Heat Transfer (Sir Yasir)

Heat:
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy that is transferred from hotter body to a colder body.

Modes of Heat Transfer:

There are three modes of heat transfer:
➢ Conduction:
When heat moves from one object to another object through direct contact.
OR
Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions between
neighboring atoms or molecules.
➢ Convection:
The process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules with in fluid such as gasses
and liquids.
➢ Radiation:
In radiation, heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic waves without involving particles.

Sensible Heat:
The amount of heat or energy required to change the temperature of the substance without
changing the phase of the substance.

Latent Heat:
At constant temperature, during phase transition, the amount of heat absorbed or released is
called latent heat.

Bubble Point:
The bubble point is the temperature at which the first drop of liquid mixture begins to vaporize.

Dew Point:
The dew point is the point at which the first drop of a gaseous mixture begins to condense.

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:

Assumptions:
➢ Steady state heat conduction.
➢ One directional heat flow.
➢ Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is constant and uniform temperatures
are maintained at the two faces.
➢ Isotropic and homogenous material and thermal conductivity is constat.
Statement:
Heat flux (Q/A) is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature gradient (dT/dx).
Mathematically:
Q dT
∝−
A dx
Q dT
= −k (For one dimesional flow)
A dx
dT
Q = −kA
dx
Where;
Q = rate of heat flow in direction normal to surface
A = surface area
T = temperature
x = distance normal to surface
k = thermal conductivity
Note:
➢ Fourier’s law is also known as law of heat conduction.
➢ S.I unit of thermal conductivity is W/m. K.

Thermal resistivity:
The capability of a substance to resist the conduction, convection, and radiation by opposing
the heat flow.

Conduction of Plane Wall:

The rate of heat flow is found as follows, assuming that k is independent of temperature. Since
in steady state there can neither accumulation nor depletion of heat with in the slab, Q is
constant along the path of heat flow. If x is the distance from hot side.
Q dT
= −k
A dx
By separating variables
Qdx
= −kdT
A
Taking integration
Q x2 T2
∫ dx = −k ∫ dT
A x1 T1

Q
(x − x1 ) = k(T1 − T2 )
A 2
Q T1 − T2 ∆T
= k( )=k
A x1 − x2 L
Where;
L = x2 − 𝑥1 = thickness of layer insulation
∆T = T1 − T2 = temperature drop across layer
 ∆T ∆T L
Q= = [∵ R th = (for plane wall)]
L/kA R th kA
Where R th is the thermal resistance of the solid between point 1 and 2.
Numerical 1:
Determine the heat flow rate of the thickness 10 cm with constant thermal conductivity (k =
8.5 W/m. K). When the surface temperature is steady at 100℃ and 30℃. The wall area is
3 m2 . Find the temperature gradient in flow direction.
Data:
Q =?
Thickness = L = 10 cm = 0.1 m
k = 8.5 W/m. K
T1 = 100℃
T2 = 30℃
A = 3 m2
dT
=?
dx
Solution:
As we know that
∆T (T2 − T1 ) (100 − 30)
Q = −kA = −kA = 8.5 × 3 × = 17850 W
L L 0.1
As we know that
dT
Q = −kA
dx
dT Q 17850
=− =− = 700 ℃/m
dx kA 8.5 × 3

Heat Conduction Through Multiple Walls:

Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of layers. Let the thickness of the layers be
∆xA , ∆xB , and ∆xC and the thermal conductivities of the material of which the layers are made
be k A , k B , and k C respectively. Also Let the area of the compound wall at right angles to the
plane of the insulation be A. Let ∆TA , ∆TB , and ∆TC be the temperatures drop across layers A, B,
and c, respectively.
If ∆T is the total temperature across the entire wall
∆T = ∆TA + ∆TB + ∆TC → (1)
As we know that
Q ∆T
=k
A x
Qx
∆T =
Ak
For Layer A
Q∆xA
∆TA =
Ak A
For Layer B
Q∆xB
∆TB =
Ak B
For Layer C
Q∆xC
∆TC =
Ak C
Now equation (1) becomes
Q∆xA Q∆xB Q∆xC
∆T = + +
kAA kB A kCA
∆xA ∆xB ∆xB
∆T = Q ( + + )
kAA kBA kBA
∆T
Q=
∆x ∆x ∆x
( A + B + B)
kAA kB A kBA
∆T ∆T ∆x
Q= = [∵ R = ]
R A + R B + R C (R th )eq kA

Numerical 2:
An exterior wall of house may be approximate by a 4 inches layer of a brick. Thermal
conductivity of brick is 0.7 W/m. ℃ followed by a gypsum plaster it conductivity is
0.48 W/m. K. What thickness of a loosely packed rock-wool insulation it’s thermal conductivity
is 0.065 W/m. K should be added to reduce a heat loss or gain through the wall by 80℃ and
thickness of the plaster is 1.5 inches. (Heat loss with rock-wool-insulation will be only 20%
reduction of that before insulation).
Data:
Thickness of brick = ∆x1 = 4 inch = 0.1016 m
k Brick = 0.7 W/m. ℃
k Plaster = 0.48 W/m. ℃
k Rackcool = 0.065 W/m. ℃
Thinckness of rackcool = ∆x3 =?
Thickness of plaster = ∆x2 = 1.5 inch = 0.0381 m
Solution:
As we know that
∆T
Q=
∑R
According to the question
Qinsulation
= 0.20
Qwithout insulation
∆T
∑ R insulation
= 0.20
∆T
∑ R without insulation
 ∑ R insulation = R Brick + R Plaster + R rockwool

∑ R without insulation = R Brick + R Plaster

∑ R without insulation R Brick + R Plaster

= = 0.20 → (1)
∑ R insulation R Brick + R Plaster + R rockwool
As we know that
∆x
R=
kA
Assume A = 1 m2
For Brick:
∆x1 0.1016
R brick = = = 0.1451 ℃/W
k brick 0.7
For Plaster:
∆x2 0.0381
R brick = = = 0.0793 ℃/W
k Plaster 0.48
Now equation (1) becomes
0.1451 + 0.0793
= 0.2
0.1451 + 0.0793 + R rockwool
0.1451 + 0.0793
= 0.1451 + 0.0793 + R rockwool
0.2
R rockwool = 0.8976 ℃/W
For thickness of rockwool:
∆x3
R rockwool =
k Rackcool
∆x3 = 0.8976 × 0.065 = 0.0583 m = 2.295 inch
Numerical 3:
Consider a 5 m height, 3 m wide with a thermal conductivity k = 0.9 W/m. K. Temperature of
the inner and outer surface of wall are measured to be 16 and 2℃. Determine the rate of heat
loss of water.
Data:
Height = h = 5 m
Width = W = 3 m
Thickness of wall = L = 0.3 m
K = 0.9 W/m. K
T1 = 16℃ + 273 = 289 K
T2 = 2℃ + 273 = 275 K
Q =?
Solution:
As we know that
∆T
Q = −kA
L
(0.9)(15)(275 − 289)
Q=− = 630 W
0.3
For R:
L 0.3
R= = = 0.022 K/W
kA 0.9 × 15

Cylinders:
Consider a hollow cylinder of inside radius rI , outside radius ro , and length L. the temperature
of the outside surface is To ; that of inside surface is Ti , with Ti > To .
Since the heat flows only in the r direction.
By Fourier’s Law
Q Q dT
= = −k
A 2πrL dr
dr 2πLk
=− dT
r Q
Taking integration between limits
ro
dr 2πLk To
∫ =− ∫ dT
ri r Q Ti
2πLk
ln(ro /ri ) = − (To − Ti )
Q
k(2πL)(Ti − To )
Q=
ln(ro /ri )
Ti − To
Q=
ln(ro /ri )
2πkL
By comparing it with I = V/R
ln(ro /ri )
Thermal resistance = R th =
2πkL
Numerical 4:
A thick wall tube of stainless steel [Cr = 18% and Ni = 8%] k = 19 W/m℃ with 2 cm inner
diameter and 4 cm outer diameter. If the inside wall temperature of a pipe is maintained at
600℃. Calculate heat loss per meter length. Also calculate tube insulation interface
temperature. Thickness of insulation is 4 cm. Thermal conductivity of insulation is 0.2 W/m℃.
Data:
Cr = 18% and Ni = 8%
k1 = 19 W/m℃ r2
k 2 = k insulation = 0.2 W/m℃.
2 cm r1
Inner radius = r1 = = 1 cm = 0.01 m r
2
4 cm
Outer radius = r2 = = 2 cm = 0.02 m
2
Thickness of insulation = 4 cm = 0.04 m
Radius of insulation = r = 2 + 4 = 6 cm = 0.06 m
T1 = 600℃
T3 = 100℃
q
=?
L
Solution:
As we know that
2π(T1 − T3 )
Q=
ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(r/r2 )
+
k1 L k2L
Q 2π(T1 − T2 ) (2π)(600 − 100)
= = = 568.147 W/m
L ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(r/r2 ) ln(2/1) ln(6/2)
+
k1 k2 19 + 0.2
For interface temperature:
Q 2π(T2 − T3 ) 2π(T2 − 100)
= =
L ln(r/r2 ) ln(6/2)
k2 0.2
568.147 × 5.493
+ 100 = T2
2π
T2 = 596.947℃
Convection Heat Transfer:
Newton’s Law of Cooling:
It states that the rate of heat loss or gain is directly proportional to the temperature between
the body and surrounding.
Mathematically:
Q
∝ (Ts − T∞ )
A
Q
= h(TS − T∞ )
A
Q = hA(Ts − T∞ ) → (1)
Where;
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient
Ts = Surface temperature
T∞ = Air/surrounding temperature
Equation (1) can be written as:
Ts − T∞
Q=
1
hA
By comparing it with I = V/R
1
R=
hA
Unit of h:
Q W
h= = 2
A(Ts − T∞ ) m K
Unit of h in British system is Btu/(hr. ft 2 ℉).
Types of convection
➢ Free Convection
➢ Forced Convection

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: Hot Fluid

TA = Temperature hot fluid
TA
TB = Temperature of cold fluid
T1 T2
Overall Temperature difference
Qoverall = Cold Fluid
Sum of thermal resistance
Overall Temperature difference TB
Qoverall =
Sum of thermal resistance ∆x
(TA − T1 ) + (T1 − T2 ) + (T2 − TB )
Qoverall =
R A + R wall + R B
TA − TB
Qoverall = (For Plane Wall)
1 ∆x 1
+ +
h1 A kA h2 A
TA − TB
Qoverall = (For Cylinder)
1 ln ro /ri 1
+ +
h1 Ai 2πkL h2 Ao
Overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of total resistance.
1
U=
1 ∆x 1
+ +
h1 k h2
Q = UA∆T
Where;
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
A = Area
∆T = Overall temperature difference

Critical Radius of Insulation:

The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum and consequently heat flow
rate is maximum is called critical radius.
Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 where outer surface temperature T1 is maintained.
The pipe is now insulated with material whose thermal conductivity k and outer radius r2 . Heat
is lost from pipe to the surrounding medium at temperature Ta with a convective heat transfer
coefficient h.

(R th )eq = (R th )1 + (R th )2 + (R th )3 + (R th )4
r
1 1 ln (r2 )
1
(R th )1 = = , (R th )2 = r r2 r1
hh . A1 hh . 2πr1 L 2πkL
r Steam (Th , hh )
ln (r ) 1
2
(R th )3 = , (R th )4 =
2πk i L ha . 2πrL
For Q:
Th − Ta
Q=
(R th )eq r2
To get (R th )eq minimum
r
d r 1
(R th )eq = 0
dr
r r
d 1 ln (r2 ) ln (r ) 1
1 2
{ + + + }=0
dr hh . 2πr1 L 2πkL 2πk i L ha . 2πrL

1 1 1 1
0+0+ × + (− 2 ) = 0
2πk i L r ha 2πL r
1 1 1 1
× = ( 2)
2πk i L r ha 2πL r
ki
rc = r =
ha
Numerical 4:
An electric wire tightly wrapped with a 1 mm thick plastic cover. The interface temperature and
the effect of doubling the thickness of the plaster cover on the interface temperature are to be
determined. The thermal conductivity of plastic cover is given to be 0.15 W/m ∙ K. Volatge is 8V
and current is 13 A. (Hint: Q=VI)
Diameter of wire = 2.1 mm
Temperature of air = 30℃
Data:
Thickness of plaster cover = 1mm = 1 × 10−3 m
Thermal conductivity of plastic cover = k = 0.15 W/m ∙ K
V = 8 volts, I = 13 A
Diameter of wire = 2.1 mm = 2.1 × 10−3 m
Temperature of air = Ta = 30℃
Convection cost of wire = ho = 24 W/m ∙ ℃
Length of wire = L = 10 m
Interface temperature = T1 =?
2.1 × 10−3
r1 = = 1.05 × 10−3 m
2
r = 1.05 × 10−3 + 1 × 10−3 = 2.05 × 10−3 m
Solution:
Q = VI = 8 × 13 = 104 W
As we know that
T1 − Ta
Q= r
ln (r )
1 1
+
2πkL ho . 2πr1 L
T1 − 30
104 =
2.05 ×10−3
ln ( )
1.05 × 10−3 1
+
2π(0.15)(10) (24).2π(1.05 × 10−3 )((10)
Ta = 30 + 104 × 0.702
Ta = 103℃