3546-Article Text (Mandatory) - 17972-1-10-20240313

Materiales de Construcción
Vol. 74, Issue 353, January-March 2024, e333

ISSN-L: 0465-2746
https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623
Shear strength and microstructural investigation on high-

volume fly ash self-compacting concrete containing recycled
concrete aggregates and coal bottom ash
A. Meena, N. Singh, S.P. Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology (Jalandhar, India)

: [email protected]
Received 24 April 2023

Accepted 08 August 2023
Available on line 13 March 2024
ABSTRACT: This article presents the experimental outcomes of the shear strength and microstructural characteristics of high-
volume fly ash self-compacting concrete (HVFYA-SCC) containing recycled concrete aggregates and coal bottom ash as partial
replacements for natural coarse aggregates and natural fine aggregates. A total of ten numbers of mixes were produced, including
HVFYA-SCC made without recycled concrete aggregates and coal bottom ash (as control) along with HVFYA-SCC mixes made
with recycled concrete aggregates (from 25% to 50%) and coal bottom ash (from 10% to 30%). The compressive and shear
strength of the HVFYA-SCC mixes were improved by 7% and 4%, respectively, with the incorporation of 20% coal bottom
ash and 25% recycled concrete aggregates after 120 days of curing. On the other hand, scanning electron microscopic analysis
revealed that incorporating coal bottom ash exhibited the pozzolanic reactions with fly ash densified the binder-aggregate matrix
of the resulting HVFYA-SCC.
KEY WORDS: High volume fly ash self-compacting concrete; Coal bottom ash; Shear strength; Recycled concrete aggregates;
Microstructural characteristics.
Citation/Citar como: Meena A, Singh N, Singh SP. 2024. Shear strength and microstructural investigation on high-volume fly ash
self-compacting concrete containing recycled concrete aggregates and coal bottom ash. Mater. Construcc. 74(353):e333. https://doi.
org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623.
RESUMEN: Resistencia a cortante e investigación microestructural de hormigón autocompactante con elevado contenido de
cenizas volantes y con áridos de hormigón reciclado y cenizas de fondo. Este artículo presenta los resultados experimentales de la
resistencia a cortante y las características microestructurales del hormigón autocompactante con alto contenido de cenizas volantes
(HVFYA-SCC) que contiene áridos de hormigón reciclado y cenizas de fondo procedentes de calderas de carbón como reemplazos
parciales de los áridos naturales, gruesos y finos respectivamente. Se produjeron un total de diez mezclas, incluyendo HVFYA-SCC
hecho sin áridos de hormigón reciclado y cenizas de fondo (como control) junto con mezclas HVFYA-SCC hechas con áridos de
hormigón reciclado (del 25% al 50%) y cenizas de fondo de carbón (del 10% al 30%). La resistencia a la compresión y a cortante
de las mezclas HVFYA-SCC mejoró en un 7 % y un 4 %, respectivamente, con la incorporación de un 20 % de ceniza de fondo y
un 25 % de áridos de hormigón reciclado tras 120 días de curado. Por otro lado, el análisis con microscopía electrónica de barrido
reveló que la incorporación de cenizas de fondo exhibió reacciones puzolánicas con cenizas volantes que densificaron la matriz de
aglutinante-árido del HVFYA-SCC resultante.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Hormigón autocompactante con elevado volumen de cenizas volantes; Cenizas de fondo; Resistencia a
cortante; Áridos de hormigón reciclado; Características microestructurales.
Copyright: ©2024 CSIC. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International (CC BY 4.0) License.
2 • A. Meena et al.
1. INTRODUCTION (15, 16). Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is now

the maximum utilized kind of concrete because it is
The Central Electricity Authority of India reported highly workable and can cover enormous amounts
that thermal power plants in India generated around of formwork (4, 17). Kapoor et al. conducted an ex-
232 million tons of ash, including fly ash (FYA) and periment where HVFYA-SCC mixes were created by
coal bottom ash (BA), in 2020-2021 (1). As per the replacing various percentages of NFA with fine RCA,
reports, the country still has 1,738 million tons of while coarse RCA was used to replace 100% NCA.
ash despite many attempts to utilize it effectively. The results showed that replacing NFA with fine RCA
Moreover, it is anticipated that 60 million tons of up to 25% resulted in enhanced compressive strength
river sand will be used annually for construction in after 28 and 120 days. However, scanning electron
metropolitan India (1, 2). This has made India one microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed the presence of
of the top countries where illegal sand mining is a micropores in the SCC concrete mix, which led to in-
crucial environmental issue, resulting in the degra- creased permeability. On the other hand, the incorpo-
dation of wetland ecosystems and the disturbance of ration of MK as a filler had a beneficial effect, leading
natural river flows (2, 3). to a denser microstructure (18). Similarly, Singh and
Similarly recent increase in construction and Singh (19) conducted a study where HVFYA-SCC
demolition wastes can be attributed to the renova- mixes were investigated. In their experiment, 50%
tion of existing buildings, the construction of new and 100% of NFA were replaced with fine RCA, while
buildings in congested cities, and the demolition 100% NCA was substituted with coarse RCA. The
of ageing concrete structures (4). As infrastruc- results showed that the compressive strength of HV-
ture development continues to grow in developing FYA-SCC mixes made with RFA decreased compared
countries like China and India, there is an increas- to the control mix. However, the inclusion of MK in
ing demand for the primary ingredients of concrete, HVFYA-SCC mixes containing RFA helped offset
including cement, natural fine aggregates (NFA), the loss of compressive strength resulting from the
and natural coarse aggregates (NCA). This surge in substitution of NFA with RFA. A greater reduction in
demand raises concerns about running out of natu- compressive strength was observed in HVFYA-SCC
ral resources and disposing of industrial waste (5). mixes where both NCA and RFA were fully replaced
Therefore, finding substitutes for concrete primary with RCA. The findings from SEM and XRD analysis
components or other ways to make buildings more supported these trends, confirming the differences in
sustainable is essential. However, incorporating re- microstructural and crystallization behavior among
cycled concrete aggregates (RCA) up to 40% in nor- the different concrete mixes. The HVFYA-SCC mix
mally vibrated concrete (NVC) mixes can result in incorporating metakaolin and 50% fine RCA exhibit-
a lower environmental impact than the conventional ed the formation of overlapped CSH layers at 28 days,
concrete without compromising the performance of dense CSH blocks at 90 days, and a lower presence of
the concrete (6). crystalline CaCO3. These observations help explain
Similarly, incorporating BA up to 25% in NVC the superior performance of this mix compared to the
can improve workability and reduce water demand, others.
but higher levels of BA may reduce the compressive The concrete industry has recently emphasized
strength of the concrete (7). Replacing up to 30% of producing sustainable SCC, replacing cement and
the NFA with BA in concrete paving blocks can im- NFA with alternate solutions like FYA and BA (20).
prove their mechanical properties and reduce their BA is similar in size to NFA and has emerged as the
environmental impact (8). So, from the literature, most feasible choice among available options.
it has been concluded that these wastes have some Replacing NFA with BA at acceptable amounts
beneficial aspects as a replacement to the naturally (up to 20%) can enhance the mechanical and du-
available material like NFA and NCA. rability performance of NVC and SCC, and its use
Cement manufacturing is accountable for 7.4% of in concrete at a later stage offers more pozzolanic
all CO2 emissions and contributes to global warming advantages (15, 21). Nevertheless, the mechanical
issues (9–12). FYA is a fine material in the flue gas and durability characteristics of concrete mixes con-
that coal-fired thermal power plants produce. FYA not taining BA and RCA significantly degrade compared
only reduces the amount of cement used, but it also to base SCC (22–24). For the past two decades, re-
helps to improve the properties of the concrete (13). searchers have extensively studied the fresh and
According to recent studies, concrete can be excellent mechanical properties of HVFYA-SCC with partial
in strength and durability when cement replacement replacement of RCA and BA (15, 20). In general,
levels are higher, even up to 75% (13, 14). Using the shear transfer across cracks plays an important
more FYA in concrete will divert more waste from role in determining the shear strength of concrete
the solid waste stream, and less will end up in land- structures. The aggregates interlock effect is a cru-
fills. A possible environmentally friendly solution is cial mechanism for shear transfer across cracks, and
high volume fly ash concrete (HVFYAC), in which it is influenced by various reasons such as the crack
at least 30% of the cement is substituted with FYA width, strength of concrete, stiffness of the lateral
Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Shear strength and microstructural investigation on high-volume fly ash self-compacting concrete containing recycled concrete... • 3
constraint etc., (25). It is worthwhile to mention here landfills for their idle disposal (33–39). Therefore, the
that incorporating RCA may impact the aggregate outcomes of this study will indicate valuable informa-
interlock and shear transfer capabilities of concrete. tion on the performance and potential benefits of using
The investigations conducted by Waseem and Singh HVFYA-SCC in advanced structural designs and con-
(2016) and Rahal (2017) confirmed that the use of struction. The findings will also support its implemen-
more amount of RCA per unit volume with weak tation as a sustainable and environmentally-friendly
surrounding mortar imparts an important influence alternative to conventional concrete(s).
on the interlocking and shear transfer capabilities of Furthermore, the present study has investigat-
concrete (26, 27). Likewise, the shear behavior of ed the effect of FYA (70%) and BA (10-30%) at
HVFYAC containing 50% FYA was studied by Li higher replacement levels. To the best of authors’
et al. (2022) (28). The conclusions of these investi- knowledge, no other existing study has considered
gations are oriented toward the prominence of HV- the effect of high-volume fly ash (70%) as a cement
FYAC over conventional concrete. replacement along with BA (10-30%) as NFA re-
Furthermore, studies have shown that incorpo- placement and RCA (0-50%) as NCA replacement
rating RCA impacts the shear strength of concrete. in SCC. The outcomes of the current experimental
Some studies indicated a decrease in shear strength investigation indicate substantial variation (s) in
with RCA on replacing NCA (7% for 20-50% and shear and compressive strength of the developed
28% for complete replacement), while few resulted concrete covering the existing gap in available liter-
in a marginal increase in shear strength (29). In com- ature. In fact, the present investigation is an attempt
parison, HVFYAC showed superior shear strength to achieve three-way benefit by minimising the de-
compared to conventional concrete. Using sustain- pendency of concrete on cement by efficient utilisa-
able concrete made of 50% FYA and 50% RCA tion of HYFYA-SCC; minimising natural resource
showed an average shear capacity 10% lower than depletion by utilisation of BA and RCA as aggre-
traditional concrete and lower than concrete with gates replacement and encouraging clean and green
50% FYA or 50% RCA (30). These studies provide production in construction industry.
insights into the potential use of RCA and sustain-
able concrete in structural applications.
It has been noted from the existing literature 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
that considerable investigations indicate the suc-
cessful feasibility of utilizing various industrial
wastes (particularly FYA, BA and RCA) in different 2.1. Materials
forms of NVC and SCC. It has also been import-
ant to mention here that failure of concretes due to In this investigation, OPC 43-grade, FYA Class-F,
the occurrence of shear loading is sudden and also NFA (river sand of 4.75 mm), BA (4.75 mm), NCA
catastrophic (31, 32). On the other hand, no special (maximum 12.5 mm size) and RCA (maximum
provisions are available in the design shear strength 12.5 mm) were used for the making of HVFYA-SCC.
of HVFYA-SCC to cope with such failure losses. In this study, OPC and FYA agreed to IS 8112:2013
Hence, the experimental study has been planned to (40) and ASTM C618 (41), respectively. The physi-
determine the effects of replacing RCA and BA with cal characteristics of OPC are presented in Table 1.
NCA and NFA, respectively, on the shear strength The specific gravity of BA and FYA are 2.09 and 2.10
performance of HVFYA-SCC. The microstructural respectively. The chemical composition of OPC, BA
characters were also planned to examine in support and FYA are presented in Table 2. The SEM image
of the preceding strength feature. of the particles OPC and FYA are shown in Figures 1
To attain in-depth knowledge of shear cracks as- (a) and 1 (b), likewise indicating that the OPC parti-
pects/behavior, the ultimate aim of the current inves- cles are angular in shape, and the FYA are smooth and
tigation was to fulfill the aforesaid gap by conducting spherical. OPC was procured from the ACC cement
direct shear strength tests on various combinations of manufacturing plant at Ropar, India. FYA was col-
HVFYA-SCC. In addition to the preceding, the com- lected from the Nabha power plant in Rajpura, India.
pressive strength performance was also estimated for NFA and NCA were collected from Trehti quarry at
general comparison. The attained experimental out- Pathankot, India. NFA was used in the present study
comes were finally corroborated by investigating mi- as per code IS 383-2016 (42), and the NFA was found
crostructural changes with the support of FTIR, XRD to be retained in Zone II by carrying out sieve analysis
and SEM techniques. Eventually, the proposed aim fur- as per the specification of IS 383-2016 (42). BA re-
ther follows the approach for the maximum utilization placed the NFA at 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% collected
of industrial waste products in manufacturing sustain- from a Ropar thermal power plant in India. Figure 2
able forms of HVFYA-SCC. Since the said approach shows the particle size gradation of different ingredi-
conserves vital natural resources, it substantially reduc- ents. Figure 3 (a-d) illustrates the pictorial view and
es the number of abovementioned wastes in preceding the SEM image of NFA and BA, respectively. More-
paragraphs that are generally being impelled towards over, BA ranged in Zone II as per IS 383-2016 (42).

Table 1. Physical properties of OPC.
Requirement as per IS 269: 2015

Properties Test result Remarks
(104)
Specific gravity 3.15 - Performed by the Authors’
Institute in Material Testing
Setting time (minutes)
Laboratory
(i) Initial setting time 62 Min. 30
(ii) Final setting time 270 Max. 600
Soundness (mm)
(i) By Le-Chatelier Method 1.00 Max. 10
Compressive strength (MPa) for mortar specimens as per IS 4031:1988 (Part 6) (105)
(i) 3 Days (72 ± 1 h) 24.6 23
(ii) 7 Days (168 ± 2 h) 34.3 33
(iii) 28 Days (672 ± 4 h) 45.2 43
Table 2. Chemical composition of OPC, BA and FYA.
Chemical composition (% weight) OPC BA FYA
CaO 60.58 0.78 1.43
Fe2O3 3.99 8.31 5.01
SO3 2.83 0.21 0.22
Al2O3 5.88 29.13 26.92
K 2O 1.12 1.27 1.31
SiO2 20.89 56.4 60.57
TiO2 0.22 0.22 1.69
MgO 0.93 0.42 0.83
Na2O 0.81 0.07 0.12
Loss of Ignition 2.01 0.87 1.82
Figure 1. SEM images: (a) OPC, (b) FYA.

Figure 2. Gradation curve of aggregates and BA.
The NCA were used in the proportion of 25%,

42% and 33%, respectively, for 6.36 mm, 10 mm
and 12.5 mm in saturated surface dry (SSD) con-
ditions. The NCA was replaced with RCA at 0%,
25% and 50%, and to get RCA, the tested concrete
specimens were crushed and sieved as per IRC:121-
2017 (43) in Structures Testing Laboratory of the
authors Institute. The physical properties of NFA,
Figure 3. Materials used in this study.
BA, NCA and RCA are presented in Table 3. Figure
3 (e-f) represents the pictorial view of the NCA and
RCA used in this investigation respectively. How-
ever, it is worthwhile to mention that in the current
investigation the authors have used weigh batching
approach instead of equivalent volume batching
approach for the mix design. Similar approach has 2.2. Mixtures
been successfully implemented in significant num-
ber of investigations as available in literature (23, For the research, ten HVFYA-SCC mixes with a
44, 45). Moreover, the authors have incorporated consistent binder content of 688 kg/m3 and a water
only selected amount of RCA (maximum 50%) and to binder proportion of 0.25 were made. NFA and
BA (maximum 30%) in comparison to the investi- NCA additions of 887 kg/m3 and 711 kg/m3, corre-
gations wherein the effect of density has been con- spondingly, were made. Out of ten HVFYA-SCC
sidered for the higher amount of RCA (>50%) and mixes, one control mix (CF70B0-R0) was prepared
BA (>30%) (18, 20, 46–49). Since the amount of al- with 30% OPC and 70% FYA combining 100%
tered ingredients was less and the source of procure- NFA and 100% NCA. The remaining mixes were
ment was not changed during entire investigation made using various substitutions, such as replacing
therefore for the same reason the authors have not NCA with 25% and 50% RCA and NFA with 10%,
considered the effect of variation of density of BA 20%, and 30% BA. The mix proportions for all the
and RCA in the current study. A high-range water HVFYA-SCC mixes are revealed in Table 4. It is
reducer superplasticizer (SP) of MasterGlenium 51 worthwhile to mention here that, the water absorp-
(polycarboxylic ether-based) was utilized in differ- tion of both RCA and BA has higher values in com-
ent doses by weight of the binder to attain the de- parison to that of NCA and NFA. The absorption
sired HVFYA-SCC, confirming IS 9103 (50). factor was duly considered while preparation of all
SCC mixes. The RCA were incorporated in surface
Table 3. Physical properties of BA, RCA, NFA and NCA. saturated dry condition while additional water was
added at the time of mixing of all HVFA-SCC mix-
es due to higher absorption of BA particles. The
Properties BA RCA NFA NCA HVFYA-SCC mixes were prepared according to
Water absorption (%) 30 5.65 1.2 0.68 European federation of national associations repre-
senting concrete (EFNARC; 2005) (51) guidelines,
Fineness modulus 1.52 6.8 3.98 6.9 and SP was incorporated in different proportions
Specific gravity 2.09 2.44 2.75 2.64 ranging from 0.65% to 1.38% by weight of the
binder.

Table 4. Details mix proportions of HVFYA-SCC mixes in kg/m3.
S no Mix identity OPC FYA NFA BA NCA RCA Water SP

1 CF70B0-R0
206.4 481.6 887 0 711 0 170 4.47
(Control)
2 CF70B10-R0 206.4 481.6 798.3 88.7 711 0 170 5.16
3 CF70B10-R25 206.4 481.6 798.3 88.7 533.25 177.75 170 5.85
4 CF70B10-R50 206.4 481.6 798.3 88.7 355.50 355.50 170 6.19
5 CF70B20-R0 206.4 481.6 709.6 177.4 711 0 170 6.88
6 CF70B20-R25 206.4 481.6 709.6 177.4 533.25 177.75 170 7.57
7 CF70B20-R50 206.4 481.6 709.6 177.4 355.50 355.50 170 7.91
8 CF70B30-R0 206.4 481.6 620.9 266.1 711 0 170 8.26
9 CF70B30-R25 206.4 481.6 620.9 266.1 533.25 177.75 170 8.94
10 CF70B30-R50 206.4 481.6 620.9 266.1 355.50 355.50 170 9.49
2.3. Experimental methodology
2.3.1. Workability and compressive strength
HVYFA-SCC mixes were evaluated for their

workability through various tests such as slump
flow, V-funnel, and T500 as per the EFNARC 2005
standard (51). To ascertain the compressive strength
of all HVFYA-SCC mixes, tests were performed
in accordance with Indian Standard (IS) 516-2021
(52). Cubic specimens measuring 100 mm x 100 mm
x 100 mm were produced and tested for compres-
sion using a 2000 kN capacity compression testing
machine (CTM). The tests were conducted after 28
and 120 days of curing with a constant loading rate
of 2.5 kN/s.
2.3.2. Direct shear strength

Figure 4. (a) Design of specimen for shear strength, (b) testing
Direct shear strength of HVFYA-SCC mixes was arrangement, (c) tested specimens.
tested as per method recommended by Bairagi and
Modhera (53). Two plates of light steel (150 x 85 x
10 mm and 150 x 110 x 10 mm) and two bars (12 mm identify molecular groups. Powder specimens under
and 22 mm in diameter) were utilized to carry out 90 microns were obtained through crushing and grind-
the test on a CTM. Plates were positioned on top of ing techniques of 100 mm cube specimens for testing.
the L-shaped specimen, and a 22 mm dia. rod was The specimens were examined utilizing FTIR analy-
placed together to the plate as presented in Figure 4 sis after 120 days. The Panalytical Empyrean XRD
(a). The specimen was tested for accuracy and reli- apparatus was used to identify mineral phases in HV-
ability at 7, 28, 56, 90, and 120 days using a 2000 kN FYA-SCC powder specimens for XRD analysis. The
CTM at a 2.1 kN/sec loading rate (Figure 4). specimens used for XRD analysis were similar to those
used for FTIR analysis. XRD analysis was performed
2.3.3. Microstructural analysis on the specimens after 120 days of curing, collecting
data from an angle of 2θ between 10° and 70° in 0.02°
The chemical and microstructural characteristics of increments, and analyzing it with the X’pert high score
the HVFYA-SCC mixes were examined using X-ray plus software (54). The microstructure of the produced
diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy HVFYA-SSC specimens was described using SEM
(SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. SEM analysis of a broken concrete specimen
(FTIR) analyses. The Bruker Tensor 27 instrument from a 100 mm cube specimen was conducted using a
was used for FTIR analysis of HVFYA-SCC powder ZEISS Sigma 500 VP field emission scanning electron
specimens, scanning the range of 400-4000 cm-1 to microscope after 120 days of curing.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS taining HVFYA-SCC mixes having a better V-funnel

time value as compared to control mix (CF70B0-R0).
Alike results were described by Singh et al. (55)
3.1. Workability and compressive strength when studying the use of BA and RCA as a substi-
tution for NFA and NCA, respectively. The V-funnel
Figure 5(a) shows the difference in slump flow value for all HVFYA-SCC mixes ranged from 6-13.5
and T500 time, where the estimated value of slump seconds. The mixes CF70B0-R0, CF70B10-R0, and
flow diameter was between 710-745 mm. This val- CF70B10-R25 were categorized under the VF1 (0-8
ue is categorized under the SF2 class ranging from seconds) viscosity class, while the VF2 (9-25 sec-
660-750 mm as per EFNARC 2005 (51). Adding BA onds) viscosity class included the CF70B10-R50,
and RCA decreased the slump flow value, but adding CF70B20-R0, CF70B20-R25, CF70B20-R50,
an equivalent amount of SP dosage can prevent it. CF70B30-R0, CF70B30-R25, and CF70B30-R50
The results indicate that adding 30% BA negatively mixes. Also, the results revealed that the variation
affected the slump values, while the mix with 50% in J ring spread, where the estimated value of flow
RCA had the highest reduction (almost 4%) with diameter was between 700-740 mm (Figure 5(c)).
reference to control HVFYA-SCC mix. Filling abil- All the mixes met the EFNARC 2005 (51) limit with
ity of HVFYA-SCC mixes was evaluated using T500 blocking ratios between 0.92 and 0.98 (Figure 5(d)).
time, which ranged from 3.3 to 4.8 seconds. Figure The irregularly shaped porous particles of BA and
5(b) indicates that the T500 time increased with an the rough texture adhering mortar on RCA may have
increase in the amount of BA and RCA. Singh et combined effects that reduce the passage ability of
al. (55) also observed a decrease in flow ability at the mixes by increasing inter-particle friction and
substitution levels of 10% BA and 50% RCA for obstructing concrete flowability (56–58).
NFA and NCA, correspondingly. The control HV- Figure 6 (a) indicates that higher BA content led
FYA-SCC mix (CF70B0-R0) had the minimum T500 to lower compressive strength at 28 days. The re-
time, while the highest value was observed for the duction was highest for the mix with the lowest BA
CF70B30-R50 mix. (15, 20). content (CF70B10-R0), showing a decrease of 18%.
Figure 5(b) indicates the difference in V-funnel However, for mixes with larger amounts of BA (20%
time value and SP dosages, with RCA and BA con- and 30%), the decrease in compressive strength was
Figure 5. (a) Slump flow and T500 time of HVFYA-SCC mixes, (b) V-funnel and SP dosage of HVFYA-SCC mixes, (c) J-ring flow and
T500 time of HVFYA-SCC mixes, (d) L-box of HVFYA-SCC mixes.

Figure 6. (a) Compressive strength of HVFYA-SCC mixes, (b) Variation of compressive strength relative to control mix (CF70B0-R0).
only 5% with reference to control HVFYA-SCC with increasing curing time, likely due to the pres-
mix (Figure 6 (b)). Similarly, Figure 6 (b) illustrates ence of aged, adhered mortar in the RCA that de-
those mixes containing 10% BA exhibited an in- teriorated its structural properties (65). In contrast,
crease in compressive strength after 120 days. Previ- the CF70B20-R25 and CF70B30-R25 mixes, con-
ous studies (32, 58) suggest that HVFYA and BA in taining 20% and 30% BA and 25% RCA, exhibited
the mixes induce pozzolanic action at longer curing compressive strengths 7% and 4% higher than the
ages, which may explain the improved behavior. control mix after 120 days, as shown in Figure 6(b).
After 28 days, the CF70B10-R25 and The enhancement in compressive strength can be
CF70B10-R50 mixes, which contained 10% BA attributed to the additional development of C-S-H
and 25% and 50% RCA, exhibited lower compres- during later stages of curing, which resulted from
sive strength with reference to control HVFYA-SCC the pozzolanic reaction of BA and FYA (32, 58).
mix, with reductions of 24% and 29%, respectively Nonetheless, the frail interface transition zone (ITZ)
At 120 days, the mix with 25% RCA demonstrated between the adhering mortar and the porous aggre-
a slight improvement in compressive strength with gates might lead to a slight reduction in compressive
reference to control HVFYA-SCC mix, which may strength when replacing 50% of RCA in comparison
be attributed to the presence of BA and FYA, re- to 25% in all formulated mixes (58, 65).
sulting in additional pozzolanic reactions (15). The In the current investigation the chemical analysis
primary pozzolanic activity due to presence of FYA indicates higher amount of CaO and SiO2 for FYA
and BA has been explained in context to their chem- (1.43% and 60.57%) compared to that of BA 0.78%
ical properties in which action due to pozzolanicity and 56.4%) respectively. Also, the particle size of
of CaO and SiO2 mainly has been happened. It is FYA is much finer than that of BA particles conse-
worthwhile to mention here that BA has been incor- quent in higher reactivity of the former than reactiv-
porated in place of NFA with constricted amount up ity of the later. In fact, the higher amount of afore-
to 30% in preparation of HVFA-SCC mixes. Here- said compounds generally results in improvement of
in, as mentioned earlier the pozzolanic action of BA the HVFA-SCC mixes due to additional pozzolanic
comes into picture at later ages and that too with less reactions thereby increasing the heat of hydration.
impact in comparison to that of FYA. Further it was Moreover, the amount of CaO and SiO2 for FYA
inferred that the reactive SiO2 is the chief param- and BA mostly depends on the source and type of
eter which strongly influences the Na2O content as coal or the parent material (15, 46). In India, due to
present in coal fly ashes (59, 60). The stronger influ- bituminous type of coal (66), Class F type FYA is
ence of SiO2 due to higher amount (60.57%in FYA) present along with lower grade of BA. Hence due to
and presence of Na2O leads to development of more this reason the pozzolanic action of FYA is more in
C-A-S-H gels, consequently improve the strength comparison to BA used in this investigation.
properties of the HVFA-SCC mixes (60–62). Simi-
lar influence of K2O has been noted wherein pozzo-
lanic action has supplemented the strength aspects in 3.2. Direct shear strength
concrete (59, 63, 64).
Conversely, the compressive strength of the Figure 7(a) displays the direct shear strength re-
CF70B10-R50 mix, containing 50% RCA, declined sults for all the HVFYA-SCC mixes after 7-days

periods of curing. The data showed a general de- in over-all shear strength, which could be attributed
cline in direct shear strength as the BA concentra- to the maximum RCA content and poor structur-
tion increased. Figure 7(b) further revealed a dec- al properties (65, 68). Mixes with 20% and 30%
rement of 5%, 1%, and 3% for HVFYA-SCC mix- BA showed similar trends, where extended cur-
es CF70B10-R0, CF70B20-R0, and CF70B30-R0, ing time resulted in higher direct shear strength
correspondingly, reference to the control HV- when 25% RCA was used as a replacement for
FYA-SCC mix. This pattern was too observed for NCA, while 50% RCA replacement resulted in
shear strength at 28 and 56 days. The decrease in reduced shear strength. The shear strength of the
HVFYA-SCC mixes during the early stages of cur- CF70B20-R25 mix improved from 3.49 MPa at 7
ing was due to the decline in heat of hydration of days of curing to 7.21 MPa at 120 days. As per the
cement and pozzolanic activity of FYA and BA (24, results, the CF70B20-R25 mix had higher strength
67). However, after 90 days, the shear strength of than the control mix at 120 days periods of curing
the HVFYA-SCC mixes was observed to be compa- (7.00 MPa). Similarly, mix CF70B30-R25 exhibit-
rable to the HVFYA-control mix. The shear strength ed 2% higher compressive strength after 120 days
of HVFYA-SCC mixes with varying amounts of BA periods of curing with reference to control mix as
and curing time was analyzed in Figure 7(b). The depicted in Figure 7 (b).
results showed that CF70B10-R0, CF70B20-R0, Overall, the study revealed that the shear strength
and CF70B30-R0 mixes had a slight increase of up of 20% BA-based mix (CF70B20-R25) was signifi-
to 2% in shear strength than the control mix. The cantly increased with the use of 25% RCA. This was
same trend was observed for mixes with 10% to in contrast to mixes with 10% and 30% replacement
30% BA, where shear strength increased with cur- levels of BA with NFA. The increase in direct shear
ing time up to 120 days. On the other hand, when strength was more evident during later curing peri-
25% and 50% RCA were added to the 10% BA mix- ods, where the mix CF70B20-R25 showed 2% low-
es, a decrease in shear strength was observed with er shear strength than the control mix after 7 days,
reference to control HVFYA-SCC mix. Specifically, but significantly increased to 7.21 MPa after 120
the shear strength at 7 days dropped from 3.57 MPa days than the control mix (7.00 MPa). This rise in
for the CF70B0-R0 mix to 3.23 MPa and 3.11 MPa, strength at later curing period was attributed to the
respectively, when 25% and 50% of the RCA were pozzolanic effect of BA and FYA, which produced
replaced. HVFYA-SCC mixes with 20% and 30% more C-S-H. Moreover, the interlocking nature of
BA showed a decrease in shear strength as curing the aggregates was improved by the physical inter-
increased up to 56 days. face of fine BA with an irregular shape and sharp
Furthermore, after 90 days curing age, the shear edge, making them more resistant to shear stress
strength of the control mix (CF70B0-R0) improved transferred during deformation (32, 58, 69).
slightly from 6.45 MPa to 6.54 MPa with 25% Figure 8 (a), observed that the plane of failure is
replacement of RCA. BA and FYA may increase vertical i.e., just under the application of loading bar
direct shear strength in HVFYA-SCC with lower which represents the failure under pure shear failure
RCA concentrations due to additional pozzolanic along a single plane. However, Figure 8 (b), showed
reactivity (15, 32). However, 50% RCA had the the failed specimens most of specimens failed due
contrary effect, the shear strength of CF70B10-R50 to breakage/splitting of coarse aggregates instead of
decreased up to 1% after 90 days of curing. The failure of aggregate-matrix interface and even some
weak adhered mortar in RCA leads to a reduction of the RCA failed in the same manner which further
Figure 7. (a) Direct shear strength of HVFYA-SCC mixes, (b) Variation of direct shear strength relative to control mix (CF70B0-R0).

increase the shear capacity due to denseness of ma- are not participating in enhancing the performance
trix (25, 26). In contrast, the addition of 50% RCA as of HVFYA- SCC mixes have not been discussed.
a NCA leads to a significant reduction in direct shear XRD analysis results after 28 and 120 curing days,
strength for all BA mixes, including CF70B10-R50, are presented in Figures 9-10. The following mineral
CF70B20-R50, and C750B30-R50, at different cur- phases were identified by XRD in all HVFYA-SCC
ing ages, which is much lesser than the control mix mixes: Portlandite (P), calcium silicate hydrate
(CF70B0-R0). After 120 days curing, the direct shear (C-S-H), quartz (Q), calcium silicate (CS) and, gis-
strengths of HVFYA-SCC mixes that contained mondine (CASH) after 28 and 120 days of curing.
50% RCA, such as CF70B10-R50, CF70B20-R50, Also these mineral phases are prominent in later
and CF70B30-R50, were measured at 6.84 MPa, ages, the pozzolanic reactions occur due to presence
6.90 MPa, and 6.86 MPa correspondingly, then the FYA and BA primarily in mortar phases (46, 54,
control HVFYA-SCC mix (7.00 MPa). The reduced 70–72), hence for the same reason the investigation
direct shear strength can be attributed to the pres- have been made for the current study.
ence of old, residual adhering mortar in RCA, which The prominent peaks for P were located at around
contributes to the poor structural characteristics of 29.37° and 50.11° (46, 72–74). For Q, the intensi-
materials at higher RCA content levels (65, 68). ties were observed at 20.84°, 26.66°, 39.52°, 44.64°,
50.16°, 59.94° and 68.13°. Additionally, C-S in-
tensity was located at 33.15°, the greatest intensi-
3.3. Microstructural analysis ty peaks of C-S-H were detected at 20.84°, 29.37°,
33.15°, 44.64° and 50.11° and for CASH shows 2θ
3.3.1. X-ray diffraction analysis at 20.84°. After 28 days curing stage (Figure 9(a-
c)), the BA-based HVFYA-SCC mixes exhibited
Herein the effect of addition of BA primarily in lower peaks of C-S-H than the HVFYA-SCC mix
HVFYA-SCC mixes has been discussed. It has also CF70B0-R0, which might be the decrease in the heat
been observed that with addition of BA in HV- of hydration of cement and slowdown of FYA and
FYA-SCC mixes an ample variation in the counts of BA pozzolanic action throughout the initial periods
peaks of different compounds [such as Portlandite of curing are the reasons for observed incline in HV-
(P), calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), quartz (Q), FYA-SCC mixes (46).
calcium silicate (CS) and, gismondine (CASH)] has The mix CF70B20-R0, which predominates the
been noticed. In fact, all the HVFYA-SCC mixes mechanical properties of the concrete matrix, and the
have been compared with the control HVFYA-SCC most important intensity peaks of C-S-H were found
(CF70B0-R0) mix. The additional peaks which at 29.09° after 120 days of curing. Figure 10(a) re-
Figure 8. (a) Failure modes of tested specimens, (b) Interface photos after breaking the specimens about cracked plane (manually).

Figure 9. XRD patterns of the HVFYA-SCC mixes with 10-30% BA at 28 days of curing: (a) 0% RCA, (b) 25% RCA and (c) 50% RCA.
vealed that the intensity of C-S-H was more for mix combinations. Moreover, BA pozzolanic response
CF70B20-R0 than in other HVFYA-SCC mixes. and filler effect in the HVFYA-SCC mix increased
The trends of C-S-H intensities in the HVFYA-SCC strength properties at the optimal dose of 20% BA
mixes are as follows CF70B20-R0> CF70B30-R0> and 25% RCA content (58, 69). The presence of
CF70B30-R0 > CF70B0-R0. Overall, the peaks of P Pozzolanic materials benefited the process by pro-
were found to be lower for mix CF70B20-R0, which ducing enough hydration products in the shape of
may be owing to the pozzolanic interaction between C-S-H (54, 70, 71, 76, 77).
the FYA and BA at120 days curing age (75).
Figure 10(b) depicted that the intensity of C-S-H 3.3.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
was more for CF70B20-R25. In contrast, the in-
tensity of the hydrated product was lower in other FTIR was used to test concrete mixes for dis-
HVFYA-SCC mixes, including the HVFYA-SCC tinctive bands at different wavenumbers. The HV-
mix CF70B0-R0. The trends of hydrated products FYA-SCC mix was found to contain diverse molec-
were as follows CF70B20-R25> CF70B30-R25> ular groups after 28- and 120-days periods of curing,
CF70B10-R25 > CF70B0-R0. as shown in Figures 11 (a-c) and 12 (a-c). The 4000
Figure 10(c) shows that after 120 days curing to 500 cm-1 wavenumber FTIR spectra revealed the
periods, the HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B20-R50 has chemical interaction between the cementitious ma-
higher hydrated products than the other mixture. trix, BA, and FYA.
Overall, when varying the concentration of RCA, the The transmittance bands at 3753 cm-1 represent
CF70B20-R25 mix had superior hydrated product vibration of the C-H groups produced by silicates in
intensity supported by mechanical strength. It can be hydrated cement, while the bands at 3357 cm-1 rep-
observed that the intensity of peaks P was decreased resent Ca(OH)2 bonding frequency. As extra C-S-H
or gone entirely, particularly in CF70B20-R25 forms, more Ca(OH)2 consumed (78, 79).

Figure 10. XRD patterns of the HVFYA-SCC mixes with 10-30% BA at 120 days of curing: (a) 0% RCA, (b) 25% RCA and (c) 50% RCA.
Figure 11. FTIR patterns of the HVFYA-SCC mixes with 10-30% BA at 28 days of curing: (a) 0% RCA, (b) 25% RCA and (c) 50% RCA.
Among the HVFYA-SCC mixes tested, the a later stage. In the CF70B10-R25 and CF70B30-R25
CF70B20-R25 mix demonstrated the most significant mixes, the intensity of O-H groups decreased signifi-
decrease in the O-H group band after 120 days, while cantly than HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B0-R0 after 120
CF70B0-R0, CF70B10-R0, and CF70B30-R0 exhib- days, likely due to Ca(OH)2 consumption by FYA, as
ited the least considerable decrease. The BA and FYA shown by XRD results.
compounds in the HVFYA-SCC matrix exhibited Adding an optimal amount of BA in the HV-
higher pozzolanic activity than the HVFYA-SCC mix FYA-SCC mixes improved the content of C-S-H, re-
CF70B0-R0, resulting in formation of more C-S-H at sultant in less free water availability and less Ca(OH)2

Figure 12. FTIR patterns of the HVFYA-SCC mixes with 10-30% BA at 120 days of curing: (a) 0% RCA, (b) 25% RCA and (c) 50% RCA.
than HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B0-R0. The prominent 3.3.3. Scanning electron microscopy
peaks of 2911 cm-1 and 1447 cm-1 represent the wid-
ening manners of C-O bands of CaCO3 and hydration Various investigations have demonstrated that the
products (CH), respectively, representing the reac- mechanical characteristics of concrete are signifi-
tion among Ca(OH)2 and CO2. The absorbance of the cantly influenced by the microstructure of the materi-
H-O-H band at 1567 cm-1 is recognized as a water al (84, 85). This microstructure is affected by factors
bond (54, 80), and the widening absorbance of the such as hydration time, cement type, water-cement
S-O band at 1020 cm-1 is identified as Ettringite (81). ratio, and mineral admixtures (32, 86–89). The mi-
The intensity of Si-O bonds in C2S and C3S reduces crostructure of concrete is comprised of the aggre-
as C-S-H forms over time, and the absorbance bands gate, interfacial transition zone (ITZ), and hydrated
observed at 823 cm-1 represent the vibrations of these cement paste. In this study, SEM images of broken
bonds. Adding 20% BA to the HVFYA-SCC mix HVFYA-SCC specimens were taken in secondary
(CF70B20-R0) showed a significant decrement in the electrons mode to investigate the microstructure.
intensity of Si-O bonds as compared to HVFYA-SCC The strength of concrete generally depends on
mix CF70B0-R0, indicating that BA and FYA in- the strength of the aggregates, porosity, source of
creased the content of C-S-H after higher hydration collection of concrete debris, cement matrix, and
age. The absorbance bands observed at 1257 cm-1 cor- ITZ between the matrix and the aggregates (19).
respond to T-O-Si (T = tetrahedral Al and Si), which Therefore, HVFA-SCC mixes made with higher re-
related to main hydration product of C-S-H (80, 82, placement levels of RCA resulted in lower strength.
83). After a higher curing age, the BA and FYA com- Figure 13 and Figure 14 present the SEM images
pounds demonstrated higher pozzolanic activity and showing weak characteristics of RCA such as micro
reacted with Ca(OH)2, resulting in greater intensity and macro pores, residual mortar/adhered mortar,
in the T-O-Si band and important to developing more cracks/fissures etc. Herein, the observed character-
C-S-H. These results, visible in FTIR spectra, confirm istics are certainly responsible for the overall poor
the outcomes for compressive and shear strength. structural behaviour of HVFA –SCC mixes (18, 19).
Figure 13. SEM image showing NCA and RCA [19]. Figure 14. SEM image showing NCA and RCA based concrte [19].

The SEM images revealed that HVFYA-SCC mix- and sheets were noticed for C-S-H, as the curing age
es containing a higher content of BA had more mi- continued for 120 days the irregular blocks were con-
croscopic air gaps, indicating their higher water-ab- verted into dense crystals of C-S-H with rocky pres-
sorbing nature (24). Figure 15 (h-j) shows that voids ence (Figure 15 (f)). As a result of dense and perfect
grew and multiplied with 30% BA. Microstructure development of C-S-H as identified in the images the
of HVFYA-SCC specimens with BA (30%) differed resultant concrete matrix flaws were filled more effi-
from that of the control HVFYA-SCC mix because ciently leading towards better performance in term of
of the slow pozzolanic activity of BA, which caused shear and compressive strength (CF70B20-R25 mix)
a slight reduction in compressive and shear strength (Figure 15 (f)). Specific additional SEM images for
behavior during the initial curing ages. the selected HVFYA-SCC mixes which are perform-
Simultaneously, the presence of BA further con- ing best and second best in comparison to the con-
tributed in production of lower amount of C-S-H, trol HVFYA-SCC (CF70B0-R0) mix have also been
consequently improving the microstructure of HV- incorporated to supplement the behaviour of HV-
FYA-SCC mix. At initial ages, various irregular blocks FYA-SCC mixes (CF70B20-R25 & CF70B20-R0).
Figure 15. Microscopic images of HVFYA-SCC mixes at 120 days: (a) CF70B0-R0, (b) CF70B10-R0, (c) CF70B10-R25, (d)
CF70B10-R50, (e) CF70B20-R0, (f) CF70B20-R25, (g) CF70B20-R50, (h-i) CF70B30-R0, (j) CF70B30-R25, (k) CF70B30-R50.

Further, it is important here to mention that the pres- the larger quantities of unburned carbon particles
ence of C-S-H gel / crystals that are generally present adversely affect the hardened properties of mortars
in platy or hexagonal or in layered cloud form (s) are and concretes (90, 91). Figure 15 (h-k) furthermore
noticed at low magnification / scale. The clear dif- indicate that the increasing the amount of BA (30%),
ferentiation of C-S-H crystals / gel can be noticed in beyond a certain percentage increase the overall po-
Figure 16 (a-d). rosity in the matrix due to higher water absorption
Furthermore, Figure 15 (c-d), Figure 15 (g) (Table 3) leading towards weak microstructural per-
and Figure 15 (j-k) for the HVFYA-SCC mixes formance.
CF70B10-R25, CF70B10-R50, CF70B20-R50,
CF70B30-R25 and CF70B30-R50 present the con-
cerns of presence of RCA (25% and 50%). The SEM 3.4. Mathematical relationships
images define weak bonding behavior due to pres-
ence of new and old mortar interfaces with clear Linear regression analysis has established a cor-
boundaries. Since, the boundaries/ITZs’ between relation between mechanical characteristics and du-
the old and new mortar were weak in nature, re- rability characteristics (92). Previous studies have
sulting in significant drop in compressive and shear reported R2 values of 0.7, indicating a strong correla-
strength for the HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B10-R50, tion among these characteristics (93, 94). Addition-
CF70B20-R50 and CF70B30-R50 in Figure 15 (d), ally, earlier research has suggested that fresh charac-
Figure15 (g) and Figure 15 (k) respectively. Further, teristics such as slump flow, T500, V-funnel and L-box
in Figure 15 (i) the unburnt coal particles were also values exhibit a linear relationship with variation of
spotted in SEM images for the HVFYA-SCC mixes BA in HVFYA-SCC mixes (58, 67, 95, 96). Figure
with higher content of BA (30%). It has been con- 17(a) displays the outcomes of the present study,
firmed from the literature that presence of unburnt demonstrating a strong correlation amongst BA ver-
carbon particles is a vital character of BA making sus slump flow, with R2 values of 0.9967, 0.9988 and
it unsuitable for incorporation as an alternative of 0.9979 with RCA variation. Similarly, T500 strongly
conventional aggregates in construction. Moreover, correlates with BA with R2 values above 0.9 (Figure
Figure 16. Microscopic images of HVFYA-SCC mixes at 120 days: (a) and (b) CF70B20-R25, (c) and (d) CF70B20-R0.

17(b)). Figures 17(c) & 17(d) showed a significant 67, 93). Figures 18 showed a significant correlation
correlation between BA and V-funnel and L-box val- between compressive strength versus direct shear
ues respectively, with R2 values higher than 0.9 (58, strength with R2 values 0.9901 (93, 96, 97).
Figure 17. Coal bottom as (BA) versus: (a) slump flow, (b) T500, (c) V-funnel, (d) L-box.
Table 5. Comparison of results with some previous studies.
Ref. Types of FYA BA RCA water-to- Compressive strength Direct shear strength
concrete (%) (%) (%) binder range (N/mm²) range (N/mm²)
(w/b) ratio 28 Days 90 Days* / 28 Days 90 Days* /
120 Days# 120 Days#
(47) HVFYA-SCC 30 - 50, 100 0.45 32.5-38.0 40-57.5# - -
(93) HVFYA-SCC 40 - - 0.26 32.5-45.0 40.0-55.0 *
- -
(31) HVFYA-SCC 40 - - 0.26 - - 4.8-11.6 9.8-16.0*
(96) HVFYA-SCC 50 - 50, 100 0.34 35.5-61.0 - - -
(106) HVFYA-SCC 50 - 25, 50, 0.38 23.5-54.0 - - -
75, 100
(107) HVFYA-SCC 50, 75 - 50, 100 0.35 7.17-53.45 - - -
(15) HVFYA-SCC 30 10 25, 50, 0.45 21.50-27.0 26.50-33.0* - -

75, 100
(20) HVFYA-SCC 50 10 25, 50, 0.45 22-26.50 27-31.0 - -
75, 100
Present HVFYA-SCC 70 10, 20, 25, 50 0.25 24.30- 45.51-51.26# 3.62-4.46 6.84-7.21#
study 30 34.44

Figure 18. Relationship between compressive strength Vs di- Figure 19. GWP values of HVFYA-SCC mixes per m3.
rect shear strength.
Table 6. Embodied carbon dioxide of HVFYA-SCC mixes.
Materials OPC FYA NFA BA NCA RCA SP Water

Equivalent CO2
0.93 0.004 0.0014 0.00 0.0048 0.0012 0.0019 0.0008
(kg CO2 e/m3)
It is worthwhile to mention that different authors released in terms of CO2 equivalent during the entire
have tested a wide range of parameters in their in- lifecycle of raw materials, from extraction to disposal
vestigations. In this investigation, some previous (99). Various reliable sources were consulted to deter-
studies have been selected and the considered pa- mine GWP, as presented in Table 6 (93, 99–103). The
rameters such as w/b and w/c ratio, curing period, present investigate to compare the effects of using
range of compressive strength and shear strength are various materials in HVFYA-SCC mixes: NFA, BA,
listed in Table 5 along with the parameters of the NCA, and RCA. The results (Figure 19) show that
current investigation for comparison. the HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B0-R0, which contained
The shear strength reported previously and ob- NFA (100%) and 100%, had the maximum carbon
served in the current study are also listed for refer- emission at 201.96 kgCO2e/m3. However, as the per-
ence. The authors are of the opinion that in such a centage of BA and RCA in other mixes increased, the
situation, it is rather difficult to arrive at meaningful carbon emission value declined. The HVFYA-SCC
comparison. mix CF70B30-R50, with 30% BA and 50% RCA, had
the lowest carbon emission value at 199.33 kgCO2e/
m3. These findings suggest that incorporating BA up
3.5. Ecological evaluation of HVFYA-SCC mixes to 30% and RCA up to 50% with NFA and NCA in
HVFYA-SCC mixes is more environmentally sus-
There are several levers available in the literature tainable as these mixes release less CO2 compared to
to achieve the carbon neutrality such as carbon di- control HVFYA-SCC mix (CF70B0-R0).
oxide capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) (98),
carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) (98), glob-
al warming potential (GWP) (93) etc. Out of these 4. CONCLUSIONS
techniques, herein, the influence of RCA, CBA in
HVFA-SCC mixes has been measured using the con- 1. The workability of BA based HVFYA-SCC
cept of GWP. GWP is a measure of how much ener- were negatively affected with an increase in
gy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over RCA from 25% to 50%. This was attributed to
a given period of time, relative to the emissions of the irregular BA particles and RCA, which in-
1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). The sustainability of creased friction and porosity ultimately decreas-
concrete is usually determined through CO2 emis- ing the workability of mixes.
sions involved in producing the materials used for 2. The compressive strength of the HVFYA-SCC
construction. mix CF70B20-R25 was approximately 7% more
In the current study, GWP was analysed to assess than the control HVFYA-SCC mix after 120
the ecological influence of using different materials in days. However, mix with 50% RCA resulted in
HVFYA-SCC. GWP measures the greenhouse gases inferior compressive strength.

3. The shear strength behavior of all BA based HV- for providing financial aid as a scholarship during
FYA-SCC mixes containing 25% RCA was less- their PhD.
er than the control HVFYA-SCC mix afterward
28 days. Though, after 120 days of curing, the
shear strength of mix CF70B20-R25 was mar- Authorship contribution statement
ginally higher than the control HVFYA-SCC
mix. It has been concluded that additional poz- Amardeep Meena: Data cleansing, Formal anal-
zolanic reactions occurred due to presence of BA ysis, Research, Methodology, Validation, Visualiza-
and FYA resulted in the formation of additional tion, Write-up - original draft.
C-S-H thereby enhancing the shear strength of Navdeep Singh: Conceptualization, Data cleans-
the HVFYA-SCC mixes. ing, Formal analysis, Research, Methodology, Proj-
4. FTIR analysis of HVFYA-SCC mix CF70B20-R25 ect administration, Resources, Supervision, Valida-
confirmed that more amount of Ca(OH)2 has been tion, Visualization, Write-up - review & editing.
consumed after the 28 and 120 days curing peri- Surinder Pal Singh: Conceptualization, For-
od leading to an increase in the amount of C-S-H, mal analysis, Methodology, Project administration,
as the intensity of the former has been decreased Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization,
while that of later has been increased. Write-up - review & editing.
5. XRD analysis results confirmed that the Portlan- The authors of this article declare that they have
dite peak intensity decreased or disappeared and no financial, professional or personal conflicts of in-
highest peaks of C-S-H in the HVFYA-SCC mix terest that could have inappropriately influenced this
CF70B20-R25, after 120 days of curing indicat- work.
ing best compressive and shear strength values.
6. Analyzing the SEM images, it can be concluded
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Materiales de Construcción

Vol. 74, Issue 353, January-March 2024, e333

Shear strength and microstructural investigation on high-

A. Meena, N. Singh, S.P. Singh

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology (Jalandhar, India)

Received 24 April 2023

1. INTRODUCTION (15, 16). Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) is now

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Table 1. Physical properties of OPC.

Requirement as per IS 269: 2015

(ii) Final setting time 270 Max. 600

(i) By Le-Chatelier Method 1.00 Max. 10

(i) 3 Days (72 ± 1 h) 24.6 23

(ii) 7 Days (168 ± 2 h) 34.3 33

(iii) 28 Days (672 ± 4 h) 45.2 43

Table 2. Chemical composition of OPC, BA and FYA.

Chemical composition (% weight) OPC BA FYA

CaO 60.58 0.78 1.43

Fe2O3 3.99 8.31 5.01

SO3 2.83 0.21 0.22

Al2O3 5.88 29.13 26.92

K 2O 1.12 1.27 1.31

SiO2 20.89 56.4 60.57

TiO2 0.22 0.22 1.69

MgO 0.93 0.42 0.83

Na2O 0.81 0.07 0.12

Loss of Ignition 2.01 0.87 1.82

Figure 1. SEM images: (a) OPC, (b) FYA.

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Figure 2. Gradation curve of aggregates and BA.

The NCA were used in the proportion of 25%,

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Table 4. Details mix proportions of HVFYA-SCC mixes in kg/m3.

S no Mix identity OPC FYA NFA BA NCA RCA Water SP

2.3. Experimental methodology

2.3.1. Workability and compressive strength

HVYFA-SCC mixes were evaluated for their

2.3.2. Direct shear strength

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS taining HVFYA-SCC mixes having a better V-funnel

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Table 5. Comparison of results with some previous studies.

(15) HVFYA-SCC 30 10 25, 50, 0.45 21.50-27.0 26.50-33.0* - -

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Table 6. Embodied carbon dioxide of HVFYA-SCC mixes.

Materials OPC FYA NFA BA NCA RCA SP Water

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623

Materiales de Construcción 74 (353), January-March 2024, e333. ISSN-L: 0465-2746. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2024.354623