INTRODUCTION

TO
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
STUDY MATERIAL

PREPARED BY
1. Dr. T. P. Mohapatra (Course Co-ordinator)
2. Dr. R. R. Chand
3. Dr. S. Mozammil
4. Dr. B. C. Behera
5. Dr. S. K. Rout

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

C. V. RAMAN GLOBAL UNIVERSITY,
BHUBANESWAR
C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

MODULE-1

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (ME131)

Module 1 (10 hrs)
Statics of Particles: Force, Classification & representation, Force as a vector, Parallelogram
law, Resolution and composition of forces, Principle of superposition, and Transmissibility
of forces.
Statics of Rigid bodies: Equilibrium of coplanar force system, Free body diagrams,
Determination of reactions, Equilibrium of a body under three forces, Lami’s theorem.
Moment of a force about a point and an axis, Moment of coplanar force system, Varignon’s
theorem.
Friction: Introduction, Limiting friction, Angle of friction, Laws of dry friction, Friction in
inclined planes, Angle of repose, Cone of friction.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.1. Introduction
The state of rest and state of motion of the bodies under the action of different forces has
engaged the attention of philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists for many centuries.
The branch of physical science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or the
state of motion of bodies under the action of forces is termed Mechanics. Starting from the
analysis of rigid bodies under gravitational force and simply applied forces the mechanics
has grown to the analysis of robotics, aircraft, and spacecraft under dynamic forces,
atmospheric forces, temperature forces, etc. Archimedes (287–212 BC), Galileo (1564–
1642), Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), and Einstein (1878–1955) have contributed a lot to
the development of mechanics. Contributions by Varignon, Euler, D. Alembert are also
substantial. The mechanics developed by these researchers may be grouped as
(i) Classical mechanics/Newtonian mechanics
(ii) Relativistic mechanics
(iii) Quantum mechanics/Wave mechanics.
Sir Issac Newton, the principal architect of mechanics, consolidated the philosophy and
experimental findings developed around the state of rest and motion of the bodies and put
forth them in the form of three laws of motion as well as the law of gravitation. The
mechanics based on these laws is called Classical mechanics or Newtonian mechanics.
Albert Einstein proved that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain the behavior of high-
speed (speed of light) bodies. He put forth the theory of Relativistic Mechanics.
Schrödinger (1887–1961) and Broglie (1892–1965) showed that Newtonian mechanics
fails to explain the behavior of particles when atomic distances are concerned. They put
forth the theory of Quantum Mechanics. Engineers are keen to use the laws of mechanics
to actual field problems. Application of laws of mechanics to field problems is termed as
Engineering Mechanics. For all the problems between atomic distances to high-speed
distances Classical/Newtonian mechanics has stood the test of time and hence that is the
mechanics used by engineers. Hence in this text, classical mechanics is used for the
analysis of engineering problems.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.2. Classification of Engineering Mechanics

Depending upon the body to which the mechanics is applied, the engineering mechanics is
classified as
(a) Mechanics of Solids, and
(b) Mechanics of Fluids.
The classification of mechanics is summarized below in a flow chart.

The solid mechanics is further classified as mechanics of rigid bodies and mechanics of
deformable bodies. The body that will not deform or the body in which deformation can be
neglected in the analysis are called Rigid bodies. The mechanics of the rigid bodies dealing
with the bodies at rest is termed Statics and those dealing with bodies in motion is called
Dynamics. The dynamics dealing with the problems without referring to the forces causing
the motion of the body is termed as Kinematics and if it deals with the forces causing motion
also, is called Kinetics. If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be studied, the
deformation of the body should be considered. This field of mechanics is called Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies/ Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics. This field may be further
divided into Theory of Elasticity and Theory of Plasticity. Liquid and gases deform
continuously with application of very small shear forces. Such materials are called Fluids.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

The mechanics dealing with behavior of such materials is called Fluid Mechanics. Mechanics
of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid, and mechanics of incompressible fluids are further
classified in this area.
1.3. Basic Terminologies
The following are the terms basic to study mechanics, which should be understood clearly:
Mass
The quantity of the matter possessed by a body is called mass. The mass of a body will not
change unless the body is damaged and part of it is physically separated. When a body is
taken out in a spacecraft, the mass will not change but its weight may change due to change in
gravitational force. Even the body may become weightless when gravitational force vanishes
but the mass remains the same.
Time
Time is the measure of succession of events. The successive event selected is the rotation of
earth about its own axis and this is called a day. To have convenient units for various
activities, a day is divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60
seconds. Clocks are the instruments developed to measure time. To overcome difficulties due
to irregularities in the earth’s rotation, the unit of time is taken as second, which is defined as
the duration of 9192631770 period of radiation of the cesium-133 atom.
Space
The geometric region in which study of body is involved is called space. A point in the space
may be referred to with respect to a predetermined point by a set of linear and angular
measurements. The reference point is called the origin and the set of measurements as
‘coordinates’. If coordinates involve only in mutually perpendicular directions, they are
known as Cartesian coordinates. If the coordinates involve angles and distances, it is termed
as polar coordinate system.
Length
It is a concept to measure linear distances. The diameter of a cylinder may be 300 mm, and
the height of a building may be 15 m. Actually, the meter is the unit of length. However,
depending upon the sizes involved micro, milli or kilo meter units are used for measurement.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

A meter is defined as length of the standard bar of platinum-iridium kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures. To overcome difficulties of accessibility and reproduction,
now meter is defined as 1690763.73 wavelength of krypton-86 atom.
Displacement
Displacement is defined as the distance moved by a body/particle in the specified direction.
Velocity
The rate of change of displacement with respect to time is defined as velocity.
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Momentum
The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. Thus Momentum = Mass × Velocity
Continuum
A body consists of several matters. It is a well-known fact that each particle can be subdivided
into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not possible to solve any engineering problem by
treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles. The body is assumed to consist
of a continuous distribution of matter. In other words, the body is treated as continuum.
Rigid Body

A body is said to be rigid if the relative positions of any two particles in it do not change
under the action of the forces. In above Fig. (a) points A and B are the original positions in a
body. After application of a system of forces F1, F2, and F3, the body takes the position as
shown in above Fig. (b). A′ and B′ are the new positions of A and B. If the body is treated as
rigid, the relative position of A′B′ and AB are the same i.e., A′B′ = AB.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Particle
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Such a body cannot
exist theoretically. However, in dealing with problems involving distances considerably larger
compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as particle, without sacrificing
accuracy. Examples of such situations are
 A bomber airplane is a particle for a gunner operating from the ground.
 A ship in mid sea is a particle in the study of its relative motion from a control tower.
 In the study of movement of the earth in celestial sphere, earth is treated as a particle.
Scalar quantities
These are the quantities characterized by only magnitude, such as mass, temperature.
Vector quantities
These are the quantities characterized by magnitude and direction, such as velocity, force. We
will indicate vector quantities by boldfaced letters.
Free vector
It is a vector, whose action is not confined to or associated with a unique line in space. Only,
the direction and magnitude of the vector remains fixed.
Unit Vector
It is a vector, whose magnitude is unity.
Equal Vectors
These are vectors, which are parallel to each other & same in magnitude.
Like Vector
These are vectors, which are parallel to each other, but not same in magnitude.
1.4. Laws of Mechanics
The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
 Newton’s first law of motion
 Newton’s second law of motion
 Newton’s third law of motion

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

 Newton’s law of gravitation

 Law of transmissibility of forces, and
 Parallelogram law of forces.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled by external agency acting on it. This leads to the definition of force as
the external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform linear
motion of the body.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it. Thus according to
this law, Force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum. But momentum =
mass × velocity
As mass do not change, Force ∝ mass × rate of change of velocity
i.e., Force ∝ mass × acceleration
F∝ m×a
Newton’s Third Law of Motion

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Consider the two bodies
in contact with each other. Let one body applies a force F on another. According to this law
the second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in magnitude to force F and acts
in the line same as F but in the opposite direction. Above Figures shows the action and the
reaction forces are associated with the ball and the ladder respectively.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Everybody attracts the other body. The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly
proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. According to this law the force of attraction between the bodies of mass m1 and mass
m2 at a distance d as shown in Fig. 1.5 is

Where, G is the constant of proportionality and is known as constant of gravitation.

1.5. Force
It is defined as any action that tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body to which it
is applied. Force is the action of one body on another. A force tends to move the body in the
direction of its action. The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, the direction of
its action, and its points of application. i.e. A force is completely defined when its
(i) Magnitude,
(ii) Direction,
(iii) Point of application
(iv) Line of action are well defined.
A force may be of following types. (i) Applied force.
(ii) Non-Applied force.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Non-Applied force may further categorize as (i) Self-weight.

(ii) Reaction.
System of Forces: When two or more than two forces are acting upon a body, they are called
to form a system of forces or force system.
The Force system can be classified as (i) Co-planner force system.
(ii) Non-Co planner force system.
System of forces

Coplanar forces Non-coplanar or spatial forces

Concurrent Parallel Non-current collinear concurrent parallel Non-concurrent

Or Non-parallel or Non-parallel

Like Unlike Like Unlike

Example in graphical form: P P

(1) Coplanar collinear forces:

P3 P4

(2) Coplanar concurrent forces: P1

P2

P1 P2 P3

(3) Coplanar parallel forces:

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

R1 R2
P2
(4) Coplanar non-concurrent forces: P1

R W
y
(5) Non-coplanar concurrent forces:

(6) Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces:

P3 P1

(7) Non-coplanar parallel forces:

1.6. Resultant Force

If a number of forces F1, F2, and F3, etc. are acting simultaneously on a particle may be
replaced by a single force, which will produce the same effect as produced by all the given
forces.
Single force Resultant force
F1, F2 and F3 Component forces

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

To find out the resultant force of a force system following methods are used.
(i) Analytical Method.
 Parallelogram Law.
 Triangle law of Forces.
 Methods of resolution & composition.
(ii) Graphical Method.
 Polygon Law of forces.
1.6.1. Parallelogram law of forces
“If two forces, acting at a point be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through that point”.
Consider two forces P and Q acting on a body at A as shown in fig1.4 (a). Let angel between
the two forces be α. The resultant R of these two forces is obtained by the diagonal AD of the
parallelogram ABDC, as shown in fig1.4 (a). The relationship between P, Q and R can be
derived as follows:
Drop perpendicular from D and let it meet O extend at point C. In Δ CAD, side CA is parallel
and equal to BD, i.e, it represents force P. The resultant R of P and Q is given by

R  AD  AO 2  OD 2   AC  CO 2  OD 2
But AC= P
CO= CD cosα= Qcosα
OD= CDsinα= Q sinα

R  P  Q cos    Q sin 
2 2

P 2  Q 2 cos2   2 PQ cos  Q 2 sin 2 

 P 2  Q 2 sin 2   cos2    2 PQ cos
P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

The inclination of the resultant R to the direction of force P is given by

OD OD .Q sin 
tan    
AO AC  CO P  Q cos
 Q sin  
  tan 1  
 P  Q cos 
Note: it is necessary that for the law of parallelogram for forces to be valid, one of the two
forces should be along the x-axis. The forces P and Q may be in any direction as shown in
Figure below.
If the angle between the forces is θ, then

R  P 2  Q 2  2PQ cos
The direction of the resultant will be
Q sin 
  tan 1
P  Q cos

1.6.2. Triangle law

If the two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides of a triangle
taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle in the
opposite order.
Remark: In the triangle of forces it must be carefully noted that the forces must be parallel to
the sides of a triangle taken in order, i.e. taken the same way round.
1.6.3. Lami's theorem

Fig. Coplanar and concurrent forces

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

If three forces coplanar and concurrent forces acting on a particle keep it in equilibrium, then
each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two and the constant of
proportionality is the same.
For the system shown in the above figure,

1.6.4. Resolution of forces

The replacement of a single force by several components which will be equivalent in action to
the given force is called resolution of force. In particular, cases where the two components act
at right angles to each other are called rectangular components.
Resolving a force into rectangular components:
A force F is to be resolved into two rectangular components
along x and y axes. The components Fx and Fy are obtained
using the parallelogram law,
if is the angle between F and x axis
Fx= F cosθ Fy= Sinθ
tanθ= Fy/Fx

F  Fx 2  Fy 2
When a vertical force F is resolved into components tangential and perpendicular to an
inclined plane, the component tangential to force is Ft= F sinα
Component vertical to force Fn= F cosα
1.6.5. Polygon Law of Forces
If a number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle be represented in magnitude and
direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order, their resultant may be represented
in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Where A, B, C and D are the forces and R = Resultant force.

1.7. Equation of equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium, when it is at a state of rest or it will continue to move
uniformly in a particular direction. In statics a body is at a state of rest under a system of
forces, when R=0.
A particle is in equilibrium if it is stationary or it moves uniformly relative to an inertial frame
of reference. A body is in equilibrium if all the particles that may be considered to comprise
the body are in equilibrium. One can study the equilibrium of a part of the body by isolating
the part for analysis. Such a body is called a free body. We make a free body diagram and
show all the forces from the surrounding that act on the body. Such a diagram is called a free-
body diagram. For example, consider a ladder resting against a smooth wall and floor. The
free body diagram of ladder is shown in the right.

Three forces are acting on the ladder. Gravitational pull of the earth (weight), W of the ladder,
reaction of the floor R2 and reaction of the wall R1. When a body is in equilibrium, the
resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus that resultant force R and the resultant couple
M R are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

These requirements are necessary and sufficient conditions.

Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent forces:
If all the forces in a system lie in a single plane and pass through a single point, then the
system constitutes a coplanar concurrent force system. The resultant R of a system of forces is
zero if and only if it's resolved components in two orthogonal directions x and y are zero.
Moment about the common point of forces is obviously zero.

Condition is necessary:
Let R make an angle α with the x-axis. The sum of the resolved components of the forces is
equal to the resolved component of resultant. Thus,

Condition is sufficient:
Squaring both equations and adding,

Hence, R will be zero.

It is not necessary that directions x and y should be orthogonal. Only the angle between them
should not be 00 or 1800. Necessity condition is obvious, because the resolved component of a
zero force in any direction is zero.
Types of Equilibrium: There are two types of Equilibrium,
(i) Static Equilibrium:
 Velocity, V=0, a=0
 F=0
 M=0
(ii) Dynamic Equilibrium:
 Linear Velocity, V= Const.
 Angular Velocity= Const.
Equilibrium of statics is also classified as

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

 Stable equilibrium.
 Unstable equilibrium.
 Neutral equilibrium.
1.8. Principle of transmissibility of forces:
The state of rest or of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting on the body is
replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the
body along the line of action of the applied forces. In the following animation, two rigid
blocks A and B are joined by a rigid rod. If the system is moving on a frictionless surface, the
acceleration of the system in both the cases is given by,

Acceleration=Applied force/total mass.

It is independent of the point of application
1.9. Law of superposition:
The action of a given system of forces on a rigid body will no way be changed if we add to or
subtract from another system of forces in equilibrium.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

A rigid boy AB is under the action of force P applied at A acting along BA as shown in fig.
If we add two equally opposite forces at point B which are in equilibrium, and collinear with
P, then also the action of three forces on the body is identical with the action of single force P.
Again if we remove the two equal and opposite forces P and P” from the system, then
equilibrium of the system will not be altered. This statement process the theorem of
transmissibility of a force.
1.10. Law of action and reaction:
Very often we have to investigate the conditions of equilibrium of bodies that are not entirely
free to move. Restriction to the free motion of a body in any direction is called constrain. A
body that is not entirely free to move and is acted upon by some applied force (or forces) will,
in general, exert pressures against its supports. These actions of a constrained body against its
supports induce reactions from the supports on the body, and as the fourth principle of statics
we take the following statement: Any pressure on a support causes an equal and opposite
pressure from the support so that action and reaction are two equal and opposite forces.
These are self-adjusting forces developed by the other bodies, which come in contact with
body under consideration. When two bodies come in contact, both apply equal and opposite
force on each other. If the contact surface is smooth, the force will be in the normal direction
of surface of contact. This is not true, if friction is present. For example, consider the
frictionless contact of the following bodies: One ball kept on the other ball. In this case the
contact forces will be along common normal.

A ladder, in this case, the reaction of the wall will be in the horizontal direction and that of
floor in the vertical direction. The pin joint can supply the reactive force in any direction. The
fixed joint supplies reactive force as well as moment.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.11. Constraints:
Restriction to free motion of a body in any direction is called constraint. e.g. A ball resting on
a horizontal plane is free to move along the plane, but cannot move vertically downward
direction as shown in fig. The ball exerts a vertical push against the surface of supporting
plane at the point of contact A. The actions of a constrained body against its support induce
reactions from the support on the body

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C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

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C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

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C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.12. Tension & Compression:

Tension:
It is the axial force of resistance, which opposes the elongation of a member (rod or string). It
is always away from the point of consideration & along the member. Strings are always in
tensions.

Compression:
It is the axial force of resistance, which opposes the contraction of a member (rod), under
external load. Direction of compressive resistance is always towards the point & along the
members.
1.13. Free body diagram
Free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated body, which shows the external forces on the
body and the reactions exerted on it by removed elements.
General procedure for constructing a free body diagram:
1. A sketch of the body is drawn, by removing the supporting surfaces.
2. Indicate on the sketch all the applied or active forces which tend to set the body in
motion. e.g. weight, applied forces
3. Also indicate the reactive forces caused by supports preventing motion. Sense of
unknown reaction should be assumed.
4. All relevant dimensions and angles, reference axes should be shown on sketch.

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C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.14. Lami’s therorem

If three concurrent forces are acting on a body, kept in equilibrium then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces and the constant of
proportionally is the same.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Let us consider forces P, Q and R acting at point O. Since the forces are in equilibrium, the
triangle made by the forces is closed.
Drawing the triangle of forces ΔABC corresponding to the forces P and R acting at O as
shown in fig.
The angles are
BAC    
CBA    
ACB    
From sine rule for triangle
P Q R
 
Sin    Sin    Sin   

 Sin π  α 
P Q R
 
Sinα Sinβ Sinγ
Sin π  β 
Sin π  γ 

e.g. a ball supported in a vertical plane by a string and a smooth wall.

Drawing the F.B.D. of the ball the three forces

Ra, S and W will make force triangle.
Lami’s theorem is applicable to three forces
W Ra S
 
Sin 90  α  Sin 180  α  Sin90
 S  WSecα
 R a  WTanα

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

1.15. Moment of a Force

The moment of a force about a point O is the cross product of r and F, where r is the position
vector of any point on the line of action of force with respect to O.
M=r×F

Just as force has a tendency to translate the body, moment has a tendency to rotate the body
about the point. Our sign convention will be as follows. If the force has tendency to rotate the
body in counterclockwise sense, moment is considered +ve. If the force has tendency to rotate
the body in clockwise sense, moment is considered -ve.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

A convenient way to find out the direction of moment is as follows. Imagine to stand on the
line of action of force , facing yourself in the direction of arrow. If the point O (about which
moment is desired) is towards your left, moment is positive. If the point is towards your right,
moment is negative.
Moment of a force about a point
Let us now consider a force F acting on a rigid body fig2.39. As we know, the force F is
represented by a vector which defines its magnitude and direction. However, the effect of the
force on the rigid body depends also upon its point of application A. The position of A can be
conveniently defined by the vector r which joins the fixed reference point O with A ; this
vector is known as the position vector of A. The position vector r and the force F define the
plane.
We will define the moment of F about O as the vector product of r and F:
Mo = r Х F

The moment MO must be perpendicular to the plane containing O

and the force F.
The sense of MO is defined by the sense of the rotation which will bring the vector r in line
with the vector F; this rotation will be observed as counterclockwise by an observer located at
the tip of MO. Another way of defining the sense of MO is furnished by a variation of the
right-hand rule: Close your right hand and hold it so that your fingers are curled in the sense
of the rotation that F would impart to the rigid body about a fixed axis directed along the line
of action of MO; your thumb will indicate the sense of the moment MO shown in fig.2.39.
Finally, denoting by u the angle between the lines of action of the position vector r and the
force F, we find that the magnitude of the moment of F about O is MO = r F Sin Ө = F d
where d represents the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of F . Since the
tendency of a force F to make a rigid body rotate about a fixed axis perpendicular to the force
depends upon the distance of F from that axis as well as upon the magnitude of F, we note

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

that the magnitude of MO measures the tendency of the force F to make the rigid body rotate
about a fixed axis directed along MO.
In the SI system of units, where a force is expressed in Newton (N) and a distance in
meter (m), the moment of a force is expressed in Newton-meter (N. m).
We can observe that although the moment MO of a force about a point depends upon
the magnitude, the line of action, and the sense of the force, it does not depend upon the actual
position of the point of application of the force along its line of action. Conversely, the
moment MO of a force F does not characterize the position of the point of application of F.
Problems Involving Only Two Dimensions: Many applications deal with two-dimensional
structures, i.e., structures which have length and breadth but only negligible depth and which
are subjected to forces contained in the plane of the structure. Two-dimensional structures and
the forces acting on them can be readily represented on a sheet of paper or on a blackboard.
Their analysis is therefore considerably simpler than that of three-dimensional structures and
forces. The sense of the moment of F about O in fig 2.40 (a) as counter clockwise, and in fig
2.40 (b) as clockwise

(a) Mo = +F d (b) Mo = -F d
Since the moment of a force F acting in the plane of the figure must be perpendicular to that
plane, we need only specify the magnitude and the sense of the moment of F about O. This
can be done by assigning to the magnitude MO of the moment a positive or negative sign
according to whether the vector MO points out of or into the paper.
Varignon's Theorem: Moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments
of the components of that force about the same point. To prove this theorem, consider the
force R acting in the plane of the body shown in Fig. 1.4. The forces P and Q represent any
two nonrectangular components of R. The moment of R about point O is M0= r × R

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

Because R = P+Q, we may write

r × R = r × (P +Q)
Using the distributive law for cross products, we have
M0 = r × R = r × P + r × Q
which says that the moment of R about O equals the sum of the moments about O of its
components P and Q . This proves the theorem.
Varignon's theorem need not be restricted to the case of two components, but it applies
equally well to three or more. where we take the clockwise moment sense to be positive.

Figure: Illustrating Varignon's theorem

1.16. Friction

Friction is the force distribution at the surface of contact between two bodies that prevents or
impedes sliding motion of one body relative to the other. This force distribution is tangent to
the contact surface and has, for the body under consideration, a direction at every point in the
contact surface that is in opposition to the possible or existing slipping motion of the body at
that point.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

See this animation. A force is applied to body sliding on the floor. After sometime, the force
is removed, but the body keeps moving, since it has already attained the velocity. However,
after some time the body comes to rest. It is the frictional force, which causes body to stop. If
the frictional force were not there, body would have kept moving.
If we want that body should keep moving at a constant speed, some force has to be applied to
overcome the frictional force. In the following animation, body is moving with constant
velocity on a rough surface. Note that, force is doing some work. This work, is however is
neither increasing the kinetic energy nor the potential energy of the block. Instead, it is wasted
as heat. In absence of friction no wastage of work. Friction has very positive benefits too! A
man moving on a slope got tired. For taking rest, he keeps the pot on the slope. Had friction
not there, pot would not have been able to rest on the slope. It would have slipped down.
Without friction, we cannot place anything on the floor. Even an ant will be able to push away
the object. In the following animation, an ant is pushing a heavy box, which is resting on a
frictionless surface. For stopping the automobile, we depend on the friction. Friction is needed
for some manufacturing processes. One such process is falt rolling, in which a sheet is passed
between two counter-rotating cylinders to reduces its thickness. Sheet is drawn by the friction
force.
Types of friction
(1) Dry friction
Dry friction occurs when the unlubricated (rough) surfaces of two solids are in contact under a
condition of sliding or a tendency to slide. A friction force tangential to the surfaces of contact
occurs both during the interval leading up to impending slippage and while slippage takes
place. The direction of this friction force always opposes the motion or impending motion.
This type of friction is also called Coulomb friction.
(2) Fluid friction
Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas) are moving at different
velocities. This motion causes frictional forces between fluid elements, and these forces
depend on the relative velocity between layers. When there is relative velocity between layers,

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

there is no fluid friction. Fluid friction depends on the velocity gradients within the fluid and
on the viscosity of the fluid.
(3) Internal friction
Internal friction occurs in all solid materials subjected to cycle loading.
Dry friction
Consider a solid block of mass m resting on a horizontal surface as shown. Assume that the
contacting surfaces are rough. As we gradually increase the load, the block remains static till
the load reaches a threshold value. Since the forces in the x-direction have to be balanced, it is
apparent that as the magnitude of P increases from zero, the friction force also increases.
Friction force, is thus, self-adjusting. However, the friction force cannot increase beyond a
limit. Thus there is a limiting value of friction. The maximum value of friction force, which
comes into play, when the motion is impending, is known as limiting friction. When the
applied force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest and such frictional
force is called static friction, which may have any value between zero and the limiting
friction. If the value of the applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the body starts moving
over the other body and the frictional resistance experienced by the body while moving is
known as Dynamic friction. dynamic friction is found to be less than limiting friction. See the
following animation to understand the phenomenon of dry friction
It is experimentally found that the magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the
normal reaction between the two surfaces and this ratio is called coefficient of Friction.
Coefficient of friction = F/N, where F is limiting friction and N , the normal reaction between
the contact surfaces.
Laws of dry friction
(i) Force of friction always act opposite to the movement of body.
(ii) The friction force developed at any interface is directly proportional to the normal
reaction transmitted across the surface of contact.
FαN
F=µN
F - Force required to start sliding or is equal to limiting friction.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

N - Normal reaction between the surfaces.

µ- coefficient of static friction.
F = µN is valid only at the time of impending motion.
After the motion stands µ is called the coefficient of kinetic friction.
(iii) The total friction that can be developed is independent of the area in contact and
dependent on roughness of the surface.

Angle of static friction

Angle made by the resultant of normal reaction and limiting friction with the normal
reaction is called the angle of friction. The coefficient of static friction is equal to the tangent
of the angle of friction. Consider the block on the following surface.

The free body diagram is shown. The direction of resultant R measured from the direction of
N is specified by tan Ø =F/N. When the friction force reaches its limiting static value Fmax ,
the angle a reaches a maximum value Ø. Thus
tan Ø = µs
The angle Ø is called the angle of static friction.
Limiting friction
Consider a body of mass µ having the corresponding weight W resting on a horizontal
surface. Let a continuously increasing force be applied as shown in figure. The force P will be
opposed or resisted by frictional force F. The F shall go on increasing to balance the

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

increasing applied force P and the body shall remain rest. Then there comes a limit beyond
which the frictional force cannot increase and the body begins to move. The frictional force at
this instant is called limiting friction. The limiting friction is therefore is the maximum
frictional force exerted at the time of impending motion, that is when the motion is about to
begin.

The frictional force between two moving surfaces is called kinetic or dynamic friction.
Angle of Repose

The maximum inclination of the plane on which a body, free from external forces,
experiences repose (sleep) is called Angle of Repose.
Now consider the equilibrium of the block shown above. Since the surface of contact is not
smooth, not only normal reaction, but frictional force also develops. Since the body tends to
slide downward, the frictional resistance will be up the plane.
∑forces normal to the plane =0, gives
N=Wcosα

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

∑forces normal to the plane =0, gives

F=Wsinα
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get

If N is the value of normal force when motion is impending, frictional force will be μN and
hence

Hence, to avoid free sliding, the inclination angle should be less than the friction angle.
Cone of friction
When a body is having impending motion in the direction of P the frictional force will be the
limiting friction and the resultant reaction R will make limiting friction angle α with the
normal as shown in the following figure. If the body is having impending motion in some
other direction, again the resultant reaction makes limiting frictional angle α with the normal
in that direction. Thus, when the direction of force P is gradually changed 3600, the resultant
R generates a right circular cone with semi central angle equal to α.

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 C. V. Raman Global University, Bhubaneswar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (IME)
Module-1

If the resultant reaction is on the surface of this inverted right circular cone whose semi-
central angle is limiting frictional angle α, the motion of the body is impending. If the
resultant is within this cone the body is stationary. This inverted cone with semi-central angle
equal to limiting angle α is called Cone of Friction.
References
1. “Engineering Mechanics”, S. Timoshenko, D H Young, J V Rao, Tata McGraw Hill

Publication, Revised 4th Edition, 2014 (Page no. 3-8, 16 -28, 43, 46-48, 50-53, 99-100,
114-121).
NPTEL Video Lecture
1. Prof. K. Ramesh,” Engineering Mechanics”, NPTEL – IIT Madras
https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/112/106/112106286/

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