DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS BY

PYCNOMETER METHOD

Aim:

To determine the specific gravity of soil solids by Pycnometer bottle method.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a stated
temperature to the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated
temperature.

Specification:

This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985. A soil’s specific gravity largely
depends on the density of the minerals making up the individual soil particles. However,
as a general guide, some typical values for specific soil types are as follows:

• The specific gravity of the solid substance of most inorganic soils varies
between 2.60 and 2.80.
• Tropical iron-rich laterite, as well as some lateritic soils, usually have a specific
gravity of between 2.75 and 3.0 but could behigher.
• Sand particles composed of quartz have a specific gravity ranging from 2.65 to
2.67.
• Inorganic clays generally range from 2.70 to 2.80.
• Soils with large amounts of organic matter or porous particles (such as
diatomaceous earth) have specific gravities below 2.60. Some range as low as
2.00.

Equipments Required:

a) Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity.

b) Balance accurate to 1g, glass rod, de-aired distilled water etc.

Theory:
Specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the weight of soil solids to weight of
equal volume of water. In effect, it tells how much heavier (or lighter) the material
is than water. This test method covers the determination of the specific gravity of
soil solids that pass 4.75 mm sieve.
 Equation for specific gravity, G:
G= (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))

Where, W1=weight of Pycnometer in grams.

W2=weight of Pycnometer + dry soil in grams.
W3=weight of Pycnometer + soil+ water grams.
W4=weight of Pycnometer + water grams.

Note: This method is recommended for coarse and fine grained soils

Procedure:

a) Clean and dry the pycnometer and weigh it along with the conical cap (W1 in gm).
b) Select about 300 gm of dry soil free of clods and put the same into the
pycnometre. Weigh it (W2 in g) with cap andwasher.
c) Fill the pycnometer with de-aired water up-to half its height and stir the mix with a
glass rod. Add more water and stir it. Fit the screw cap and fill the pycnometer
flush with the hole in the conical cap and take the weight (W3 in g).
d) Remove all the contents from the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly and fill it with
distilled water. Weigh it (W4 in g).
e) Now use the above equation for determiningG.
f) Repeat the same process for additionaltests.

Table:
Table 1: Weights of Pycnometer
Sl No Particulars Test No 1 Test No 2 Test No 3
(G1) (G2) (G3)
1 Weight of Pycnometer bottle
(W1), g
2 Weight of Pycnometer + dry
soil (W2),g
3 Weight of Pycnometer + soil
+ water, (W3), g
4 Weight of Pycnomerter +
water (W4), g
5 Calculation of specific
gravity, G
6 Average G = (G1+G2+G3)/3
Specimen calculations:

G= (W2-W1)/((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))

Result:

AVERAGE G=

Conclusion:

The experiment is conducted as per the procedure laid down. The specific gravity
of soil solids obtained is . This value falls in the range 2.6 to 2.75. Hence the
type of soil .
 DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL SOLIDS BY OVEN
DRYING METHOD

Aim:
To determine the water content of soil solids by Oven Drying method.

The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to the mass of water divided by
the mass of solids.

Specifications:

This test is done as per IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973. The soil specimen should be
representative of the soil mass. The quantity of the specimen taken would depend upon
the gradation and the maximum size of the particles. For more than 90% of the particles
passing through 425 micron IS sieve, the minimum quantity is 25g.

Equipments Required:
a) Non-corrodible airtightcontainers.
b) Balance weighting to accuracy of 0.04% of the weight of the soil takenfor
test.
c) Desiccators with suitable desiccatingagent.
d) Thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature 110 C
̊ ± 5 ̊C.
e) Otheraccessories.

Theory:
In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined.
The knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil
mechanics. To sight a few, natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing
capacity and settlement. The natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of
soil in the field. Water content, w of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of mass of water
in the voids to the mass ofsolids:

w= ((W2-W3)/(W3-W1))×100%

Where, W1= Weight of empty container in grams

W2 = Weight of container + wet soil in grams
W3 = Weight of container + dry soil in grams
Procedure:

a) Clean the container with lid and find the mass (W1 ing).
b) Select the required quantity of moist soil sample, place it in the container, place
the lid on it, and weigh it (W2 ing).
c) Keep the container in the oven with lid removed and dry it for at least 24 hr. ata
temperature of 110 ̊C till the mass remains constant.
d) Remove the container from the oven, replace the lid, and cool it in desiccators.
Find the mass (W3 ing).
e) Determine the water constant w by using the above equation.
f) Repeat the experiment with other test samples

Table:

Table 3: Weights of container

Sl Particulars Test No1 Test No2 Test No3
No (w1) (w2) (w3)
1 Weight of empty container (W1), g
2 Weight of container + wet soil (W2), g
3 Weight of container + dry soil (W3), g
4 Water content, w
5 Average water content, w = (w1+ w2 +
w3)/3

Specimen calculations:

w= ((W2-W3)/(W3-W1))×100%

Result:

AVERAGE w=

Conclusion:

The experiment is conducted as per the procedure laid down. The water content
of the soil sample is determined. Water content, w =%. The value is verified and the
three phase system is sketched.
 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY
SIEVING (GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS)
Aim:

To determine the particle size distribution by sieving (Grain size analysis)and to

determine the fineness modulus, effective size and uniformilty coefficient.

This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes

contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the
distribution of the coarser, larger-sized particles. The distribution of different grain sizes
affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size analysis provides the grain size
distribution, and it is required in classifying the soil.

Specifications:
This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 – Method of test for soil (Part 4-
Grain size analysis).

Equipments Required:
a) Sieves of sizes: 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 600 , 300 , 150 and 75 . That is,
I.S 460-1962 is used. The sieves for soil tests: 4.75 mm to 75 microns.
b) Thermostatically controlledoven.
c) Trays, sieve brushes, mortar with a rubber covered pestle,etc.
d) Mechanical sieve shakeretc.

Theory:

The grain size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained
from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to
determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc. Information obtained from
grain size analysis can be used to predict soil water movement although permeability
tests are generally used. The method is applicable to dry soil passing through 4.75 mm
size sieve less than 10 % passing through 75-micron sieve.

Percentage retained on any sieve =(weight of soil retained / total weight)×100

Cumulative percentage retained = sum of percentages retained on any sieve
on all coarser sieves.
 Percentage finer than any sieve = 100 percent minus cumulative Size, N
percentage retained.

Procedures:

a) Take a representative sample of soil received from the field and dry it in the
oven.
b) Use a known mass of dried soil with all the grains properly separated out. The
maximum mass of soil taken for analysis may not exceed 500g.
c) Prepare a stack of sieves. Set the sieves one over the other with an ascending
order (sieves having larger opening sizes i.e., lower numbers are placed above
the one with smaller opening sizes i.e., smaller numbers). The very last sieve is
#200 (75μ sieve). A pan is attached to the lowest 75μ sieve to collect the portions
passing #200 sieve and fit the nest to a mechanicalshaker.
d) Make sure sieves are clean. If many soil particles are stuck in the openings try to
poke them out usingbrush.
e) The whole nest of sieves is given a horizontal shaking for 10 min in sieve shaker
till the soil retained on each reaches a constantvalue.
f) Determine mass of soil retained on each sieve including that collected in the pan
below.
 Table:

The test results obtained from a sample of soil are givenbelow.

Mass of soil taken for analysis W= gm

Table 7: Sieve Analysis data sheet

Sl IS Particle Mass Corrected Cumulative Cumulative %
No. Sieves Size Retained Mass Mass % Retained
Retained Finer
(mm) (mm) (g) Retained
(g) (g)

1 4.75 4.75

2 2.00 2.00

3 1.00 1.00

4 0.600 0.600

5 0.300 0.300

6 0.150 0.150

7 0.075 0.075

8 pan

Cumulative
Massretained W’= ------------------gms
Graph (Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %):

Draw graph of log sieve size vs % finer. The graph is known as grading curve.
Corresponding to 10%, 30% and 60% finer, obtain diameters from graph these
are D10, D30, D60, using these obtain Cc and Cu which further represent how well the
soil is graded i.e whether the soil is well-graded, gap-graded or poorlygraded.

Graph1-Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %

100

50

Percentage
Finer, (N)

D10 D30 D60

Grain Size (mm)(Log scale)

Result:
Uniformity coefficient, Cu=

Coefficient of curvature, Cc=

 Percentage gravel=

Percentage sand=
Percentage silt=

Conclusion:

The uniformity coefficient,Cu= and Cc= .

The value comes in the range of well gradedsoil.

 DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT OF FINESOIL
Aim:
To determine the liquid limit of fine soil by using CasagrandeApparatus

When water is added to dry soil, it changes its state of consistency from hard to
soft. We can define liquid limit as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in
the liquid state, but has a small shearing strength against flow. From test point of view
we can define liquid limit as the minimum water content at which a pat of soil cut by a
groove of standard dimension will flow together for a distance of 12 mm (1/2 inch) under
an impact of 25 blows in the device.

Specifications:
This test is done to determine liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720(Part 5)-1985.
After receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in oven (maintained at a temperature of
600C). If clods are there in soil sample then it is broken with the help of wooden mallet.
The soil passing 425 micron sieve is used in thistest.

Equipments Required:
a) A mechanical liquid limit apparatus (casagrande type) with groovingtools.
b) Evaporating dishes, wash bottleetc.
c) Balance accurate to 0.01g.
d) Airtight container to determine watercontent.
e) Oven to maintain temperature at 105 ̊C to 110̊C.
f) Sieve (425micron).
g) Spatula
h) Desiccators and other accessories.

Theory:
Consistency of fine-grained soils may be defined as the relative ease with which
a soil can be remoulded. Consistency limits may be categorized into three limits called
Atterberglimits.

They are 1) Liquid limit 2) Plastic limit and 3) Shrinkage limit

Liquid limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a
plastic to a viscous fluid state. Other limits will be discussed during corresponding
experiments.
Procedure:
a) A representative sample of mass of about 120 gm passing through 425 μ IS
sieve is taken for the test. Mix the soil in an evaporating dish with distilled water
to form a uniformpaste.
b) Adjust the cup of the device so that the fall of the cup on to the hard rubber base
is 10mm.
c) Transfer the portion of the paste to the cup of liquid limit device. Allow some time
for the soil to have uniform distribution ofwater.
d) Level the soil topsoil so that the maximum depth of soil is 12 mm. A channel of
11 mm wide at the top, 2 mm at the bottom and 8 mm deep is cut by the grooving
tool. The grooving tool is held normal to the cup and the groove is cut through the
sample along the symmetrical axis of the top.
e) The handle of the device is turned at a rate of about 2 revolutions per second
and the number of blows necessary to close the groove along the bottom
distance of 12 mm is counted. A sample of soil which closes the groove is
collected.
f) The soil in the cup is re-mixed thoroughly (adding some more soil if required)
some quantity of water which changes the consistency of soil, repeat the
process. At least 4 tests should be conducted by adjusting the water contents of
the soil in the cup in such a way that the number of blows required to close the
groove may fall within the range of 5 to 40 blows. A plot of water content against
the log of blows is made as shown in figure. The water content at 25 blows gives
the liquid limit.
Table:

Table 8: Number of blows vs Water Content

Trial No 1 2 3 4

(w1) (w2) (w3) (w4)

No of blows (N)

Weight of Container (W1)

Weight of Container + Wet soil (W2)

Weight of Container + dry soil (W3)

Water content w=(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)

Water content, w =
(w1+w2+w3+w4)/4

Graph:

A semi-log plot of Number of blows Vs water Content is drawn from the table data.

50

W1
Water 40
content W2

10
N1 N2
1 10 25 100

Number of blows, N
(log scale)
Result:

From the graph drawn, flow index If=(w1-w2)/log (N2/N1)= ---------

And Liquid Limit=----------%

Conclusion:

As per the procedure the experiment is carried out. For 25 blows, water content is
%.
 DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT OF THE SOIL
Aim:

To determine plastic limit of the soil.

The plastic limit of fine-grained soil is the water content of the soil below which it
ceases to be plastic. It begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm dia.

Specifications:

This test is done to determine the plastic limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) –
1985. Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing
through 425µm IS Sieve. Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporating dish and
leave the soil mass for 24hrs.

Equipments Required:

a) Porcelain evaporatingdish.
b) Flat glassplate.
c) Balance accurate to 0.01g.
d) Drying oven, maintained at 110 ± 5°C (230 ±9°F).
e) Weighing dishes, non-absorbent, withlids.
f) Flexible spatula, blade approximately 102 mm (4 in.) long × 19
mm (0.75 in.)wide.

Theory:

The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a
semi-solid to a plastic state. It may also be defined as that water content at which soil
starts crumbling when rolled into threads of 3mm diameter. Use the paste from liquid
limit test and begin drying. May add dry soil or spread on plate and air dry.
Procedure:

a) Select a representative sample of fine-grained soil of about 20 g or more passing

through 420 μ IS sieve. Mix it with distilled water thoroughly on a glass plate such
that the palm of the soil can be rolled into a thread of 3 mm diameter. Allow some
time for the proper distribution mixed withwater.
b) Take about 10 g of this wet sail and roll it into a thread on a glass plate with the
palm of the hand. The rolling must be such that it forms a uniform thread of 3 mm
diameter. If the thread cracks before attaining 3 mm diameter, and add little more
water, knead it and roll again. If the rolling can be done to diameter less than 3
mm, mix some dry soil, knead it to remove same extra moisture in the soil. This
process has to continue till the sample crumbles just at about 3 mm diameter.
Collect the crumbled soil (at least 6 g) and measure its watercontent.
c) Repeat the process to get at least three water content determination (after they
have been in the oven at least 16hours)..
d) The average of water content so obtained is the plastic limit of thesoil.

Table:

Table 9: Water content of 3 mm soil

Trail No 1 2 3 4

(w1) (w2) (w3) (w4)

Weight of Container (W1), g

Weight of Container + Wet soil (W2), g

Weight of Container + dry soil (W3), g

Water content w=(W2-W3)/(W3-W1), g

Average water content, w =

(w1+w2+w3+w4)/4
Result:
The Plastic limit of soil (average water content)is .

Plasticity index = wp –wL

Conclusion:

The plastic limit of the soil= and plasticity index=

The type of soil is .

 DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

Aim:

To determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

The value of shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage
properties of cohesive soils. It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps
in the design problems of the structures made up of the soils or/and resting on soil. It
gives an idea about the suitability of the soil as a construction material in foundations,
roads, embankments anddams.

Specifications:

The test is specified in IS: 2720(Part 6)-1972. The 30 g soil passing 425 micron sieve is
used for the test.

Equipments Required:
a) 2 numbers of porcelain evaporating dish, about 12 cm in diameter within aflat
bottom.
b) 3 numbers of shrinkage dish made of non-corroding metal, having a flat bottom, 45
mm diameter and 15 mm high.
c) A glass cup of about 50 mm diameter and 25 mmhigh.
d) Two numbers glass plates of size 75×75×3 mm, one plate of plane glass and
the other with three metalprongs.
e) Spatula balance accurate to 0.01 g, oven etc.
f) Mercury.
g) Desiccator and otheraccessories.

Theory:
As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means
in laboratory, it changes from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and then to
solid state. The volume is also reduced by the decrease in water content. But, at a
particular limit the moisture reduction causes no further volume change. A shrinkage
limit test gives a quantitative indication of how much moisture can change before any
significant volume change and to also indication of change in volume. The shrinkage
limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when going through
wet and dry cycles (e.g. earthdams).
 Shrinkage limits are required to be determined on two types of soils, they are
i. Remoulded soil.
ii. Undisturbed soil.
Other shrinkage factors i.e. shrinkage ratio, volumetric shrinkage may also be
calculated from the test data of shrinkage limit.

Shrinkage ratio is the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of

dry volume to the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage limit.

Volumetric Shrinkage is the decrease in volume of a soil mass when the water content
is reduced from given percentage to the shrinkage limit and which is expressed as
percentage of dry volume of the soil mass.

Procedure:
a) Select a representative sample of soil of about 100 g passing through 425μ
sieve.
b) Take 30 g out of it and place the same in an evaporating dish. Mix it thoroughly
with distilled water and make it into a thin paste for readily filling into a dish
free from air bubbles.
Determination of mass and volume of shrinkage dish:

a) Take a shrinkage dish, clean it and find its mass correct to 0.1 gm (M3).=------g
b) To determine its volume, place it in an evaporating dish. Fill the shrinkage
dish with mercury till the excess overflows to the evaporatingdish.
c) Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicon grease or
Vaseline. Place a part of the soil paste prepared earlier at the centre of the dish
so that it may occupy about one-third of its volume.
d) Find the mass of the wet soil with the dish immediately after filling(M1)=-------g
e) Keep the dish with soil exposed to air until the colour of the pat turns from black
to light.
f) Select a glass cup with a flat bottom and keep ion an evaporating dish. Fill
the cup with mercury and remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass
plate with three prongs firmly over the top of thecup.
g) Remove the split over the mercury, take out the glass plate with the
prongs, place the dry soil pat on the surface of the mercury.
h) Force the soil pat into the mercury by pressing with the same glass plate with
the prongs. Collect carefully the split over mercury and find its mass(Mm)=-------
g

The volume of the dry soil p at Vd is

Vd = Mm/ 13.6.
 Where, 13.6 is the density of mercury in g/cm 3

Calculation of shrinkage limit, Ws

Mass of wet soil = Mo =(M1-M3)=-------------g

Mass of dry soil = Ms =(M2–M3)=-------------g

Volume of shrinkage dish = Volume of wet soil = V o = ---------------

Volume of dry soil = Vd = ---------------

Vd = Mm / 13.6 where, 13.6 g/cm3 is the density of mercury.

Srinkage limit,Ws is

Ws= ((Mo-Ms)-(Vo-Vd)×ρw)/Ms

Shrinkage ratio, Sr =((Vo-Vd)/Vo)×100

Shrinkage limit of undistributed soil

In this case G is known in advance. The equation to be used for determining

Ws is Ws =[(Vd/Ms)-(1/G)]×100

For the undistributed soil we need to know only the volume of anundistributed
dry pot of soil sample of diameter 45 mm and thickness 15 mm. Round off its edges to
prevent the entrapment of air during mercury displacement. Air dry the sampleinitially