Engineering Physics

(PHYG1000)
Laboratory Manual

Department of Basic Sciences

Faculty of Science
CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI MAHARAJ UNIVERSITY
PANVEL, NAVI MUMBAI

1
 CONTENTS
Exp. Name of the Experiment Page
No. No.
1. To determine the Planck’s Constant by LED methods 03

To find the Wavelength of the sodium light using diffraction 07

2. grating.

11
3. Study of thermocouple

4. Variation of Magnetic Field 13

Measurement of voltage and frequency of a given signal using 18

5. cathode ray oscilloscope

To find the wavelength of He- Ne/ Diode Laser. 23

6.

26
7. Study of Radius of Curvature of a lens using Newton’s Ring set up

Retentivity, Permeability And Susceptibility By Tracing B-H 30

8.
Curve

2
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Aim: To determine the Planck’s constant Using LED method

Introduction: The Planck’s constant is one of the universal constants a student comes across in
multiple points of their study. It is one of the basic ingredients of the quantum physics and
measurement of this constant naturally has to be part of the basic physics laboratory program.
Traditional method of measurement has been a determination of current cut-off voltage of a vacuum
photocell irradiated by a monochromatic source of light. Vacuum photocells are not easily available
and a reasonably strong source of monochromatic light is also difficult to maintain. An alternative
method is employing LEDs which are easier to come by and are reliable source of monochromatic
light.
Most LEDs are based on GaAs and GaP crystals with general composition GaAs 1-xPx where x is the
stoichiometric fraction that varies from 0 to 1. These materials are direct band gap semiconductors
and doped with right amount of impurity, leads to P-N junctions capable of emitting light of a
particular wavelength when a voltage bias is applied. The colour (wavelength) of the light depends on
the exact value of x.
Theory: Several proposals to measure the Planck’s Constant for didactical purposes, using the
current – voltage (I-V) characteristics of a light emitting diode (LED) have been made quite regularly
in the last few years. The reason is that the experiment can be done easily in any lab and the result are
surprisingly good (±10%). The physical interpretation however is not completely clear and this has
raised many discussions, which has been published almost with same regularity as the proposals
themselves. The present experiment is based on diode current for V<V0, using the diode law
I = Ioe –[e(v -v)/ ηkT]
0

where, e is electronic charge, k is Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature and η is material

constant which depends on the type of diode, the location of recombination region, etc. The correct
method to determine the real height of the potential energy barrier V o is to directly measure the
dependence of the current on temperature keeping the applied voltage V slightly below V o. The idea
is that the disturbance to Vo is as little as possible. The slope of ln I vs. 1/T curve gives e (V o - V)ηk
(Fig. 1). The constant η is determined from I-V characteristics of the diode (Fig. 2) at room
temperature from the relation
3
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

η = (e/kt) (∆V/∆ln I)
Compared with previous methods, this determination of V o is more precise and more accurate and at
the same time the physical interpretation is more transparent. The Planck’s constant is then obtained
by the relation h = e Vo λ/c The wavelength (λ) of the light emitted by the diode can be measured by a
transmission grating spectrometer normally available in the lab. The value of Planck’s constant
obtained from this method is within 5% of accepted value (6.62x10-34 Joules.sec)

Experimental Set-Up: It is a self contained unit. All the necessary facilities and measuring devices are built in a
single unit, as a result only minimum of external connections need to be made.
1. Dependence of current (I) on temperature (T) at constant applied voltage (V) The following facilities are
built in for this
a. Current Meter A highly stable current meter with 3½ digit display Range: 0-2mA with
resolution of 1µA
b. Oven It is a small temperature controlled oven with built-in RTD sensor. The temperature is
adjustable from ambient to 65°C and displayed on 3½ digit panel meter. The stability of
temperature is ± 0.2°C.
c. Voltmeter A high stability voltage source with 3½ digit display
2. Material Constant η:To draw I-V characteristics of LED for determination of η, a variable voltage source
and current meter are provided with 3½ digit display.
3. The wavelength λ of light emitted by LED These are taken from LED datasheet or as measured by
transmission grating are provided with the set of LED’s

Figure 1: Planck's Constant Apparatus

4
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Procedure:
1. Turn on the apparatus and Select one LED by toggle switch. Start from the LED with the colour at
the bottom of the spectrum (in this order: red, yellow, green, blue).
2. Adjust the rheostat till the LED start glowing.
3. Note down the knee voltage of the LED, i.e. the voltage at which the LED starts glowing and the
change of current in the ammeter is faster than the change of voltage in the voltmeter.
4. Repeat by choosing another LED with the toggle switch.
5. Use the formula h = e V0 λ/c to find the value of the Planck’s constant, plot V0 as a function of 1/ λ. It
will be a straight line intersecting the origin (0,0).
6. Determine the slope of the line. Slope m = hc/e. from this equation, find the value of h.

Observations:
Colour of LED Wavelength(λ) Knee voltage (V0) (V)
(nm)
Red 623

Yellow 565

Green 545

Blue 460

5
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Plot:

Δy
V
Slope m = Δy/ Δx

Δx

1/ λ
Results:
slope m = ……..
Planck’s constant h = …………J-s

SAMPLE ORAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the scientific and technological importance of the present experiment?

2. What are the practical applications based on the theory and outcome of this experiment?
3. What understanding you build with this experiment?
4. Why is Planck’s constant important?
5. How is colour of LED light related to the composition of the semiconductor?

6
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
DIFFRACTION GRATING

AIM:- To find the Wavelength of the sodium light using diffraction grating.

Apparatus:- Diffraction grating, spectrometer, Na-Vapor lamp.

Theory:-

Diffraction:
When light passes through a small aperture or if an obstacle of small size is placed in the path of light.
Some light is bending around a corner or edge or small obstacle is called diffraction. The obstacle or aperture
should be of the size of wavelength of light. In terms of Huygens’s principle, diffraction is an interference of
secondary waves.
There are two types of diffraction (1) Fraunhoffer diffraction and (2) Fresnel diffraction.
Fraunhoffer’s diffraction:- When the rays reaching at a point are parallel, is called Fraunhoffer diffraction.
The source of light and the screen are at infinite distance from the diffraction causing aperture. The
curvatures of waveforms are very small and waves are treated as plane waves.
Fresnel’s diffraction:- In Fresnel’s diffraction either the source or the screen or both are at finite distance
from the aperture. The curvature of incident and secondary wave fronts is considered. Hence quantitative
becomes more complex. Here we will study only. Fraunhoffer’s diffraction.
Diffraction grating:- An array of parallel slits or a device which produces a spectra by diffraction called a
diffraction grating. A transmission grating can be constructed by ruling a series of closely separated parallel
lines. The separation should be comparable to a wavelength of light. The reflection grating is can be made by
ruling on a reflected surface. When light falls on a grating, the peaks of intensity are observed on the screen.
D is the distance between the centers of the slits or corresponding points on the adjacent slits.
The distance between the corresponding points of adjacent slits is called grating element or grating
interval. If there are N number of lines (slits) per unit lengthy the grating element is 1/N. Generally there are
5000 to 7500 lines per cm. Each slit produces diffraction and the diffracted rays produce interference pattern.
Two rays from adjacent slits, having path difference equal to integral multiple of wavelength, interference
constructively and produce principle maxima. The path difference between two rays is dsinϴ, where d is the
grating interval and ϴ is the angle made by transmitted transmitted (diffracted) light. The condition for
principle maxima is
dsinϴ = nλ where n= 0,1,2,3,…..Called as order of diffraction.
Instead of parallel light, if I is the angle of incidence the condition becomes
D (sini +sinϴ) = nλ
Where n= 0,1,2, ….

Procedure:-

First check the spirit level of spectrometer and prism table. Focus the spectrometer for parallel
light by Schuster method. Mount the grating on the prism table so that plane of the grating is made parallel to
the line joining any two leveling screw of prism table. Note the reading through the grating.

7
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Turn the telescope by 90 to the left or to the right of the collimator. Rotate the prism table until
0

the reflection of the slit from one of the surface of grating is seen in the telescope coinciding. Adjust the
leveling screw of the prism table so as to image of slit symmetric about the cross wire. Turn prism table
through 180 so that the light from the second surface of the grating is reflected into the telescope.
0

𝐿𝐶 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 /𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟

𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 (𝑌)
= 0.5 /30′= 30′ /30′= 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡e
0

𝜃1 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + 𝑉𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿C

Diffraction grating:-

8
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Observation Table:
Observation Position Spectrometer Reading First order Spectrometer Reading Second order
Table X1 Y1 X2 Y2
1 Right

2 Left

3 2ϴ
9
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

4 ϴ

5 sinϴ

Calculation:

Condition for principal maximum is

dsinϴ= nλ d= 1.6*10 cm.

-4

1. First order

n=1 therefore Condition for principal maximum is

dsinϴ = λ

2. Second order

n=1 therefore Condition for principal maximum is

dsinϴ = 2λ

Result: The wavelength of sodium light is__________________________________.

Precautions:

1) Alignment of the Grating: The diffraction grating must be aligned properly with the light source.
Ensure that the grating is perpendicular to the direction of the incident light beam. Any misalignment
can lead to inaccurate measurement of angles.
2) Stable Light Source: Use a stable and monochromatic light source to avoid fluctuations that could
affect the diffraction pattern. A laser is often preferred because it provides a well-defined wavelength
and a coherent beam.
3) Accurate Measurement of Angles: Use a precise angular measurement device, such as a
spectrometer, to measure the angles of the diffracted beams. Small errors in angle measurement can
lead to significant errors in calculating the wavelength.
4) Cleanliness of the Grating: Ensure that the diffraction grating is clean and free from dust or
fingerprints, as any contamination can distort the diffraction pattern.
5) Avoiding Parallax Error: When reading the scale or measuring the angles, ensure that your line of
sight is perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.

10
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

6) Control of Ambient Light: Perform the experiment in a dark room or with minimal ambient light to
avoid interference from other light sources, which can make it difficult to see the diffraction pattern
clearly.
7) Calibration: Calibrate the equipment (like the spectrometer) before starting the experiment to ensure
that all measurements are accurate.
8) Temperature and Environmental Conditions: Conduct the experiment in a controlled environment
where temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors are stable. Fluctuations in temperature
can affect the diffraction grating and the light source, altering the results.
9) Proper Positioning of the Screen/Detector: The screen or detector used to observe the diffraction
pattern should be placed at an appropriate distance from the grating to clearly observe the fringes.
The screen should also be perpendicular to the direction of the diffracted beams.
10) Record Observations Carefully: Take multiple readings and average them to minimize random
errors. Record observations meticulously to ensure that all relevant data is captured accurately.

11
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
STUDY OF THERMOCOUPLE

Aim: to Study the characteristics of a Thermocouple

Theory: When a pair of electrical conductors are joined together, thermal EMF is generated when the
junctions are at different temperatures. this phenomenon is known as Seebeck effect. such a device is
called Thermocouple. the resultant EMF developed by Thermocouple is in the mV range when the
temperature difference between the junction is is about 100°C. To determine Dmf Thermocouple as a
function of the temperature one junction is maintained at some constant reference temperature such as
ice water mixture at a temperature of zero degree centigrade. the thermal EMF which can be measured
by a digital voltmeter as shown in figure 1 is proportional to the temperature difference between the
two junctions. to calibrate Sach Thermocouple the temperature of the second Junction can be varied
using a constant temperature bath and the EMF recorded as a function of the temperature difference
between the two nodes.
Metal A

Milivoltmeter
Metal B
Figure 1: Measuring the EMF of a thermocouple

Instrument:
1. Inbuilt digital milivoltmeter 0-200 mV
2. zero adjuster
3. Inbuilt oven
4. Thermometer for the oven temperature
5. Copper-Constantan thermocouple lead

Procedure:
1. Please the Thermocouple attachment carefully on the open so that the junction of the Thermocouple
should go inside the hole of the oven properly.
2. Also place the thermometer inside the whole of the oven.
3. Connect the leads of Thermocouple with the sockets of millivoltmeter by taking care of proper
polarity
4. Switch on the instrument and adjust zero and then switch on the oven.
5. Wait for some time till then the reading in the metre reaches the maximum value and stops
increasing.
6. Now switch off the oven and record the readings in the table with decreasing value of temperature in
the thermometer.
7. plot the graph in temperature and millivolts

Table 1
Obs. No. Temp. (°C) Thermo-EMF (mV)
1
2

12
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Result: - The temperature is measured using thermocouple.

Precautions:
1. Take readings in evenly manner.
2. Never overheat the oven.
3. Be careful of hot surfaces.
4. Switch off the circuit as soon as measurements are complete.
5. Handle the instruments carefully.
6. Any other observed by you.

13
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CURRENT CARRYING COIL STEWART’S AND GEE’S
METHOD

Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.

Apparatus: Stewart and Gees, Rheostat, Ammeter, Battery eliminator, plug key single,
commutator four plugs.

𝐵 = 𝐵𝑒 tan 𝜃 Oersted
Formula:

or

𝐵𝑒 = Earth’s horizontal magnetic field (𝐵𝑒 = 0.38 Oersted)

Where, B = magnetic field due to circular coil carrying current.

n is the number of turns in the coil

a the mean radius of the coil and
x is the distance of the point from the center of the coil along the axis.

Theory: -
The apparatus consists of a circular frame “c” in figure made up of non-magnetic
substance. An insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are
connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns
used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane along
the breadth side. The base has leveling screws. A non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the
uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through the
circular coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection magnetometer is supported on
a movable wooden platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil.
The compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lie on the
axis of the coil. The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic meridian.
The frame with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so that the plane of
the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is rotated so that the
aluminum pointer reads zero zero. Now the wooden frame is along East- West directions. When a
current “i” flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in the perpendicular direction to
the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic
fields. “B” due to coil carrying current and the earth’s magnetic field “Be” which are mutually

= tan ɵ (by Tangent law)

perpendicular. The needle deflects through an angle ‘θ‘satisfying the tangent law.
𝐵
𝐵𝑒
Thus B=𝐵𝑒 tan ɵ
and Oersted

14
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. With the help of magnetic compass and a chalk, a long line of about one meter is
drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian.
2. Another line perpendicular to the line is also drawn to represent East and West
directions.
3. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as
shown in the fig.
4. The external circuit is connected as shown in the circuit diagram, keeping the
ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection magnetometer.
5. The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum
pointer reads, (0,0) deflection in the magnetometer.
6. The key K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the
magnetometer is about 60°.
7. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflections in the magnetometer are
observed.
8. The deflections in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current should not
differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2° to 5°, necessary adjustments
are to be made.
9. The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when x = 0 and the
experiment is repeated by moving the deflection magneto meter in steps of 2cm, east
as well as west directions. The readings are noted in Table 1.
10. The mean deflections are denoted as θE and θw .
11. A graph is drawn between x (the distance of the deflection magnetometer from the
center of the coil) along x-axis and the corresponding Tan θ E and Tan θW along Y-
axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the fig below.
12. The point A and B marked on the curve lie at distance equal to half of radius of the
coil (a/2) on either side of the coil.

15
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Model graph:

Observations:
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field Be =0.38 ergs or 0.38 X 10-4 Tesla (or) Wb- -2
m
Radius of coil ‘a’ = Diameter of coil /2 =-------------cm
Current carrying in the ammeter =--------------Amp
μ0 = 4 π X 10-7 Henry/m

Table:

Distance
From the Mean Mean
Centre of TanөE Deflection in West
Coli X
Deflection in East өE Direction өW Tan өW
Direction
(cm)

ө1 ө2 ө3 ө4 ө1 ө2 ө3 ө4

16
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

17
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Precautions:
1. The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2. All the magnetic and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distances from the apparatus.
3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value as to produce a deflection of
nearly 750.
4. Current should be checked from time to time and for this purpose an ammeter should
be connected in series with the battery.
5. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer. Both ends of the
pointer should be read.
6. The curve should be drawn smoothly.

Result:
From the graph it is clear that intensity of magnetic field decreases symmetrically on
either side of the coil on Y-axis in the graph

Viva voce questions & answers:

1. What is Faraday’s law?

Ans:The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate
of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit. It is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting
how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force
(EMF).

2. What is Biot Savart’s Law?

Ans:According to this law, the magnetic induction field
strength (the magnetic field) at a point P, which is at a
distance of R unit away from a current carrying conductor,
varies as follows,
dB is directly proportional to current (I);
dB is directly proportional to the sine of angle of θ
dB is directly proportional to dl; and
dB is inversely proportional to R2

𝜇0𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑟2

3. What is magnetic permeability?

Ans:It is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic
field.
4. What is the purpose of a plane mirror in the deflection magnetometer?
Ans: It is used to avoid the parallax error while taking readings.

18
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

5. What is the unit of ‘B’?

Ans:Tesla or Weber/m2 or Gauss. 1Gauss= 10-4 Tesla

6. What is a null point?

Ans:A null point is a point at which the resultant or total magnetic field induction B Is
zero.
7. What happens to the value of ‘B’ if the current value is doubled?
Ans: The value of B also gets doubled.

8. What is the purpose of using a rheostat in this experiment?

Ans: Rheostat is a variable resistor device, which helps to increase or decrease the current
across the magnetic galvanometer.

9. What is a commutator?
Ans: It is a device used to reverse the direction of current.

10. What is the importance of Stewart gee’s galvanometer?

Ans: To verify the variation of magnetic field due to a circular current carrying coil.

Ans: 𝐵 = 𝐵𝐻tanθ
11. What is Tangent law?

12. How do you arrange the instrument to satisfy the law?

Ans: The arms of the Stewart gee’s galvanometer must be kept in East west direction so that the
circular coil is North south magnetic meridian direction.With out passing the current the aluminum
pointer should read 0-0 in the compass box.

𝜇0𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
13. Formula for magnetic field due to circular coil?

𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑟2

14. What is the nature of variation of magnetic field due to circular coil?

15. Explain the curve?

1
Ans: The curve is parabolic in nature and symmetric about Y-axis.in other words the

𝑥
magnetic field decreases symmetrically on either side of the coil w.r.t the distance ( 3 ) on
either side of the coil.

Ans: For all practical purposes horizontal component (𝐵𝐻 = 0.38 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑) is taken in
16. What is the importance of magnetic component of earth’s field?

19
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

to account, as the resultant magnetic field of earth B = 0.4 𝑜𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑.

The suspended magnet or magnetic needle aligns in the direction of 𝐵𝐻 practically.

EXPERIMENT NO . 5
Aim of the experiment: Measurement of voltage and frequency of a given signal using a cathode
ray oscilloscope

Apparatus Required: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Function Generator(s), a pair of BNC

Connectors

Introduction: A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) can be used to measure the voltage and frequency
of given unknown signal. (A brief description of CRO is given at the end of this manual). A RC
oscillator can be used to generate an electrical signal of desired frequency and amplitude. In the
given experiment the RC oscillator has to be used to generate the signal and the CRO will be used
to measure its voltage and frequency.

Procedure: Switch on the oscillator. Place the time base knob in horizontal input position and wait
for a couple of minutes. Notice a bright spot of light on the screen of the CRO. The spot can be
moved in vertical or horizontal direction by using the horizontal position knob and vertical position
knob respectively. Place the time base in appropriate position (i.e. 1ms/cm or 0.1 ms/cm or any
other value). A bright line can be noticed on the CRO screen. Your CRO is now ready to measure
voltage and frequency of the unknown signal.

Fig. 1: The Cathode ray oscilloscope used in Physics Laboratory.

20
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Fig. 2: The function generator used in Physics Laboratory.

Selection of frequency:
The RC oscillator is having several knobs, which can be used to select frequency of the signal to be
generated. In the top left hand corner, you would see three knobs. These knobs can be used to select
frequency value, which can be represented by three digits. For example, suppose you are setting the
left knob to 6, the middle knob to 5 and the extreme right knob to 4. Then the selected frequency
will be 654Hz. below these three knobs you will get a multiplier. The multiplier will multiply the
above selected frequency. Thus if you select 654Hz and multiplier position is 10 then the overall
frequency will be 6540Hz.

Selecting amplitude of the signal:

The RC oscillator provides you option to vary the voltage of the signal to be generated. This can be
done using two voltage selecting knobs (Fine and Coarse). Therefore, using different knobs a signal
of given amplitude and given frequency can be generated by the RC oscillator. This signal can now
be used as an input to the CRO and its frequency and voltage can be measured.
Voltage Measurements:

Use the signal generated by RC oscillator as an input to CRO. Place the Y amplifier in proper value.
From vertical scale measure the peak to peak value. This will give the value of peak to peak voltage
of the signal.
21
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Lissajous Figures:

Theory: When two simple harmonic motions are plotted against each other at right angles, the
resulting configuration is called a Lissajous figure. Simple harmonic motions plotted against time
gives sinusoidal configurations. Two sinusoidal electrical inputs given to an oscilloscope will give a
Lissajous pattern on the screen. The particular pattern depends upon the frequency, amplitude and
phase of the applied inputs. The frequency ratio of the inputs may be determined from an analysis
of the Lissajous figure produced. If a Lissajous figure is enclosed in a rectangle whose sizes are
parallel to the formation axes of the figure, the frequency ratio of the two inputs may be determined
by counting the points of tangency to the sides of the rectangle enclosing the pattern. Once the
frequency ratio is known, the input frequency can also be determined from the same.

Procedure:

1. Connect one signal generator to the vertical input and the other to the horizontal input of the
oscilloscope. Switch controls so that the oscilloscope accepts the output of the signal generator
instead of the horizontal sweep. Set both the generators for 1000 cycles (say) and make gain
adjustments until an ellipse of satisfactory size is observed on the screen. Adjust controls as
necessary to stop the ellipse. By switching one of the generators off and on, cause the ellipse to
change phase, noting the various shapes it assumes. By phase changes and amplitude
adjustments, one may try to get a circular configuration.

2. Leaving the vertical input at 1000 cycles and assuming it to be the standard, adjust the horizontal
input generator (the variable) approximately 500 c.p.s. to obtain the 1-2 Lissajous figure, a figure
8 on its side.

3. Next obtain the 2:1 pattern by varying the horizontal input frequency. This is an upright figure 8.

4. In like manner, obtain Lissajous figures down to 1:5 and upto 5:1. Sketch all the figures obtained
and compare the frequency. Obtained from the Lissajous ratios with the dial reading of the
horizontal input signal generator.

22
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Figure 3: Sample Lissajous Figures

5. Now, remove one signal generator from the oscilloscope and connect the given unknown source.
Changing the frequency of the signal generator, various Lissajous figures may be obtained (e.g.
circle, 8 shape, etc.). Hence, from the known ratio of the respective Lissajous figures, the
frequency of the AC source can be measured.

Observation Table:

Table 1: Measurement of voltage by CRO

Source (𝑉𝑝−𝑝)
Sr. Voltage from Peak-to-peak voltage measured by CRO Ratio of
No. Vp−p/VCRO
Y-amplifi Vertical VCRO
setting scale No of (V)
(V/div) div.
1

Table 2: Measurement of frequency

Sr. No. Freq. of function generator Freq. measurement using CRO Ratio f/fo
(f in Hz) (fo in Hz)
Value of No. of fo (in Hz)
time base div.
1

23
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

2
3

Table 3: Measurement of unknown frequency with Lissajous figures

Sr. No. Frequency f1 Frequency f2 Shape of figure

1
2
3
4

Precautions: The precautions to be taken while performing the experiment are:

1. Correct output/input terminals of function generators and CRO should be chosen.

2. Make sure that correct types of wave output have been chosen from function generator (Sine or
Triangular or Square or DC)

3. Don’t crank up the voltage level from function generator at it maximum limit.

4. The image produced over the CRO screen should be sharp and as thin as possible to take the
correct readings.

Sample Oral Questions

1. What is the scientific and technological importance of the present experiment?

2. What are the practical applications based on the theory and outcome of this experiment?
3. What understanding you build with this experiment?
4. What is a cathode ray? How is it generated?
5. On what principle a cathode ray oscilloscope works?
6. How the screen gets discharged from excessive negative charges due to incoming electrons?
7. Is the cathode ray striking the CRO screen a line or a spot?
8. Why the screen of a CRO glows green when cathode ray strikes on it?
9. What is a function generator?
10. What type of functions are generated using the function generator of our lab?
24
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

11. What are Lissajous figures?

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
He-Ne/ Diode Laser

Aim:- To find the wavelength of He- Ne/ Diode Laser.

Apparatus:- Laser source / Diffraction grating / Meter scale.

Theory:- Laser stand for light Amplification by simulated Emission of Radiation. He- Ne Laser was the first
successful gas laser.

Construction:- The He- Ne laser consists of a long and narrow discharge tube which is filled with Helium
and Neon in the ratio 10:1 with pressure of 1mm of mercury.Electrodes are provided to produce a discharge
in the gas and they are connected to a high voltage supply.

Working:
(Energy transfer through atomic collisions)

25
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

He- Ne laser employs a four – level pumping scheme. Where the power is switched on, the electric field
ionizes in the mixture of He and Ne gases. Helium atoms are more readily excitable than neon atoms because
they are lighter. The energetic electrons excite helium atoms through collision to the excited levels F and F
2 3.

These two states are metastable states and the excited helium atoms cannot return to the ground states by
spontaneously emitting photons of energy. 20.61 ev and 19.81 ev.
Though a radiative transition is forbidden, the excited he atoms can return to the ground state by
transferring their energy to Neon atoms through collisions. Such as energy transfer can take place when two
centers and the role of He is to excite from Ne atoms and cause population inversion.
The probability of energy transfer from He atoms to Ne atoms is more as there are 10 He atoms to 1 Ne
atoms in the mixture.
The excited He atoms can collide in elastically with Ne atoms. The energy levels of neon atoms are
E1 to E6. The states E4 and E6 have longer life time than E3 and E5. Therefore E4 & E6 levels are pumped
by metastable He atoms while E3 & E5 levels are depleted because of their short life times.
An inversion population between E4, E6 & E3, E6 results in any spontaneous downward transition
between the levels triggering laser action. There laser transitions can occur, they are-
E6 ------> E5, E6-----> E3 & E4 ------>E3
1. E6 -----> E3 transition – generates a laser beam of red color of wavelength 6328 A .0

2. E4 -----> E3 transition - It produces infrared laser beam at a wavelength of 11500 A . 0

3. E6 -----> E5 transition - A laser beam of wavelength 3.39 µm in the infrared region arises due to this
transition.
Procedure:-
The type of laser used is Helium – Neon laser. The beam of laser is focused on diffraction
grating. A meter scale is placed at a distance ‘D’ from the diffraction grating. The distance between two
successive wires of grating is ‘d ’. The laser due to diffraction for central order spot each on either side is
called first & second order spot. Let the distance between the first & second order spots be 2 X 1 & 2 X 2
respectively.

Diagram:-

26
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Observation Table :-

Ob. D Order Distance ‘X’ cms Tanϴ= x/D ϴ λ (A )

0

No. ‘2x’
1

10

FORMULA:-

nλ = dsinϴ
27
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Where n= order of the spectra.

λ= wavelength of the source (laser)
d= Grating element = 1.63X10 cm -4

ϴ= Corresponding angle

Result:- The wavelength of laser light using diffraction grating is ----------------------- A .

0

28
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Study of Radius of Curvature of a lens using Newton’s Ring set up

Aim :- To find the radius of curvature of a convex lens by using Newton’s rings pattern.

APPARATUS: - Plano convex lens, Travelling Microscope, Na- vapour lamp.

Theory:-
The wedge shape film form between a convex surface and plane glass surface produces ring
shaped fringes, when observed in reflected light. A Plano – convex lens of large radius of
curvature is kept on an optically plane glass. S is the monochromatic source of light. The light
falls normally on the film. The rings in a reflected light are observed through the microscope.
Take the point of contact as a center and draw the concentric circles. If one of the thickness of
the air satisfies the condition for darkness or brightness all the points of corresponding circle
having same thickness of the air satisfies the same condition, so circular fringes are obtained.

Using condition of wedge shape film we can derive the formulae for diameter of Newton’s
rings for normal incidence

2µt cos (ϕ + r) = (n-1 / 2) λ ------- for bright rings

2µt cos (ϕ + r) = n λ ------- for dark rings

Where is wedge angel and negligible small and rings are observed normally, therefore
Cos (ϕ + r) = cos r = 1

2µt = (n–1 / 2) λ ------------- for bright rings -------------- 1

2µt = n λ ------------ for dark rings -------------- 2

From fig.
R2 = (R-t) 2 +r2n

rn2 = 2Rt – t2
t is extremely small in comparison to R therefore t2 is neglected and

t = (rn2 / 2R) ---------------3

From equation 1, 2, 3 we get

rn2 = nR λ/µ ---------for dark rings

rn2 = (n+1 / 2) R λ/µ ---------for bright rings
At the point of contact of lens and glass plate t = 0 and it is the condition for darkness.

The central point is dark

For diameter

29
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Dn2 = 4nR λ/µ -------------for dark rings

Dn2 = (n+1/2) 4R λ/µ -------------for bright rings

Dn α √ n -------------for dark rings

Dn α √ (n+ 1) λ/2 -------------for bright rings

The rings crowded as the number of rings goes on increasing because the difference between
√(n+ 1) and √ n goes on decreasing as n increases.
The Newton’s ring pattern is used for testing of optical lenses. The lens is ground till a perfect
circular pattern is obtained. The variation in circular pattern indicates imperfections in
curvature of lens.

Procedure:

1. Arrange a glass plate P1 at an angle of 450 with the incident beam of Na source so that
flood of light is seen in microscope
2. Introduce a convex lens E with its convex side touching the glass plateP2
3. Adjust the center of rings on the intersection of cross wires center of ring in dark
4. Using the slow motion screw, move the microscope and take readings of different rings
of same interval, then the readings of both sides of another central dark ring
5. Plot a graph of D2 against n take the origin at (0,0 )
6. Find the slope of the graph and calculate R from the formulae

Given: Wavelength of monochromatic light = 5890A0

Result: 1 The radius of curvature (R) from calculations =

2 The radius of curvature (R) from graph =

Calculations: The radius of curvature of lens

R = (Dm2- Dn2) / (m – n) 4λ

Observation Table:

Ob Number of Microscope Microscope Difference D2

s Rings readings readings LHS D
No. RHS
1
2
3
4
5

30
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Total Reading: M.S.R. + (V.S.R. x L.C.)

Newton’s Rings: -

Graph

31
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

slope
¿
4λ

NEWTON’S RINGS

Calculations:

32
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS FOR APPARATUS TO DETERMINE

FERROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS: RETENTIVITY, PERMEABILITY AND
SUSCEPTIBILITY BY TRACING B-H CURVE

OBJECT :

To determine the ferromagnetic constants: retentivity, permeability and susceptibility by tracing

B-H curve.

APPARATUS : -

The apparatus consists of electronic training board New Tech Type

NTI – 226. It consists of a solenoid having primary and secondary coils, specimen in the form of
several thin wires of iron grouped to form a rod. The training board consists of one AC
milliammeter and one AC voltmeter. In addition of the apparatus one CRO is required to
perform the experiment.

THEORY AND FORMULA : -

The specimen is put inside the solenoid and is subjected to a varying magnetic field H. In this
experiment magnetic field H is produced by passing
a.c current in the solenoid is given by –

Where Irms is the current in ampere measured by the ammeter and n is the number of turns per
cm in the primary coil of the solenoid. The potential difference developed across Rh 1 is fed to
xx plates of CRO and consequently, x defection will be proportional to H.
Its maximum value is:

Trace lenth Lx corresponds to 2 Hmax (Fig. 2)

33
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

To X -
PLATES OF
Rh2 R CRO
1
Rh1

P1 S1
P2
TO A.C. C To Y
SUPPLY + PLATES
V S2 - OF
CRO

mA

Fig (1) Circuit Diagram for obtaining B-H curve on CRO screen Hence calibration constant for
H axis is:

Where

Calibration constant for B axis is:

∙.∙ 2(Φair)max = 2Hmax S

Where S is area of Cross section of primary coil and F is amplification factor of y amplifier

and

34
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

a’ a

H c
O
f
Ly
e
d

Lx

Fig.(2) B-H Curve tracing taken on tracing paper Retentivity corresponding to Y

If Ob = Cm on the trace
.∙. Retentivity = Ob x Cy = …………. Gauss (4)

Saturation corresponding to Y

If Oa' = as on the trace

.∙. Bmax = Oa' x Cy (5)

Coercivity if OC = Cm on the trace

.∙. Coercivity = OC x Cx (6)

35
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

Hystersis loss per cycle per unit Volume = (1/4π) (Area of B-H curve)

= (1/4π) (Area of B-H curve on the trace) Cx . Cy

= (1/4π) . A . Cx . Cy (7)

= Ergs per cycle per cm3

Permeability μ = B/H or Bmax / Hmax (8)

= ……………..
Susceptibility:

∙.∙ μ = 1 + 4πXm

.∙. Xm = (μ – 1) / 4π (9)

= ………………………

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as shown in Fig. (1).

2. By adjusting Rh1, Rh2 and amplifiers of CRO obtain a B-H loop of suitable size on the
screen of CRO.

3. By varying Rh1, values of v and I can be changed.

4. Take a trace of B-H curve on tracing paper.

OBSERVATIONS: N = 300 turns / Cm. L= Lx+Ly/2

Sr. Variable Sensitivities of the CRO Area of BH curve Energy Loss

No. Resistance cm2
Horizontal Vertical E= 0.5*N* SH* SV* Area of BH
sensitivity SH Sensitivity SV
curve / R*L
(Coercivity) (Retentivity)

36
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj University Engineering Physics

CALCULATIONS:
From the trace of BH loop on tracing paper measure different lengths i.e. Ob, Oa', OC etc. and calculate the
values of Retentivity, Saturation, Coerceivity, Permeability, Susceptibility and hystersis loss using the appropriate
formula mentioned in theory.

RESULT : - The magnetic constants for iron are :

1. Retentivity = Gauss

2. Coercivity = Oersted

3. Hystersis loss per cycle per unit vol = ergs / cycle / Cm3

4. Permeability = ………………

5. Susceptibility = ………………
SOURCES OF ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS:

1. The current in the primary of solenoid should be quite large so as to magnetise the specimen sufficiently.
2. Handle CRO carefully.
3. Trace of BH curve should be taken as tracing paper and it should of suitable size.

N HYSTERESIS LOOP OR B-H

AC AC
To x -
R1 PLATES R2
OF CRO
P S P2 C To y
T + PLAT
O V S2
A. - ES

m
POWER ON NTI -

Fig. (3) Panel Diagram

********************

37