= H1 = H2
Q total = Q1 + Q2
Problem (8.3): Two similar water pumps are arranged in series. The performance data for
pump and system is shown in table below. Plot the curves needed to specify combined
shutoff head, free delivery and operating point of the two pumps working together in
series.
Havailable (m) H required (m) Q (m3/hr)
50 35 0
49.5 37 25
48.5 40 50
48 43.5 75
46.5 46.5 100
44 50.5 125
42 54.5 150
39.5 59.5 175
36 66 200
32.5 72.5 225
28.5 80 250
H (total in
series m)
120
100 Pump1
99 Pumps in series
100 H req.
97
96 80
93
H (m)
60
88
84
40
79
72 20
65
57 0
0 100 200 300
Q(m3/hr)

83
Problem (8.4): Two similar water pumps are arranged in series. The performance data for
pump and system is shown in table below. Plot the curves needed to specify combined
shutoff head, free delivery and operating point of the two pumps working together in
parallel.
Havailable (m) H required (m) Q (m3/hr)
40 20 0
35 25 244
30 30 372
25 35 470
45
Q (total in Pump1
H req.
parellel) 40 Pumps in parellel
35
0
H (m)
30
488
744 25
940 20
15
0 500 1000
Q (m3/hr)

84
Chapter Nine: Momentum of flow system

9.1 Newton’s Laws and Conservation of Momentum
Newton’s laws are relations between motions of bodies and the forces acting on
them. Newton’s first law states that a body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion
remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path when the net force acting on it is
zero. Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia. Newton’s second law states
that the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is inversely
proportional to its mass. Newton’s third law states that when a body exerts a force on a
second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. Therefore,
the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on the body taken as the system. For a
rigid body of mass m, Newton’s second law is expressed as
where F is the net force acting on the body and a is the acceleration of the body under the
influence of F.
9.2 The Linear Momentum Equation
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to a net force F is expressed as:
where (mV) is the linear momentum of the system. Noting that both the density and velocity
may change from point to point within the system, Therefore, Newton’s second law can be
stated as the sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the system. This statement is valid for a coordinate system
that is at rest or moves with a constant velocity
9.1

‫‪85‬‬
‫‪9.2‬‬

‫‪86‬‬
‫‪9.3‬‬

‫‪87‬‬

88
9.3 Free jet is deflected by a blade surface
Problem 9.4

89
8.4 Force exerted by a jet on a stationary vertical plate:

Problem (9.5) Water is accelerated by a nozzle to an average speed of 20 m/s, and strikes
a stationary vertical plate at a rate of 10 kg/s with a normal velocity of 20 m/s (Fig.
below). After the strike, the water stream splatters off in all directions in the plane of the
plate. Determine the force needed to prevent the plate from moving horizontally due to the
water stream.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌. 𝑄(𝑉2𝑥 − 𝑉1𝑥 )
−𝐹𝑥 = 10(0 − 20) = 200 𝑁
8.5 Force exerted by a jet on a stationary cover plate:

A)
-FX = ρ .Q [-V2 Cos θ – V1]x
FY = ρ. Q [V2 Sin θ - 0]y
B)
-FX = ρ. Q [-V2 Cos θ – V1 Cos θ]x
FY = ρ. Q [V2 Sin θ – V1 Sin θ]y

90
Problem(9.6):
3.14
𝐴= (0.05)2 = 0.00196 𝑚2
4
Q= V.A= 15× 0.00196= 0.0294 m3/s
-FX = ρ. Q [-V2 Cos β – V1 Cos α]x
= 1000× 0.0294(-15 cos 45 – 15 cos 30)
Fx = 693.75 N
FY = ρ. Q [V2 Sin β – V1 Sin α]y
Fy = 1000 × 0.0294 (15 sin 45 -15 sin 30) = 91.33 N
𝐹𝑅 = √(693.75)2 + (91.33)2 = 699.73 𝑁

91
CHAPTER TEN: Fluid Flow Measurements

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Venturimeter
10.2.1 Expression for Rate of Flow through Venturimeter

92
10.2.2Value of "h" given by differential U-tube manometer

‫‪93‬‬
‫‪10.1‬‬

‫‪94‬‬

‫‪95‬‬

96
10.3 Flow through an Orifice
10.3.1 Hydrolic Coefficients
Coefficients of Contraction (Cc):

97
Coefficient of velocity (Cv):
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd):

‫‪98‬‬

99
10.4 Pitot and Pitot-Static Probes

Pitot probes (also called Pitot tubes), Pitot-static probes (Fig.below) measures
local velocity by measuring the pressure difference in conjunction with the Bernoulli
equation. It consists of a slender double-tube aligned with the flow and connected to a
differential pressure meter. The inner tube is fully open to flow at the nose, and thus it
measures the stagnation pressure at that location (point 1). The outer tube is sealed at the
nose, but it has holes on the side of the outer wall (point 2) and thus it measures the static
pressure. For incompressible flow with sufficiently high velocities (so that the frictional
effects between points 1 and 2 are negligible), the Bernoulli equation is applicable and can
be expressed as
Noting that z1 = z2 since the static pressure holes of the Pitot-static probe are
arranged circumferentially around the tube and V1 = 0 because of the stagnation
conditions, the flow velocity V = V2 becomes
Measuring flow velocity with a Pitot static probe. (A manometer may also be used in place of the
differential pressure transducer.)

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Fluid Mechanics Lab. Ass.Lec. Maha Ali
Techniques Department
Experiment (1): Measurement of Density

Aim of experiment:
To determine the density of a known liquid (water)

To identify an unknown liquid by determining its density
Theory:
The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is

its mass per unit volume. In this laboratory, you will practice taking measurements
and recording them to the correct degree of uncertainty while determining the density
of various samples. Density can be calculated using the equation:
Materials Needed:
- 100-mL (or 50 mL) graduated cylinder

50-mL beaker
Eyedropper
Metric ruler
Samples of known and unknown liquids
Samples of regular and irregular solid
Digital gram scale
Procedure:
Part A: (Density of Liquids)
1. Obtain approximately 30 mL of known liquid using a small beaker.

2. Place a clean, dry and empty 50 to 100 mL beaker onto a digital scale. To “Zero”
the digital scale with the graduated cylinder on it, press the “Re-Zero” or “Tare”
button.
1
3. Place the liquid into the dry beaker (from step 1). Determine and record the mass
of the liquid using the digital scale. Re-zero the scale.
6. Repeat the procedure, this time using approximately 8 mL of the liquid.
7. Repeat the procedure, this time using approximately 10 mL of the liquid.
8. Using your mass and volume measurements, determine the density of the liquid
for each liquid sample.
9. Calculate the average density value.
10.Calculate the % Error .
Part B: (Different liquid)

1. Empty and dry the beaker.
2. Record the number (or name) of new liquid.
3. Repeat the above steps using the new liquid.
4. Identify the liquid density.
RESULTS:
Part A:
1. sample __Water_______
2. True value of density for the known sample __1000__ Kg/m3
(1) (2) (3)

Mass of liquid
Volume of liquid
Density of liquid
3. Average density of liquid* ______g/mL

4 . Percent error* ______%
Part B:
1. Sample __olive oil__
2. True value of density for the known sample ___850___K g/m3
(1) (2) (3)

Mass of liquid
Volume of liquid
Density of liquid
3. Average density of liquid* ______g/mL

4 . Percent error* ______%
2
GRAPH:
Plot the mass (g) vs. volume (ml)
DISCUSSION:
1- How will we know if a substance is less dense than water?

2- How does the temperature affect density?
3- What factors affect density?
4- Which liquid has the greatest density?
5- Identify at least two possible sources of error in the procedure used to
determine
the density
3
Fluid Mechanics Lab. Ass.Lec. Maha Ali
Experiment (2): Determination of the viscosity

Aim of experiment:
The object of this fluid property experiment was to determine the viscosity of a
particular homogenous fluid using the falling sphere viscometer method.
Theory:
Viscosity is a fluid property defined as the fluid’s resistance to an externally applied

shear. From this definition, it is implied that a fluid will resist any change in form. If a
solid object is placed in a fluid that has a lesser density, the object will fall through the
fluid medium. As the object falls, it exerts a shear force on the fluid. Thus, the fluid is
displaced and exerts a force on the object. The forces present during this process are
weight due to gravity, the buoyant force and the drag force as shown below in a force
balance equation (Equation 1, below).
4
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑊) = 𝑚𝑏 . 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑏 . 𝑉𝑏 . 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑏 . ( 𝜋𝑟 3 ). 𝑔
3
4
Buoyant force (FB) = 𝑚𝑓 . 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑉𝑏 . 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑓 . (3 𝜋𝑟 3 ). 𝑔
Drag force (FD) = 6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑢
4 4
𝜌𝑏 . ( 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑓 . ( 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . 𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑢 = 0
3 3
4
6𝜋𝜇𝑟𝑢 = (3 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . 𝑔(𝜌𝑏 − 𝜌𝑓 )
𝟐. 𝒈. 𝒓𝟐
𝝁= (𝝆𝒃 − 𝝆𝒇 )
𝟗. 𝒖
Where:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑 𝑚

𝑢= = ( )
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑠
1
Experiment procedure:
1) Measure the diameter of the balls with the calipers and record the measurements
onto a data sheet. Make note of the density of the material used.
2) Fill a transparent tube with a particular fluid of a known density. Affixed to the
tube should be a ruler so that velocity measurements can be made.
3) Drop one stainless steel ball into the fluid filled cylinder and observe the position
relative to the ruler at which the ball achieves terminal velocity. Let this point be the
initial point from which time measurements are made. Assign another arbitrary point
at which the time measurement will record. When the ball reaches the assigned point
for beginning time measurements, start a stopwatch. Stop the stopwatch when the ball
has reached the assigned terminus.
4) Use the velocity calculated in Step 3, the respective densities of the fluid and
sphere, radius of the sphere and gravitational acceleration. Rearrange the expression
algebraically to solve for the viscosity, µ.
2
Results:
Ball Density 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑏 =. . . … ( )
𝑚3
Ball Diameter D= …….. (mm)=…….. (m)
Fluid Density 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑓 =. . . … ( 3 )
𝑚
distance d= …….. (cm) = ……. (m)
Time t= ……. (sec)
Viscosity of fluid* ______ Pa.s
Percent error* ______%
Discussion
1-What does fluid viscosity depend on?
2- What makes a liquid viscous? Why are some liquids more viscous than others?
2- In the experiment, if using a large ball, is the viscosity will be changed? Why?
3- If the temperature increases, what will happen to the dynamic viscosity?
4- What are the errors in this experiment?
3
Experiment (3): Center of Pressure
Aim of experiment:
 To determine experimentally the resultant hydrostatic force (total force)

applied on a submerged surface.
 To determine the experimental and the theoretical center of pressure.
Theory:
The center of pressure is defined as the point of application of the resultant

hydrostatic force applied on the plane. As the pressure varies with the distance from
the liquid free surface, the pressure center will not coincide with the centroid of the
plane. Thus the experiment also compares the locations of the center of pressure with
respect to the centroid.
Fig.(1): Centre of pressure apparatus
Refer to Figure 1, which contains a photograph of the experimental apparatus. In the

figure, the force, F, is acting on the area A = B.D, where B is the width of the gate and
D is the height. This force is defined by:
𝐹 = 𝜌. 𝑔. ℎ𝑐 . 𝐴
Where:
F= force acting on the gate
1
𝜌= density of liquid Kg/m3
𝑔= gravity force
ℎ𝑐 = centre of gravity
A= area of the gate
Fully Submerged Surfaces:
d1
H hc
d2 hp
W
𝐖 B.W3
F = ρ. g. hc . A , hc = 𝐝𝟐 − , Ic = , A=B×W
𝟐 12
Ic
(hp )th. = + hc
hc . A
*To evaluate the centre of pressure experimentally:
m. g . L = F. H
(hp )exp. = H − d1
(ℎ𝑝 ) 𝑡ℎ.−(ℎ𝑝 )𝑒𝑥𝑝

Error = |
(ℎ𝑝 ) 𝑡ℎ
| × 100
2
Procedure:
1. Before starting, be sure that the zero line on the back panel lines up
with the center of rotation and the zero degree line on the tank.
2. Also, level the base plate.
3. With the quadrant tank empty, place a 50g weight on the weight hanger. Pour water
into the quadrant tank until zero balance is reestablished. Record the weight.
4- Read the depth of immersion from the scale on the face of the quadrant.
5- Repeat the experiment by adding more weights (increments of 50g should work
fine) until you have at least two measurements in which the vertical face is completely
submerged.
6- Calculate the magnitudes and locations of the forces for each weight
combination.
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS:
B= …….. mm , W= ……. mm , L= ……… mm
Area= ………. m2 , Ic= ……….. m4
No. m (kg) d2 (m) hc (m) (hp)th (m) H (m) d1 (m) (hp)exp.(m) Error%
1
2
3
4
GRAPH:
1 . Plot a graph between (hp) exp.(at x-axis) and (hp) th. (at y-axis).
DISCUSSION:
1. What does center of pressure depend on?

2. Specify where the center of pressure lie with respect to the wetted
centroid of the plane and why? In what case does one expect them to coincide?
3. Discuss the results.
3
Experiment (4): Flow Measurement
1
Discussion:
1- How can you increase the rate of flow?
2- Why do we need to measure the flow rate?
3- Mention the possible sources of error in this experiment.
2
Experiment (5): REYNOLDS NUMBER

Aim of experiment:
• To observe the characteristics of the flow of a fluid in a pipe, this may be laminar,
transitional or turbulent flow by measuring the Reynolds number and the behavior of
the flow.
• To calculate and identify Reynolds number (Re) for the laminar, transitional and
turbulent flow.
THEORY:
Reynolds number 'Re' is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force where
viscous force is shear stress multiplied area and inertia force is mass multiplied
acceleration. Reynolds determined that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
occurs at a definite value of the dimensionally property, called Reynolds number:
Where:
v = flow velocity (m/s)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
d = inside diameter of pipe section (m)
µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
A = cross sectional area of the pipe (m2)
= kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Reynolds carried out experiments to decide limiting value of Reynold's number to a

quantitatively decide whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. The limits are as given
below:
•Laminar when Re < 2300
•Transition when 2300 < Re < 4000
•Turbulent when Re > 4000
1
Fig.(1): Three flow regimes: (a) laminar, (b) transitional & (c) turbulent
The motion is laminar or turbulent according to the value of Re is less than or greater
than a certain value. If experiments are made with decreasing rate of flow, the value
of Re depends on degree of care which is taken to eliminate the disturbances in the
supply or along the pipe. On the others hand, if experiments are made with decreasing
flow, transition from turbulent to laminar flow takes place at a value of Re which is
very much depends on initial disturbances. The valve of Re is about 2000 for flow
through circular pipe and below this the flow is laminar in nature. The velocity at
which the flow in the pipe changes from one type of motion to the other is known as
critical velocity.
APPARATUS
1- Reynolds Demonstration Apparatus

2- Stop watch
3- Dye
4- Thermometer
5- Measuring cylinder
Fig.(2):Reynolds apparatus
2
PROCEDURES:
1- Firstly, the apparatus is set up and measure and note down diameter of pipe
and also room temperature. The metering tap (dye flow control valve) must be
closed.
2- Open the control valve slightly to produce a low rate of flow into the test pipe
section.
3- Open the metering tap and the dye is allowed to flow from the nozzle at the
entrance of the channel until a colored stream is visible along the test pipe
section. The velocity of water flow should be increased if the dye accumulates
around the nozzle.
4- Adjust the water flow until a laminar flow pattern which is a straight thin line
or streamline of dye is able to be seen along the whole test pipe section.
5- Collect the time in seconds for a specific volume of colored waste water that
flows down at the outlet pipe. The volume flow rate is calculated from the
volume and a known time.
6- Repeat step 5-6 with increasing rate of flow by opening the drain cock and the
flow pattern of the fluid is observed as the flow changes from laminar to
transition and turbulent. Take five to six readings till the dye stream in the test
pipe section breaks up and gets diffused in water.
CALCULATION AND RESULTS:
Inside diameter of pipe section, d= m
Cross sectional area of the pipe, A = ____________m2
Density of water, ρ = _________ kg/m3
Kinematics viscosity of water at room temperature,  = ______ m2/s (see Table 1 )
Average room temperature, Ө = _________ºC
3
Graph:
Plot a graph between velocity (x- axis) and Reynolds number (y-axis), then specify
the different region of flow.
Discussion:
1- What is Reynolds’s number on what factors does it depend?

2- How do you increase Reynolds number?
3- Discuss if the Re number calculated for each region is within acceptable
intervals.
4- Does temperature affect Reynolds number?

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‫هندسة تقنيات ميكانيك القىي‬

1- Frank M. White, “Fluid Mechanics”, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,2010

Example: Convert the following quantity:

1- 12 (L/min) to (m3/s) , 2- 33 (KN/cm2) to (N/m2) , 3- 10 (lb/ft3) to (Kg/m3)

12 L 1 m3 1 min 33 KN 1000 N 104 cm2 10 lb 1 Kg (3.28)3 ft3

= 12 / (60000) = 0.0002 m3/s = 33*107 N/m2 = 10*3.283/ 2.2

Density of Water (𝛒) = 1000 Kg/m3 in SI units

= 62.4 lb/ft3 in UN units

Density of Air (𝛒) = 1.225 Kg/m3 in SI units

= 0.076 lb/ft3 in UN units

Gravitational acceleration (g) = 9.81 m/s2 in SI unit

= 32.17 ft/s2 in UN unit

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Chapter One: Introduction to fluid mechanics

The fluid mechanics can be divided into three parts:

Statics. The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is called

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics:

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1.2 Properties of Fluids:

1- Mass Density (𝝆)

Mass per unit volume at a standard temperature and pressure:

2- Weight Density or specific weight (𝜸)

4- Specific gravity (S)

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From the geometry of Fig. 1.1a we see that,

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There are two types of viscosity:

a- Dynamic viscosity (𝝁)

Also the viscosity can be measured in (poise) (1 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 = 10 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒)

b- Kinematic viscosity (𝒗)

It is the dynamic viscosity per mass density:

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‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

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‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

‫اعداد‪ :‬م‪ .‬مها علي‬

1.6 Vapor Pressure:

-Vapor pressure increases with temperature.

There are two ways to boil a liquid:

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Figure: Pump Cavitation

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Chapter Two: Pressure Measurement

Hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is:

Fig.(2.1): pressure on a fluid element at rest

𝑃𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥. 1 − 𝑃𝑠 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠. 1 − 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉 = 0

𝑃𝑦 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑑𝑠 − 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑉 = 0 w= neglect(very small)

2.3 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest:

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2.4 Absolute, Gage, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressure

3- Vacuum pressure: is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

4- Absolute pressure: is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to

Fig.(2.3): Relation between pressure

(1) Gauge pressure= Absolute pressure(Pabs) – Atmospheric pressure(Patm)

= 12 / (60000) = 0.0002 m3/s = 33107 N/m2 = 103.283/ 2.2