JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Introduction to Manufacturing Processes & its Classifications

What is Manufacturing?
• “act of making something (a product) from raw materials”
• The word manufacture is derived from Latin word manufactus, manus (hand) and factus
(made/make); the combination means “made by hand’’
Practical definition: Process of converting or processing raw materials into usable products
Most modern manufacturing operations are accomplished by mechanized and automated equipment that
is supervised by human workers
Today manufacturing can be defined two ways:
• Technologically
• Economically
Manufacturing - Technologically
Application of physical and chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a
starting material to make parts or products
▪ Manufacturing also includes assembly
▪ Almost always carried out as a sequence of operations

Manufacturing - Economically
• Manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater value by means of one or more
processing and/or assembly operations.
•Manufacturing adds value to the material by changing its shape or properties, or by combining it
with other materials (this is done by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations)

What is Manufacturing Process?

Process: a series of actions that have been taken to achieve a desired result
Manufacturing processes: the steps and tools used to convert the raw materials or the semi-product
into semi-product or final products.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Why Manufacturing is important?

• To produce goods for a human being to support living and improve the standard of life.
• Economic growth for any country depends mainly on manufacturing.
• Manufacturing creates jobs.
• Manufactured goods are essential for the service industries.
• Manufacturing is the foundation of global “Great Power”.
• Manufacturing and Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Manufacturing Processes classification:

Mass conserving, dM ~ 0 • examples: casting, bulk forming, powder processing
Mass reducing, dM < 0 • examples: conventional machining
Mass adding, dM > 0 • examples: joining processes

Classification of Manufacturing Processes

When considering how we make things, we can classify manufacturing processes into three broad
categories:
➢ Formative Manufacturing (Casting and Forming)
➢ Subtractive Manufacturing (Machining)
➢ Additive Manufacturing (Adding Layer by Layer)
➢ Joining Processes (Welding Soldering and Brazing)
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Casting, Machining and Additive Manufacturing

Manufacturing Processes: Two basic types:

Processing operations: transform a work material from one state of completion to a more advanced
state. Operations that change the geometry, properties, or appearance of the starting material
Assembly operations: join two or more components to create a new entity
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Manufacturing process selection: Factors affecting selection of manufacturing process:

➢Product materials
➢Product size and shape
➢Product quantity
➢Product quality (accuracy and surface finish) and mechanical properties
➢Energy consumption
➢Waste of material
➢Material cost
➢Equipment & tooling cost
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

L2 Joining Processes:
The Products which are not possible to manufacture as single piece are fabricated by joining different
parts. Examples of such products are steel furniture, computers and wooden chairs, bridges, transmission
or electric towers.
Joining is an important process in a number of industries, such as aerospace, automotive, oil, and gas.
Many products cannot be fabricated as a single piece, so components are fabricated first and assembled
later. Joining technology can be classified as a liquid-solid-state process and mechanical means.
Liquid-solid-state joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding. Mechanical
joining includes fasteners, bolts, nuts, and screws.

All joining processes can be categorized based on the type of joint produced under two categories:
1. Permanent Joint
2. Temporary joint
• Permanent Joint: the joint is made such that it has the properties similar to the base metal of
the two parts. Permanently joined parts cannot be separated in to their original shape, size and
surface finish.
• A temporary joint can be easily dismantled separating the original parts without any damage to
them.
All the joining processes can also be categorized under five headings, based on the process used for
making the joint, 1. Welding 2. Brazing 3. Soldering 4. Mechanical fasteners (rivets, bolts and nuts,
screws, etc.,) 5. Adhesive bonding

Mechanical Fastening: Mechanical fasteners are most widely used for temporary joints with the
exception of rivets, which need to be broken or destroyed for dismantling
Least expensive for low volume
Problems: Strength, seal, loosening insersion.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Soldering: A joining method using low melting point lead tin alloy (solder) to fill in a small gap
between sheets.Temperature will be between 200oc to 300oc

Welding and adhesive bonding are used to make permanent or semi-permanent joint.
Brazing and soldering are considered to form permanent joints, but for repair or replacement, we can
dismantle them by heating.
The choice of particular joining process depends upon several factors such as application, nature of loads
or stresses, joint design, material involved, and size and shape of the component.
Welding- Principle of welding, Types of welding
➢ Welding is a process of joining similar and dissimilar metals or other material by application of
heat with or without application of pressure and addition of filler material.
➢ Welding is essential process of every manufacturing industry.
➢ Introduction Welding is a process in which two or more parts are joined permanently at their
touching surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Often a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence. The assembled parts that are joined by welding are called a
weldment. Welding is primarily used in metal parts and their alloys.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Welding is used extensively in all sectors or manufacturing, from earth moving equipment to the
aerospace industry. The number of different welding processes has grown in recent years. These
processes differ greatly in the manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied, and in the
type of equipment used. There are currently over 50 different types of welding processes; we’ll focus on
only two processes namely arc welding and Gas welding.
Classification of Welding Processes:
Welding
Solid state / (Pressure)
Liquid State /Fusion Welding Solid / Liquid State
Cold welding
Autogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous:
Use Filler Material
No additional Filler Use Filler Material (Chemical Composition (Chemical Composition
Material same as parent material) not same as parent
material)
Cold welding (No heat)
Chemical Reaction
Explosive (TNT) Creating ARC (High
(combustion of Fuel) Soldering (Temp less
Pressure Welding current for creating
will create heat for than 450oc) Lead and tin
Ultosonic (High Arc) for melting
melting
Frequency )
Forge Welding With Gas Welding and AC Welding and DC Brazing (Temp greater
Heat Thermit Welding Welding (Polarity) than 450oc) Copper zinc
Metal ARC
OXY Acetylene
Friction welding submerged Welding Joining of thin sheets
(O2 and C2H2)
(Flux Fusible)
Diffusion welding Air Acetylene Plasma ARC (ION)
Inert Gas TIG and
Resistance Welding
MIG (GTAW and
Spot welding
GMAW) Gas
Projection welding Oxy Hydrogen
Tungsten ARC
Seam welding
Welding Gas Metal
H = I2RT
ARC Welding
Thermit Welding
Exothermic Reaction Atomic Hydrogen
Releases Heat Welding LBW EBW
(Al2O3 and Fe2)

1. Welding process can be also classified as:

Autogeneous: During welding process, no filler metal is added to the joint interface. For
example: solid welding process and electric resistance welding
Homogeneous: During welding process, filler metal is added and is of the same type as the
parent metal. For Example: Arc welding
Heterogeneous: During welding process, filler metal is added and is of a different type from the
parent metal. Example: Brazing and soldering
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

2. Welding processes are classified into two major groups:

1. Fusion welding: In this process, base metal is melted by means of heat. Often, in fusion welding
operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and
strength to the joint. Commonly used fusion welding processes are: arc welding, resistance welding,
oxyfuel welding, electron beam welding and laser beam welding.

2. Solid-state welding: In this process, joining of parts takes place by application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is used. Commonly used solid-state welding
processes are: friction welding, ultrasonic welding
3. Classification of Welding Processes: Welding processes can be classified based on following
criteria;
1. Welding with or without filler material.
2. Source of energy of welding.
3. Arc and Non-arc welding.
4. Fusion and Pressure welding (SOLID STATE WELDING)

Arc welding: In this operation, electric arc is used to produce heat energy and the base metal is heated.
Sometimes, both pressure and heat are applied.
Arc welding processes with consumable electrodes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW): - In this process, a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod
which is coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding, is used. - Generally the filler metal has chemical
composition very close to base metal.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW): - In this process, electrode is a consumable wire (0.8 to 6.5 mm diameter). -
shielding gas is provided separately over arc by a pipe - Shielding gas: Helium, Argon, mixture of gases;
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW): arc welding process in which the electrode is continuous consumable that
contains flux.
Submerged arc welding (SAW): - In this process, a continuous bare electrode wire is used. The shielding is
provided by external granular flux through hopper. - Granular flux is provided just before the weld arc. - granular
flux completely provides protection from sparks, spatter, and radiation and hence safety glasses, gloves can be
avoided.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Arc welding processes with non-consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): - It uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode and shielding gas
(inert gas) for shielding. - Also called tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). Tungsten is a good electrode
material due to its high melting point of 3400°C.
Plasma arc welding - In PAW, a tungsten electrode is kept in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity
stream of inert gas into the region of the arc to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream. -
Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000°C.
Electron beam welding: In this process, welding is carried out by highly focused, high intensity
electron beam bombarding against the work piece. Generally carried out in vacuum, otherwise there will
be disruption of electron beam by air molecules
LBW is a fusion welding process in which joining/coalescence is attained by the heat energy of a
highly concentrated, coherent light beam focused on the joint to be welded. LB welds are of high
quality, deep penetrated, and exhibit narrow HAZ.
Resistance welding: In this operation, electric resistance is generated to the flow of current that
generates heat energy between two contacting surfaces that are held in pressure.

Chemical Reaction (combustion of Fuel) will create heat for melting

Gas welding: Oxyfuel gas welding is a welding operation in which heat is generated by a hot flame
generated mixture gas of oxygen and acetylene. This heat is used to melt base material and filler
material, if used
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Thermite (thermit): a mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic
reaction when ignited. In thermit welding, the heat for coalescence/joining is produced by superheated
molten metal formed from the chemical reaction of thermit.

Solid state welding processes

Diffusion welding: Two part surfaces are held together under pressure at elevated temperature and the
parts join by solid state diffusion.
Ultrasonic welding: Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an oscillating motion at
ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting surfaces
Explosive welding, because of progressive explosion, high pressure zone propels the flyer plate to
collide with the backer metal progressively at high velocity, so that an angular shape is generated as the
explosion advances.

Friction welding/Stir welding: Joining occurs by the heat of friction and plastic deformation between
two surfaces.

Advantages and Limitation of Welding

Advantages of welding are enlisted below:
1. Permanent joint is produced, which becomes an integral part of work piece.
2. Joints can be stronger than the base metal if good quality filler metal is used.
3. Economical method of joining.
4. It is not restricted to the factory environment.
Disadvantages of welding are enlisted also below:
1. Labour cost is high as only skilled welder can produce sound and quality weld joint.
2. It produces a permanent joint which in turn creates the problem in dissembling if of sub-component
required.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

3. Hazardous fumes and vapours are generated during welding. This demands proper ventilation of
welding area.
4. Weld joint itself is considered as a discontinuity, variation in its structure, composition and
mechanical properties; therefore welding is not commonly recommended for critical application where
there is a danger of life.
Applications: Although most of the welding processes at the time of their developments could not get their place
in the production except for repair welding, however, at the later stage these found proper place in
manufacturing/production. Presently welding is widely being used in for both domestic and industrial applications
General Applications: Welding is vastly being used for construction of transport tankers for transporting oil,
water, milk and fabrication of welded tubes and pipes, chains, LPG cylinders and other items. Steel furniture,
gates, doors and door frames, body and other parts of white goods items such as refrigerators, washing machines,
microwave ovens and many other items
Pressure Vessels: One of the first major use of welding was in the fabrication of pressure vessels. Welding made
considerable increases in the operating temperatures and pressures
Bridges: Early use of welding in bridge construction took place in Australia. The first all welded bridge was
erected in UK in 1934. Since then all welded bridges are erected very commonly and successfully.
Ship Building: Ships were produced earlier by riveting. But welding would have allowed the semiskilled/
unskilled labor and the principle of pre-fabrication. Welding found its place in ship building and presently all
welded ships are widely used. Similarly submarines are also produced by welding.
Building Structures: Arc welding is used for construction of steel building leading to considerable savings in
steel and money. In addition to building, huge structures such as steel towers etc also require welding for
fabrication.
Aircraft and Spacecraft: Welding is widely used for aircraft structure and for joining of skin sheet to body.
Space vehicles require outer skin and other parts of special materials. These materials are welded with full success
achieving safety and reliability.
Railways: Railways use welding extensively for fabrication of coaches and wagons, lying of new railway tracks
by welding machines and repair of cracked/damaged tracks by welding.
Automobiles: Production of automobile components like chassis, body and its structure, fuel tanks and joining of
door hinges require welding.
Electrical Industry: Electrical Industry: Starting from generation to distribution and utilization of electrical
energy, welding plays important role. Components of both hydro and steam power generation system, such as
penstocks, water control gates, condensers, electrical transmission towers and distribution system equipment are
fabricated by welding.
Electronic Industry: Electronic industry uses welding to limited extent such as for joining leads of special
transistors but other joining processes such as brazing and soldering are widely being used. Soldering is used for
joining electronic components to printed circuit boards. Robotic soldering is very common for joining of parts to
printed circuit boards of computers, television, communication equipment and other control equipment etc.
Nuclear Installations: Spheres for nuclear reactor, pipe line bends joining two pipes carrying heavy water and
other components require welding for safe and reliable operations.
Defence Industry: Defence industry requires welding for joining of many components of war equipment. Tank
bodies’ fabrication & joining of turret mounting to main body of tanks are typical examples of applications of
welding.
Selection of the welding process: The selection of the joining process for a particular job depends upon many
factors. There is no one specific rule governing the type of welding process to be selected for a certain job. A few
of the factors that must be considered when choosing a welding process are:
• Availability of equipment
• Repetitiveness of the operation
• Quality requirements (base metal penetration, consistency, etc.)
• Location of work
• Materials to be joined
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

• Appearance of the finished product

• Size of the parts to be joined
• Time available for work
• Skill experience of workers
• Cost of materials
• Code or specification requirements
Fusion Welding Processes: Fusion welding is a joining process that uses fusion of the base metal
to make the weld. The three major types of fusion welding processes are as follows:
1. Gas welding: Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
2. Arc welding: Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Gas–tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Gas–metal arc
welding (GMAW) Submerged arc welding (SAW)
3. High-energy beam welding: Laser beam welding (LBW) Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Gas welding: Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) or Oxy fuel Gas Welding (OFW).
Gas welding derives heat from the combustion of fuel gas such as acetylene in combination with
oxygen. The process is a fusion welding process where the joint is completely melted to obtain the
fusion Heat is supplied by the combustion of acetylene in a stream of oxygen. Both gases are supplied to
the torch through flexible hoses. Heat from this torch is lower and far less concentrated than that from an
electric arc.
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW), shown in Figure below, is the most commonly used gas welding process
because of its high flame temperature. A flux may be used to deoxidize and cleanse the weld metal. The
flux melts, solidifies, and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld metal.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Three Types of Flames: Figure below shows three different types of flames in oxyacetylene welding:
neutral, reducing, and oxidizing, which are described next.

A. Neutral Flame This refers to the case where oxygen (O2) and acetylene (C2H2) are mixed in
equal amounts and burned at the tip of the welding torch. A short inner cone and a longer
outer envelope characterize a neutral flame (Figure 2a). The inner cone is the area where the
primary combustion takes place through the chemical reaction between O2 and C2H2, as shown in
Figure 3. The heat of this reaction accounts for about two thirds of the total heat generated. The
products of the primary combustion, CO and H2, react with O2 from the surrounding air and form
CO2 and H2O. This is the secondary combustion, which accounts for about one-third of the total
heat generated. The area where this secondary combustion takes place is called the outer
envelope. It is also called the protection envelope since CO and H2 here consume the O2
entering from the surrounding air, thereby protecting the weld metal from oxidation. For most
metals, a neutral flame is used.
B. Reducing Flame: When excess acetylene is used, the resulting flame is called a reducing
flame. The combustion of acetylene is incomplete. As a result, a greenish acetylene feather
between the inert cone and the outer envelope characterizes a reducing flame (Figure 2b).
This flame is reducing in nature and is desirable for welding aluminum alloys because
aluminum oxidizes easily. It is also good for welding high-carbon steels (also called carburizing
flame in this case) because excess oxygen can oxidize carbon and form CO gas porosity in the
weld metal.
C. Oxidizing Flame When excess oxygen is used, the flame becomes oxidizing because of the
presence of unconsumed oxygen. A short white inner cone characterizes an oxidizing flame 3
(Figure 2c). This flame is preferred when welding brass because copper oxide covers the weld
pool and thus prevents zinc from evaporating from the weld pool.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas welding

The main advantage of the oxyacetylene welding process is that the equipment is simple, portable, and
inexpensive. Therefore, it is convenient for maintenance and repair applications.
However, due to its limited power density, the welding speed is very low and the total heat input per
unit length of the weld is rather high, resulting in large heat-affected zones and severe distortion.
The oxyacetylene welding process is not recommended for welding reactive metals such as titanium and
zirconium because of its limited protection power.

3 Arc welding,
Arc welding and similar processes: Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more
metal parts. It consists of combination of different welding processes wherein coalescence is produced
by heating with an electric arc, (mostly without the application of pressure) and with or without the
use of filler metals depending upon the base plate thickness. A homogeneous joint is achieved by
melting and fusing the adjacent portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint has unit strength
approximately equal to that of the base material. The arc temperature is maintained approximately
4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent oxidation, which decomposes under the heat of welding
and releases a gas that shields the arc and the hot metal. The second basic method employs an inert or
nearly inert gas to form a protective envelope around the arc and the weld. Helium, argon, and carbon
dioxide are the most commonly used gases.
Arc welding Process: It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining of metals is done
by the heat energy generated by the arc between the work and electrode.
An electric arc is generated when the electrode contacts the work and then quickly separated to maintain
the gap. A temperature of 5500°C is generated by this arc.
This temperature is sufficient to melt most of the metals. The molten metal, consisting of base metal and
filler, solidifies in the weld region. In order to have seam weld, the power source moves along the weld
line
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

A line diagram indicating the whole process is shown in Figure above. Electric arc is generated when
electrode is brought into contact with the work and is then quickly separated by a short distance
approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates at low voltage and high current so arc is established in the gap
due to thermo ionic emission from electrode (Cathode) to work piece (Anode). The arc is sustained due
to continuous presence of a thermally ionized column of gas. This arc produces at temperature of the
order of 5500oC or higher. In this way a pool of molten metal consisting of work piece metal and filler
metal is formed in the welding zone. The solidified molten weld pool makes the strong welded joint.
Movement of the electrode relative to work piece is accomplished by either manually or by mechanical
means in case of automatic welding machines. Better uniformity and good quality weldments are
possible in case of automatic welding process. Arc welding equipments are listed below. The
equipments are categorized as facilitator, consumable and protecting equipments. Some of the
equipment of arc welding is same as that are used in gas welding like flux, protecting devices and
cleaning devices, etc.
Power Source: Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for welding. AC
machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are recommended for other
metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine is transformer which converts the supply
to low voltage and high current. For AC welding power is required at 80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80
ampere. For sustaining the established are power factor is kept low. In case of DC welding power is
required at 8 to 25 volts and 50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of polarities are
possible in case of DC welding.
DC is advantageous as better arc control is possible.

Figure shows three different polarities which are described next.

JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

A. Direct-Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) this, also called the straight polarity, is the most
common polarity in welding. The electrode is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply.
As shown in Figure a, electrons are emitted from the electrode and accelerated while traveling through
the arc. A significant amount of energy, called the work function, is required for an electron to be
emitted from the electrode. When the electron enters the work piece, an amount of energy equivalent to
the work function is released. This is why in DCEN more power (about two-thirds) is located at the
work end of the arc and less (about one-third) at the electrode end. Consequently, a relatively narrow and
deep weld is produced This polarity is commonly used for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and submerged
arc welding (SAW).
B. Direct-Current Electrode Positive (DCEP): This is also called the reverse polarity. The electrode is
connected to the positive terminal of the power source. As shown in Figure b, the heating effect of
electrons is now at the electrode rather than at the work piece. Consequently, a shallow weld is
produced. Furthermore, large-diameter, water-cooled electrodes must be used in order to prevent the
electrode tip from melting. The positive ions of the shielding gas bombard the work piece, as shown in
Figure below, knocking off oxide films and producing a clean weld surface. Therefore, DCEP can be
used for welding thin sheets of strong oxide-forming materials such as aluminium and magnesium,
where deep penetration is not required

Surface cleaning action with DC electrode positive

C. Alternating Current (AC) Reasonably good penetration and oxide cleaning action can both be
obtained, as illustrated in Figure c. This is often used for welding aluminum alloys. With AC, heat is
distributed 50/50 between the electrode and the workpiece
Electrodes : Two types of electrodes are used: consumable and non-consumable
• Consumable electrodes: Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm length and less than 10 mm
diameter. This is the source of filler rod in arc welding. The electrode is consumed by the arc during the
welding process and added to the weld joint as filler metal. The consumable electrodes will be changed
periodically as it is consumed for each welding trials. This becomes a disadvantage for welder and
reduces the production rate.
Consumable electrodes are the source of filler metal in case of arc welding. Consumable electrodes can
further be classified into two categories
a. Coated electrodes (Light coated electrode& heavily coated electrode)
b. Bare electrodes.
The coating generally serves the functions described below:
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

✓ It dissolves or reduces impurities such as oxides, sulfur, and phosphorus.

✓ This helps make flow of molten metal more uniform
✓ Improve the electric conductivity in the arc region to improve the arc ignition and stabilization of
the arc.
✓ Formation of slag, which;
o Influences size of droplet.
o Protects the droplet during transfer and molten weld pool from atmospheric gases.
o Protects solidified hot metal from atmospheric gases.
o Reduces the cooling rate of weld seam.
✓ Formation of shielding gas to protect molten metal.
✓ Provide deoxidizers like Si and Mn in form of FeSi and FeMn.
✓ Alloying with certain elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo to improve weld metal properties.
✓ Improve deposition rate with addition of iron powder in coating.
• Non-Consumable electrodes: The electrodes are not consumed during arc welding. Though this is the
case, some depletion occurs because of vaporization. Filler metal must be supplied by means of a
separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
Arc shielding: Shielding gas: This covers the arc, electrode tip and weld pool from external
atmosphere. The metals being joined are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the
atmosphere. So the shielding is done with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit exposure of
the weld metal to air. Common shielding gas: Argon, Helium
Flux: Used mainly to protect the weld region from formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and covers the weld region giving protection and it should be removed by
brushing as it is hardened.
Additional function, other than giving protection: stabilize the arc, and reduce spattering
Protecting Equipment a) Welding shields b) Goggles c) Screens d) Gloves e) Apron
COMPARISON OF ARC WELDING AND GAS WELDING
Arc welding Gas welding
Electric arc is the source of heat. Gas is the source of heat.
The arc temperature is about 4000 . The gas temperature is about 3200
Filler rod functions as electrodes. Filler rod is introduced separately.
Risk due to electric shock Risk due to gas pressure
Arc welded joints have very high
Gas welded joints have not much strength
strength
Brazing and soldering cannot be done
Brazing and soldering are done using gas
using electric arc
Filler metal should be same as or an
Filler metal need not be same as the parent metal
alloy of parent metal
This is a non-pressure fusion welding This is also a non-pressure fusion welding
method method.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

BRAZING SOLDERING AND ADHESIVE BONDING

Introduction: Brazing and soldering
✓ A filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action but no melting of parent metals
occurs.
✓ Brazing & soldering instead of fusion welding
✓ Join the metals with poor weldability.
✓ Join dissimilar metals.
✓ No heat damage on the surfaces.
✓ Geometry requirement is more relaxed than welding.
✓ No high strength requirement
Soldering: Soldering is the method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal
whose liquidus temperature is below 4500.The joint design used for soldering is similar to that of
brazing as in both cases filler metals enter the joint by capillary action. Like brazing, soldering also
needs solvent cleaning, acid pickling and mechanical cleaning of the joint surface. In order to remove
the oxides from the joint surface for avoiding filler metal from oxidizing, fluxes are generally used in
soldering.
➢ Soldering is similar to brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which a filler metal
with melting point not exceeding 450°C is melted and distributed by capillary action between the
faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
➢ As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler metal wets and combines with
the base metal to form a metallurgical bond.
➢ Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between the closely
fitting parts.
➢ Strength of the joint is weak
➢ Corrosion resistance is less

• Similar to Brazing but the filler material melts below 450°C

• A filler material is solder and sometimes tinning (coating the faying surfaces) is needed.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

• Typical clearance ranges from 0.076 to 0.127mm.

• After the process, the flux residue must be removed.
• Advantage
– Low energy, variety of heating methods, good electrical and thermal conductivity, air-tight & liquid-
tight seams and reparable
• Disadvantage
– Low strength, weak in high temperature applications

SOLDER: Alloys of Tin and Lead. Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and promotes
the wetting action required for successful joining.
Applications: 1) Printed Circuit Board (PCB) manufactures 2) Pipe joining (copper pipe) Easy to
solder: copper, silver, gold Difficult to solder: aluminum, stainless steels
Fluxes: Melt at soldering temperature, Remove oxide films, Prevent oxide formation, Promote wetting,
Displaced by the molten solder
Methods: Hand soldering – soldering gun – Wave soldering Multiple lead wires on a printed circuit
board (PCB)
Advantage
Low energy, variety of heating methods, good electrical and thermal conductivity, air-tight & liquid-
tight seams and reparable
Disadvantage
Low strength, weak in high temperature applications

Brazing
• It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between the
contact surfaces of the metal parts being joined but no melting of parent metals occurs
• In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature above 450°C, but below the melting point of base
metals to be joined.
• Join produced by this welding is stronger than soldering.
• This process offers better corrosion resistance.
• Filler used in brazing include Cu and Cu alloys, silver alloys and Al alloys.
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

• In this process heating is done by torch, furnace, induction, resistance, and bath dipping infrared
techniques.

In brazing the base metal is not melted. Dissimilar metals can be joined by brazing. Except aluminium
and magnesium, brazing can join almost all metals. Brazed joint is not useful for high temperature
welding because of the low melting temperature of the filler metal. Here the filler metal reaches the joint
by capillary action, it is necessary to control the clearance between two parts. The temperature at which
filler metal is entering the joint is also important. Too much clearance doesn’t allow capillary force to
draw the filler metal into the joint and also insufficient clearance may be too small to allow the filler
metal to give rise to an effective strength.
Advantages of brazing
✓ Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.
✓ Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing
✓ Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable by welding can be joined by
brazing.
✓ Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically fabricated with the help of
brazing.
✓ Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or gas tungsten arc spot or seam
welding can be formed by brazing.
✓ Any metals can be joined
✓ Multiple brazing at the same time
✓ Very thin parts can be joined
✓ No heat affected zone
✓ Joints inaccessible by welding can be brazed
Limitations:
➢ Strength,
➢ Low service temperature,
➢ Color mismatch with the color of base metal parts
Applications:
1. Automobile – Joining Tubes
2. Pipe/Tubing joining (HVAC)
3. Electrical equipment - joining wires
4. Jewelry Making
5. Chemical process industry, plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and tubes by
brazing
JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Comparison between Welding,soldering and brazing

JSS UNIVERSITY Elements of Mechanical Engineering Unit 3 Lecture Notes 2024

Adhesive bonding
✓ The filler material is called adhesive (usually polymer) requiring curing sometime with heat.
✓ Strength depends on chemical bonding, physical interaction (secondary bonds) and mechanical
locking.
✓ Surface preparation – clean and rough surfaces
✓ Application methods – Brushing, rollers, silk screen, flowing, splaying, roll coating
✓ Advantage – a wide variety of materials, different sizes, bonding over an entire surface and
flexible adhesives, low temp. curing, sealing, simple joint design
✓ Disadvantage – weaker bonding, compatible, limited service temperature, curing times and no
inspection method