Chapt

er4:Lear
ningandMemor
y

I
)Lear
ning:
A)Defi
nit
ion:Learni
ngisdefi
nedas“anyrel
ati
velyper
manentchangei
nbehav
iour
t
hatoccursasar esul
tofpract
iceandexper
ience”.

B)Nat
ure:Thisdef
ini
ti
onhast hr
eeimpor t
antelements.
1)Learningisachangeinbehav i
our—betterorworse.
2)Itisachangethattakesplacethr
oughpr acti
ceorexper
ience,
butchangesduet
o
growthormat ur
ati
onar enotlear
ning.
3)Thischangeinbehav i
ourmustber elat
ivel
ypermanent.

Al
ll
ear
ningi
nvol
vesact
ivi
ti
es.Theseact
ivi
ti
esi
nvol
veei
therphy
sical
orment
alact
ivi
ti
es.

C)Ty
pesofLeani
ng:

1)MotorLearning:Mostofouract
ivi
ti
esinourday-
to-
daysl
iferef
ert
omot oract
ivi
ti
es.For
examplewalki
ng, runni
ng,
skati
ng,
drivi
ng,cl
i
mbing,et
c.Al
ltheseact
ivi
ti
esinv
olv
et he
muscularcoordinati
on.

2)Sensor
y-motorLearni
ng:Thetaskinwhichsensoryandmot oror
gansareofequal
i
mpor t
anceiccal
ledas‘sensor
y-mot or
’taskl
earni
ng.Fore.g.:l
ear
ningpai
nti
ngbyv i
ewi
ng
,composingofwr i
tt
enmat t
ers,typi
ngoflett
ersbyseeinghandwri
ttenscr
ipt
setc.

6)Problem Sol
v i
ng:Thisi
sahigherorderl
earni
ngprocess.Thi
slearningrequi
restheuseof
cognit
iveabil
it
ies-suchasthi
nki
ng,reasoni
ng,obser
vati
on,imagi
nation,gener
ali
zati
on,et
c.
Thisi
sv er
yusef ultoover
comediff
icultpr
obl
emsencount er
edbyt hepeople.

7)VerbalLearning:Ver bal l
earningistheprocessofacti
velymemor i
zingnewmat er
ial
usi
ngment alpictures,associations,andotheract
ivi
ti
es.Verballearningwasf i
rstst
udied
byHer mannEbbi nghaus, whousedl i
stsofnonsensesyll
ablestot estr ecal
l
.Thistypeof
l
earni
ngi nvolvest helanguagewespeak, t
hecommuni cati
ondev i
cesweuse.Si gns,
pi
ctures,symbol s,wor ds,fi
gures, sounds,
etc,ar
ethetoolsusedi nsuchact iv
iti
es.Weuse
wordsf orcommuni cation.Met hodsusedt omeasureVerbal Learning:
a)Pai r
edassoci ati
on
b)Ser i
allearning
c)Fr eerecall

D)Met hodsofLear ni
ng:
1)Tr i
alandEr r
or:Thistheorywasdev elopedbyanAmer i
canpsy chologistELThor ndi
ke
(1874-1949).Hear guesthatl earningtakespl acethrought r
ialander rormet hod.Accor ding
tohim, l
earningisagr adualpr ocesswher etheindiv
idualwillmakemanyat t
empt stolearn.
Theessenceoft histheoryis-asthet ri
alsincrease,theerrorsdecr ease.Thor ndike
conductedmanyexper i
ment swi thmazeandpuzzl eboxl ear ninginwhi chcat sandr ats
wer eused.Hehasdemonst ratedt hatthroughnumer oustri
alst heanimal learnsmuchand
graduall
yimpr oveshisef f
ort.Weal ll
earnmanyski l
lsli
keswi mmi ng,cycli
ng, r
iding,et
c.,
throughthismet hod.
a)LawofReadiness:Thi
slawref
erstothef
actthatl
ear
ningtakespl
aceonlywhenthe
l
earneri
sprepar
edtolearn.Noamountofef
for
tscanmaket hechil
dlear
nifthechi
l
disnot
readyt
olear
n.

b)LawofExerci
se:Thi
sl awexpl
ainstherol
eofpracti
ceinl
ear
ning.Accor
dingt
othi
slaw,
l
earni
ngbecomeseffi
cientthr
oughpracti
seorexerci
se.

i
)LawofUse:Thelawofusemeanst hataconnexi
onbet
weenast
imul
usandr
esponsei
s
st
rengt
henedbyi
tsoccur
rence,
it'
sexerci
seorit
suse.

i
i)LawofDisuse:
c)LawofEffect:Behav
iourf
oll
owedbyposi
ti
veout
comestendstobest
rengt
henedwhi
l
e
behavi
ourf
oll
owedbynegat i
veoutcomest
endstobeweakened.

2)InsightLear ning:Thistheorywasdev elopedbyapsy chol

ogi
stknownasWol f
gang
Kohler,whobel ongedt oGestaltschoolofpsy chology.Accordi
ngt oGestal
t
theory—per ceptionofasi tuat
ionasa‘ whol e’
givesbetterunderstandi
ngthansum tot
alof
i
tspar ts.Kohlerconduct edhismostf amousexper iment sonchimpanzee-cal
ledSult
an.
Archimedes' exampl eof ’Aha’experi
ence( eureka)explainedi
ncreativ
ethinki
ngisthe
appropr i
ateexampl eforoccurrenceofinsight.

3)ObservationalLearni
ng:I tisalsoknownasi mit
ation,modelli
ngandsocial l
ear
ning.
Alber
tBandur a,”ObservationalLearningisthelearni
ngofnewbehav i
ourthroughthe
observat
ionofamodel (watchingsomeoneel sewhoi sdoingthatbehavi
our )
.
Aggressi
v eness,prosocialbehav i
our,court
esy ,
polit
eness,di
li
genceetc.areacqui
redby
thi
stypeofl earni
ng.Inhi sclassi
cBobodol lexper
iment, Bandurademonstratedt
he
powerfuli
nf l
uenceofobser vati
onallearni
ng.

E)Concl
usion:Bandur
aconcludedf
rom t
hesest
udi
est
hatobser
vat
ional
lear
ningr
equi
red
thepr
esenceof4elements:

1)At
tent
ion:I
tisl
ear
ningany
thi
ngt
hroughobser
vat
ion.Thel
ear
nermustf
ir
stpayat
tent
ion
tot
hemodel .

2)Memor y(
Retent
ion)
:Iti
sret
aini
ngwhat
everwasdonesuchasr
emember
ingt
hest
epsi
n
prepar
ingadi
sh.

3)I
mit
ati
on:Thel
ear
nermustbecapabl
eofr
epr
oduci
ngori
mit
ati
ngt
heact
ionsoft
he
model
.

4)Mot
ivat
ion:Fi
nal
l
y,t
hel
ear
nermusthav
ethedesi
ret
oper
for
mtheact
ion.

I
I)TheoriesofLearning/Learni
ngbyCondi
ti
oning:I
nli
ter
alsense,condi
ti
oni
ngmeans
'
gett
ingused' t
o,or'adjusted'
toanewsi
tuat
ion,orast
imulus.I
tisaprocessofsubst
it
uti
ng
theori
ginalsti
mulusbyanewoneandconnect i
ngtheresponsewithit
.Ther
earetwotypes
ofconditi
oningtheories:
 Cl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ng Oper
antcondi
ti
oni
ng

A)ClassicalCondi
tioning(learni
ngbyAssociati
on)( S-Rassociat i
on):Classical
condit
ioning(al
soknownasPav l
ovi
anconditi
oni
ng)i slearningthroughassoci at
ionand
wasdi scover
edbyPav l
ov,aRussianphysiol
ogi
st.Russianphy siologi
stwhowasawar ded
Nobel Pri
ze,i
n1904f orhisexperiments.I
nsimplet erms,twost imuliarelinkedtogetherto
produceanewl earnedr esponseinapersonoranimal .JohnWat sonproposedt hatthe
processofclassi
calcondi t
ioni
ng(basedonPav l
ov'sobser vati
ons)wasabl etoexplainall
aspectsofhumanpsy chology.

1)Sub-
pri
ncipl
esofClassi
calCondit
ioni
ng:Ther
ear
ecer
tai
nsub-
pri
nci
pleswhi
chexpl
ain
thedi
ff
erentphenomenaofthisexperi
ment.

a)Ext inctionandSpontaneousRecover y:Extinctionmeanscessat i

onofar esponse.The
strengt hoftheCSgr aduall
ydecreaseswheni tispresentedaloneandnotf oll
owedbyUCS
foranumberoft r
ail
s.Thisprocessiscall
ed' extinct
ion'
.Inthi
sexper imentwhenonl ybel
li
s
present edwi t
houtfoodforanumberoft r
ials,thedogst oppedsalivationgraduall
y.But
whent heCS( bell
)waspai redagainwithUCS( food)forsomet ri
als,t
heCR( sali
vati
on)
recover ed.Thisi
sknownas' spontaneousrecov ery'
.Inspontaneousr ecoverythedog
requiredl essnumber.tri
alsthanthefir
stti
me, becausetheassoci ati
onbet weenCSand
UCSst il
lexist
edinthebrainoftheani mal.

b)Sti
mul usGeneral
izat
ion:Aphenomenoni nwhichaconditi
onedr esponseiseli
cit
edby
sti
mulithatar
esimil
arbutnotidenticalt
otheconditi
onedsti
mulus.At endencytorespond
toastimuluswhichi
ssimi l
artoori
ginaloneiscal
ledsti
mulusgener al
i
zation,t
hegreater
thesi
mi l
ari
ty,
themor ethegener
alizati
on.I
nthisexperi
ment,t
hedogst artedsali
vat
ing
evenforthesoundofabuzzerwhi chwassi mil
artobell
.

c)Sti
mulusDiscrimination:Aprocessthr
oughwhi chindivi
dualsl
earntodiff
erent
iat
e
amongsimilarsti
mul iandrespondappropriat
elytoeachone.Whent hereismuch
dif
fer
encebetweent wost imuli
,theani
mal candiscriminatebetweenthetwo.Forexample,
i
fthedogisconditionedt osal
ivateatt
hesignal ofredlight
,itwil
lnotsal
iv
atewhengr een
l
ighti
spresented.

d)HigherOrderCondi
ti
oni
ng:I
fa'li
ght
'ispresent
edfoll
owedbybellandt
henbyf
oodfora
numberoftri
als,
thedogwil
lst
artsal
iv
atingtoli
ghti
tsel
f.Thi
sphenomenoni
scal
ledhi
gher
ordercondi
ti
on.

Allthesepr i
nciplesar ev er
y
usef uli
nbehav iourt herapy.
Inourday -t
o-day 'sli
fewe
comeacr ossmany
i
nst ancesofsuchl ear ni
ng.
Forexampl e,asmal l chil
d
whodoesnotknow,
touchesabur ningcandl e,it
giveshim apai nf ul
exper i
enceandwi t
hdr aws
hishand.Lat ert his
exper i
encewi l
lmakehi m
wi
thdr
awf
rom bur
ningobj
ect
sandav
oidt
hem al
ltoget
her
.

Condit
ioni
ngisusedaspsy chother
apeuti
ctechniqueveryef
fect
ivel
yint
hetr
eatmentof
abnormalbehavi
ourssuchasphobi as,
alcohol
ism,enuresi
s,et
c.Thesear
ecall
edbehavi
our
modifi
cati
ontechniques.Watsonandothershaveconductedmanyexperi
mentstoprov
e
theuseful
nessofthismethod.

B)Oper antConditioning(Learni ngbyconsequences) :Operantconditioningdescribes

l
ear ni
nginwhi chvoluntaryresponsei sst rengthened,orweakened, dependi ngonits
positi
veornegat i
veconsequences.Thi smet hodofcondi ti
oni
ngwasdev elopedbyan
Amer i
canpsy chologistBFSki nner.Oper ant:Theor gani
sm operatesoni tsenv i
ronmentto
producesomedesi rableresul
t s.Thi
smet hodofcondi t
ioni
ngwasdev elopedbyan
Amer i
canpsy chologistBFSki nner.Thist heoryisalsoknownas' Instr
ument alcondit
ioni
ng'
,
becauset heanimal susecer t
ai noperationsoract i
onsasi nst
rument st ofindsoluti
on.
Skinnerconductedhi sfamousexper i
mentbypl aci
ngahungr yratinaboxcal ledafterhi
s
name' Skinnerbox'.Thisboxwascont ainingaleverandaf oodtrayinacor nerofthebox .

Itwassoar ranged,thattheanimal wasf reet

omov einsidethebox,butthepressi
ngofthe
l
ev erwouldgett heanimal apall
etoff oodinthetrayasr ei
nforcement.Accordi
ngtoE.L.
Thorndike'
sLawofef fect-behavi
ourf oll
owedbyposi tiveoutcomestendstobe
str
engthenedwhi l
ebehav i
ourfoll
owedbynegat i
veout comest endstobeweakened.Itison
thebasisoft heseexperiments,Skinnermadehi sfamousst atement"Rewar dedbehav
iour
i
sr epeated"
.

1)Rei nfor cement :It

i
ncr easesormai nt ains
behav iour .Itist hepr ocess by
whi chast imul usi ncr eases the
probabi li
tyt hatapr eceding
behav iourwi llber epeat ed.
Primar yr einforcerr efersto an
unlear nedr ei nforcerhav i
ng a
biological basi se. g.f ood,
wat er.Secondar y
reinforcer :secondar y
reinforcer sar el ear ntand
culturallydet ermi nedoracqui r
edduetopersonal
experi
ence,e.
g.money,
prai
se.Ski
nner
calledt hepr ocesst hatleadst
her
attopressthel
evercont
inuousl
yasrei
nfor
cement.

a)Ty
pesofRei
nfor
cement
:

i
)Posit
iveReinforcement
:Posi
ti
verei
nfor
cementisusedi
nrewar
dtrai
ning.I
tadds
pl
easant,v
aluableordesi
rabl
esti
mulustoincr
easeormai
ntai
nbehavi
our

i
i)Negat i
veReinfor
cement :Negat i
ver ei
nforcement -l
ikepunishmentisusedtostop
undesiredresponsesorbehav iours.Skinnercalledthepr ocessthatl
eadstherattopr
ess
thel
ev erconti
nuouslyasreinforcement .Itr
emov esav er
sivesti
mulustoincr
easeor
maintainbehaviour
.Itoccursint wof ormsofl earning:
EscapeConditioni
ng:Itoccur swhenanor ganism lear
nstomakear esponseto
 bei
nganav
ersi
ont
oanend.

Avoi
danceCondit
ioni
ng:I
toccur
swhenanor
gani
sm r
espondst
oasi
ngl
eofan
i
mpendingpr
oblem

2)Puni
shment:Puni
shmentweakenstheresponse.Decr
easesthefrequencyof
undesi
rabl
ebehavi
our.I
tdecr
easest
helikel
ihoodofabehaviourhappeni
ngagain.

a)Ty
pesofPunishment:
i
)Posit
ivePuni
shment
:Itaddsav
ersi
vest
imul
ust
odecr
easebehav
iour
.

i
i)Negati
vePunishment:I
tremovespl
easant,
valuabl
eordesi
rabl
est
imul
ust
odecr
ease
behavi
our.
b)Eff
ecti
venessofPunishment:
i
. Puni shmentshouldbefol
l
owedimmedi at
ely.
ii
. Consi st
ent
i
ii
. Puni shmentshouldbepai
redwit
hreinf
orcement.

3)OtherConcepts:
a)Shaping:Shapi
ngisamethodofoperantcondi
ti
oni
ngbywhi
chsuccessi
ve
appr
oximationsofatar
getbehav
iorar
er ei
nfor
ced.

b)Successi
veApproxi
mation:Smal
lst
epsi
nbehav
iour
,oneaf
tert
heot
hert
hatl
eadst
oa
par
ti
culargoal
behavi
our.

c)Ext
inct
ion:I
tinv
olv
est
her
emov
aloft
her
einf
orcement
.

d)Gener
ali
zati
on:Oper
antcondi
ti
onedr
esponsescanbegener
ali
zedt
ost
imul
ithatar
e
onl
ysimi
lartotheor
igi
nal
sti
mulus.

e)Di
scr
iminat
iveSt
imulus:Thesti
mulusthatpr
ovi
dest
heor
gani
sm wi
thacuef
ormaki
ng
acer
tai
nresponsei
nordertoobtai
nreinf
orcement
.

Operantcondit
ioningi
susef ulinshapingundesirabl
ebehav i
ourandal soinmodi f
icati
onof
behavi
our.ADHD.Thi sisalsousef uli
ntrai
ningofment al
lyretardedchil
drentolearn
dressi
ng,eat
ingandt oil
ettrai
ningskil
ls,t
reatmentofphobias, drugandalcoholaddict
ions,
andpsychotherapyandt oteachneededbehav i
ourinchil
dren.Fur t
her
,theseexperiments
haveprovedthatinter
mittentreinf
orcementy i
eldsbett
erresultsthancontinuous
rei
nfor
cement .

I
II
)Memor
y-Def
ini
ti
on,
Types,
CausesofFor
get
ti
ng

I
V)Memor
yImpr
ovementTechni
ques

Mnemoni
cs(
pronouncedasni
-moni
cks)-met
hodsort
echni
quesofenhanci
ngmemor
y.
Amnemonicdev
ice,ormemorydev
ice,
isanyl
ear
ningtechni
quethatai
dsinf
ormat
ionr
etenti
onor
r
etr
iev
al(
rememberi
ng)int
hehumanmemor yf
orbett
erunderst
andingTherearebasi
callytwo
br
oadcat egor
iesofmnemoni
cs;
onecategoryofmnemoni
csusei
mages,
whi
l
eot
heruses
pr
inci
plesoforgani
zat
iont
omemori
seinformati
on.

A.Mnemoni
csUsingImages
Ther
earemanystr
ategi
eswhi
chuseimagest
oimproveef
fi
ciencyi
nret
aini
ngandr
etr
iev
al
ofi
nfor
mati
on.Fol
l
owingtwoty
pesofmnemonicsusei
mages

1.Met
hodofLoci:pl
aci
ngimagesatt
helocati
on
Thi
smethodusesthel
ocat
ionofaf
amili
arpl
aceasacuet
oret
ri
evei
nfor
mat
ion.

Exampl e, y
ouwantt olearnal i
stofobjectsthaty ouwanttobuyf rom anearbygrocery
store.Thel i
stscontai
nitemsl ikeegg,tomato, pen,washi
ngpowderandsal t
.Nowt o
remembert heseit
ems, fi
rst,vi
sualiseeachoft hem tobelocat
edi nsomesepar atespati
al
l
ocat i
on, suchas,i
ndi f
ferentroomsofy ourhouse.Then,mentallygothroughyourhouse
visuali
singeachitem inasepar at
eplace.Afterreachi
ngthemar ket,al
lyouneedt odoisto
takeanot hermental t
ourofy ourhouseandr ecallt
heit
emsy ouhav eplacedinthediff
erent
l
ocat i
oni nasequence.

2.Key
wor
dmet
hod
Thekeywordmet
hodi sconsi
deredappr
opr
iateforl
earni
ngvocabul
aryandf
orei
gnl
anguage.I
nthi
s
method,anyt
wopiecesofinf
ormati
onarel
inkedusingimages.
Exampl e:Youcomeacr ossawor d“scowl
”whichst andsfor“anangryorbad-t
emper edexpression”.
I
nor dert olearnitsmeaningfirst,
youneedtofindakey word-af amil
i
arwordthatsoundssi milarto
thetar getwor dscowl
.Now, usinganimagetrytor el
ateyourtargetwordt
ot hekeyword.Sincet he
word‘ scowl ’
soundssimilartoowl ;y
oucanimagi neapictureofanowl wi
thanangr yexpression.
Studieshav esuggestedthatt hismethodofl
ear ni
ngdefini
ti
onorv ocabul
aryisfarmoresuper ior
thanr otelearning

B.Mnemoni
csUsi
ngOr
gani
sat
io:
Iti
mpr
ovest
heabi
l
ityt
olear
nandr
etr
iev
einf
ormat
ion
accur
atel
ybyappl
yi
ngt hepr
inci
pleofr
eorgani
zat
ionoft
hemat
eri
alt
obel
ear
ned.Under
thi
ssecti
on,
wewilldi
scusstwotypesofmnemonics:

1.Chunki
ng:
Itisamet hodofcombi ningsmallerunitsi
ntomeaningfull
argerunit
s, suchas,ifyouwere
askedtoremembert hefoll
owingseriesofnumber: 1-
9-3-
9-1-9-4-5I
fyouar ewel l
versed
withworl
dhi story,t
hen,
youcanal sogr oupthesenumbersint hefol
lowingway s;1939-
1945SecondWor l
dWarst ar
tedin1939andendedi n1945.Int hi
sway ,youcanmemor i
se
aswellasr ecallt
hesenumber smor eaccuratel
y.Youcanalsochunki nformati
onbyusi ng
i
tinsentences, songsorphrases.

2. Fi r
stLett
erTechni
que:I
nthi
stechnique,
thefi
rstlett
erofeachwor
d,y
ouwantt
o
memor
ise,i
stakent
omakeameani ngful
wor dorsentence.
Forexample,
thecol
ouroft
herai
nbowcanberememberedusingthi
stechni
que.Vi
olet
I
ndigoBlueGreenYel
l
owOrangeRedThewordVIBGYORstandsforall
thesevencol
oursof
therai
nbow.

V)Ty pesoflearni
ngDi sabi
li
ties:Learni
ngdisabili
ti
es'i
saterm usedt odescri
beaspectrum
ofdisordersi
nwhi chaper sonhasser i
ousdiff
icult
yinunder
standingandl ear
ningina
ty
pical manner.Chil
drenhav i
ngl ear
ningdisabi
lityshowpoorcapacityforlear
ningin
compar isontootherchil
drenoft hatage.Mostl earni
ngdi
sabledchildrenpossessnormal
i
ntell
igencebutmayl agbehi ndinacademi cper f
ormanceduet odiff
icult
yinreading,
wri
ting
ormat hematics.

A)Speci f
icLear ningDisabi l
it
y:Iti
sagener alterm usedt odescribespeci f
ickindsof
l
ear ningproblems.Al earningdisabili
tyaffectsabili
tytolearnandusecer tainskil
ls.A
neur opsychological conditi
ont y
picall
yappear inginthef i
rstthreey earsofli
fethat
signi fi
cantlyaffectsaper son'
sabi l
it
ytocommuni cate,understandr el
ati
onshipsandr el
ate
toot hers,andisf requentlyassociatedwithunusual orstereotypicalri
tual
sorbehav i
our
s.
Ty picallyaffect
edar ereading,wr i
ti
ng,li
stening,speaking, r
easoni ng,di
recti
ngat t
enti
on,
doi ngmat hemat icalcalculati
onsandcoor dinati
ngmov ement s.

1)Dy
slexi
a:Di
ff
icul
ti
esexper
iencedi
nreadi
ng,

2)Dy
scal
cul
i
a:Di
ff
icul
ti
eswi
thmat
hemat
ics,
and

3)Dysgr
aphia:
Diff
icul
ti
eswit
hwriti
ngar
eal
sousedwhenaddr
essi
ngdi
sabi
l
iti
est
hat
af
fectspeci
fi
caspectsofl
ear
ning.

B)Sy
mptoms:Accordi
ngtotheDSM- 5(Di
agnost
icandStat
ist
ical
Manual
ofMent
al
Di
sor
der
s),
Speci
ficLearni
ngDisabi
l
iti
esischar
acter
izedby
:

1)Readi
ng(
Thei
ndi
vi
dual
mayr
eadi
naccur
atel
yorsl
owl
yandwi
thef
for
t.
)

2)Under
standi
ngt
hemeani
ngofwhati
sread

3)Spel
l
ing

4)Wr
it
tenexpr
essi
onUnder
standi
ngnumber
sorcal
cul
ati
on

5)Mat
hemat
ical
reasoni
ng

C)CausesofLearni
ngDisabil
it
ies:
1)Geneti
cFactor
2)Organi
cFactor
/Neur
ologicalDysf
unct
ion:
a)Br
ainInj
ury

D)Tr
eat ment:
1)Lear ni
ngdisabi
lit
iesaremostcommonlyaddr
essedwit
hspeci
aleducati
on.
Educator
smayassessbot hachil
d'
sacademi
cperf
ormanceandpotenti
alandt
hen
teachl
earningskil
lsbyexpandi
ngachil
d'
sexi
sti
ngabi
li
ti
esandcorrect
ingor
compensatingfordisabi
l
iti
es.
2)Treat
mentmayalsoinv
olv
etheser
vicesoft
her
api
stswhospeci
ali
zei
npar
ti
cul
ar
domains,
suchasspeechandl
anguage.

3)I
nsomecases,
medi
cat
ionsmaybeusedt
oincr
easeachi
l
d'sabi
l
ityt
ofocus.

4)Thespecificdetail
sofinterventi
onsforl
earni
ngdi sabil
it
iesdiff
erbasedont hetype
ofdisabi
li
tyandi tsseveri
ty,butcanincl
udespeciali
zed,intensi
v et
eachi
ngmet hods
andt heuseofaudi orecorders,audi
obooks,wor
d- processi
ngpr ograms,andother
for
msoft echnologytohelpcompensat eforadisabili
tyduringlear
ning.