Solution Outlines for Chapter 16

# 1: Let f (x) = 4x3 + 2x2 + x + 3 and g(x) = 3x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x + 4, where f (x), g(x) ∈
Z5 [x]. Compute f (x) + g(x) and f (x) · g(x).

f (x) + g(x) = 3x4 + (4 + 3)x3 + (2 + 3)x2 + (1 + 1)x + (3 + 4) = 3x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 2

# 2: In Z3 [x], show that the distinct polynomials x4 + x and x2 + x determine the

same function from Z3 to Z3 .

Let f (x) = x4 + x and g(x) = x2 + x. Observe: f (0) = 0 = g(0), f (1) = 2 = g(1), and
f (2) = 24 + 2 = 18 = 0 = 6 = 22 + 2 = g(2).

# 4: If R is a commutative ring, show that the characteristic of R[x] is the same

as the characteristic of R.

Let R be a commutative ring with characteristic k. Then kr = 0 for all r ∈ R. Now, let
f (x) ∈ R[x]. Then f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 for some ai ∈ R, and some
n ∈ Z>0 . Then kf (x) = (kan )xn + (kan−1 )xn−1 + · · · + (ka1 )x + ka0 = 0 + 0 + · · · + 0 = 0.
Hence the characteristic of R[x] is at most k. However, since for all r ∈ R, r ∈ R[x], the
characteristic of R[x] must be at least k. Thus the characteristic is exactly k.

# 6: List all the polynomials of degree 2 in Z2 [x]. Which of these are equal as
functions from Z2 to Z2 ?

If f (x) is to have degree 2 in Z2 [x] then its leading term must be x2 . The linear and constant
terms can have coefficient 0 or 1, so there are 4 total options. The options are x2 , x2 + 1,
x2 + x, and x2 + x + 1.

Now, to determine which are equal as functions, I simply need to observe the behavior
of each polynomial on the elements of Z2 . If they send the elements to the same place, then
they are equal as functions. For x2 : 0 7→ 0, 1 7→ 1. For x2 + 1: 0 7→ 1, 1 7→ 0. For x2 + x:
0 7→ 0, 1 7→ 0. For x2 + x + 1: 0 7→ 1, 1 7→ 1. Since none of these send both 0 and 1 to the
same place, they are all distinct as functions.

# 10: Let R be a commutative ring. Show that R[x] has a subring isomorphic to
R.

Let R be a commutative ring and consider R[x]. Define φ : R → R[x] by r 7→ r. Clearly φ

is one-to-one and a homomorphism. Now, φ(R) is a subring of R[x] since it is the image of
a homomorphism. Then φ(R) is a subring of R[x] isomorphic to R.

# 11: If φ : R → S is a ring homomorphism, define φ̄ : R[x] → S[x] by (an xn + · · · +

a1 x + a0 ) → φ(an )xn + · · · + φ(a0 ). Show that φ̄ is a ring homomorphism.
Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · a1 x + a0 and g(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · b1 x + b0 with
f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x]. Let s = max{n, m}. Now, φ̄(f (x) + g(x)) = φ̄((as + bs )xs + (as−1 +
bs−1 )xs−1 + · · · + (a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 )) = φ(as + bs )xs + · · · + φ(a1 + b1 )x + φ(a0 + b0 )
where ai and bi are in R. But φ is a ring homomorphism from R to S so (i) it splits over
addition and (ii) it yields coefficients in S. So φ̄(f (x) + g(x)) = (φ(an )xn + · · · + φ(a1 )x +
φ(a0 ) + (φ(bm )xm + · · · + φ(b1 )x + φ(b0 )) = φ̄(f (x)) + φ̄(g(x)). Similarly, you can show that
φ̄ preserves multiplication. Hence it is a ring homomorphism.

# 15: Show that the polynomial 2x + 1 in Z4 [x] has a multiplicative inverse in

Z4 [x].

Observe that (2x + 1)(2x + 1) = 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 1 so 2x + 1 is its own inverse.

# 16: Are there any nonconstant polynomials in Z[x] that have multiplicative
inverses? Explain your answers.

No.
Pn Note,i we argued this intuitively. Here’s a Pmore formal argument. Suppose that f (x) =
m i
Pn+m i
a
i=0 i x has a multiplicative inverse g(x) = b
i=0 i x . Then f (x)g(x) = i=0 ci x = 1.
This implies that c0 = 1 and ck = 0 for all k 6= 0. In particular, c1 = a0 b1 + a1 b0 = 0. But
a0 = b−1 −1
0 from c0 = 1. So c1 = b0 b1 + a1 b0 = 0 This implies that b1 = 0 = a1 . But induction,
it is clear that ai = bi = 0 for all i 6= 0. Hence, f (x) and g(x) are constant, which is a
contradiction.

# 17: Let p be a prime. Are there any non constant polynomials in Zp [x] that
have multiplicative inverses? Explain your answer.

No, there are not any. Consider f (x)g(x) = (an xn + · · · a1 x + a0 )(bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0 ) =

an bm xn+m + · · · + a0 b0 and an bm 6= 0. For this to have a multiplicative inverse, each non-
constant term in f (x)g(x) must be 0, but an bm non-zero shows this is not so.

# 19: (Degree Rule) Let D be an integral domain and f (x), g(x) ∈ D[x]. Prove
that deg (f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x). Show, by example, that for a
commutative ring R it is possible that deg f (x)g(x) < deg f (x) + deg g(x),
where f (x) and g(x) are nonzero elements in R[x].
Pn i
Let D bePm an integral domain and f (x), g(x) ∈ D[x]. Suppose that f (x) = i=0 ai x and
g(x)
Pn+m= i=0n+m bi xi so that deg(f (x)) = n and deg(g(x)) = m. We know that f (x)g(x) =
i=0 cn+m x where cn+m = a0 bn+m + a1 bn+m−1 + · · · + an+m−1 b1 + an+m b0 . Since the ai
and bj are in an integral domain, ai bj 6= 0 when ai 6= 0 and bj 6= 0. In particular, we know
that an and bm are non-zero so an bm 6= 0. Now, all other terms in the sum of cn+m are zero
because either ai has i > n or bj has j > m. Thus cn+m = an bm . Thus, cn+m is not zero and
the deg(f (x)g(x)) = n + m.
# 20: Prove that the ideal < x > in Q[x] is maximal.

First, let’s look at Q[x]/ < x >. This quotient ring contains cosets that look like a+ < x >
where a ∈ Q. Thus, using the map Q[x]/ < x >→ Q defined by a+ < x >= a is an isomor-
phism. Thus Q[x]/ < x >≈ Q. Now, Q is a field so < x > is maximal.

# 28: Let f (x) ∈ R[x]. Suppose that f (a) = 0 but f 0 (a) 6= 0 where f 0 (x) is the
derivative of f (x). Show that a is a zero of f (x) of multiplicity 1.

Clearly, f (x) has a as a zero with multiplicity of at least 1. Suppose that it has multiplicity
k > 1. Then f (x) = (x − a)k g(x) for some g(x). So f 0 (x) = k(x − a)k−1 g(x) + (x − a)k g 0 (x) =
(x − a)k−1 (kg(x) + (x − a)g 0 (x)). Now, k > 1 implies that k − 1 ≥ 1. So f 0 (a) = 0, which is
a contradiction.

# 50: Let R be a ring and x be an indeterminate. Prove that the rings R[x] and
R[x2 ] are ring-isomorphic.

Let R be a ring and x be an indeterminate. Consider the rings R[x] and R[x2 ]. To show
that they are isomorphic, let φ : R[x] → R[x2 ] be defined by f (x) 7→ f (x2 ). We see that
addition is preserved since φ(f (x) + g(x)) = φ((f + g)(x)) = (f + g)(x2 ) = f (x2 ) + g(x2 ) =
φ(f (x)) + φ(g(x)). Similarly, it is clear that multiplication is preserved. This is one-to-one
since kerφ = {f (x)|f (x2 ) = 0} = {0}, and onto is also straightforward to show.

# 56: For any field F recall that F (x) denotes the field of quotients of the ring
F [x]. Prove that there is no element in F (x) whose square is x.
 2
f (x)
Suppose that there is an element in F (x) whose square is x. Then = x. WLOG,
g(x)
assume that f (x) and g(x) have no common factors (so that the quotient is already in
2
(f (x))2

f (x)
reduced form). Then = = x. So (f (x))2 = x(g(x))2 . Hence, (f (0))2 = 0
g(x) (g(x))2
so f (0) = 0. This means that x|f (x). So f (x) = xh(x) for some h(x). Plugging this
in, we have that (xh(x))2 = x(g(x))2 so x(h(x))2 = (g(x))2 . Using the same argument as
before, g(0) = 0 and x|g(x). Therefore f (x) and g(x) have x as a common factor, which is
a contradiction.