Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide

Contents
Introduction iv
1 The particulate nature of matter 1 ■
2 Elements, compounds and experimental techniques 7 ■
3 Atomic structure, bonding and structure of solids 14 ■
4 Stoichiometry: chemical calculations 26 ■
5 Electricity and chemistry 37 ■
6 Chemical energetics 43 ■
7 Chemical reactions 47 ■
8 Acids, bases and salts 57 ■
9 The Periodic Table 64 ■
10 Metals 69 ■
11 Air and water 78 ■
12 Sulfur 84 ■
13 Inorganic carbon chemistry 87 ■
14 Organic chemistry 1 90 ■
15 Organic chemistry 2 98 ■
16 Experimental chemistry 110 ■
Answers to exam-style questions 112
Index 121
1 The particulate nature of matter
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● have an understanding of Brownian motion
● be able to describe and explain diffusion
● know the different properties of solids, liquids and gases
● be able to describe the structure of solids, liquids and ● be able to explain changes of state in terms of the kinetic
gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and theory
types of motion ● be able to describe and explain Brownian motion in terms
● know what is meant by melting, boiling, evaporation, of random molecular bombardment and state evidence
freezing, condensation and sublimation for Brownian motion
● be able to describe the effect of temperature on the ● be able to describe and explain dependence of rate of
motion of gas particles diffusion on relative molecular mass.
● Key terms
Melting The process that occurs when a solid turns into a liquid
Melting point The temperature at which a substance melts. Each substance has a specific melting point
Boiling The process that occurs when a liquid turns into a gas
Boiling point The temperature at which a substance boils. Each substance has a specific boiling point
Evaporation The process that occurs at the surface of a liquid as it turns into a gas. Evaporation can
occur at temperatures lower than the boiling point of a liquid
Freezing The process that occurs when a liquid turns into a solid
Freezing point The temperature at which a substance freezes. This has the same value as the melting
point
Condensation The process that occurs when a gas turns into a liquid
Sublimation The process that occurs when a solid turns into a gas without first turning into a liquid
Brownian motion The random motion of visible particles caused by bombardment by much smaller particles
Diffusion The process that occurs when particles move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration
● Solids, liquids and gases

Differences between solids, liquids and gases are shown in Figure 1.1.
Solid Liquid Gas

It is illegal to photocopy this page
Figure 1.1 (a) Solid, (b) liquid, (c) gas
1
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide © David Besser
1 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Examiner’s tip
When asked to draw diagrams of the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids
and gases, solids and gases are usually drawn quite well, but the particles in liquids
are usually drawn too far apart. In reality, the majority of particles in a liquid are
touching.
The differences between the properties of solids, liquids and gases, along
with the reasons (based on kinetic theory) for the differences, are shown in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Properties of solids, liquids and gases
Surface boundary Shape

Solid Property Solids have a surface boundary Solids have a fixed shape
Reason Strong forces of attraction between particles Strong forces of attraction between particles in solids mean that
prevent particles from escaping the particles are held together in a fixed shape. The particles
vibrate about fixed positions but do not move from place to place
Liquid Property Liquids have a surface boundary Liquids take the shape of the container that they are present in
Reason The forces of attraction between the particles The forces of attraction between particles in a liquid are weaker
in a liquid are strong enough to prevent the compared to solids. Therefore the particles slowly move from
majority of the liquid particles from escaping place to place meaning that a liquid can change its shape to fit
and becoming a gas the container
Gas Property Gases have no surface boundary Gases fill the container they are held in. They have no fixed shape
Reason Gas particles move at high speeds. The particles The forces of attraction between gas particles are extremely weak.
have only very small forces of attraction The gas particles move at very high speeds therefore gases move
between them to fill the container
● Changes of state
Figure 1.2 summarises the changes in state that occur between solids, liquids
and gases.
melting boiling
SOLID LIQUID GAS
freezing condensation
sublimation
Figure 1.2 Changes of state
Common error
● There is often confusion between boiling and evaporation. Boiling
only takes place at the boiling point of a liquid, but evaporation occurs
at temperatures below the boiling point. Puddles of water evaporate
on a sunny day. This means that the water turns into water vapour at
temperatures well below the boiling point of water. The water in the
puddles does not reach 100 °C!
2
Heating and cooling curves
● Heating and cooling curves

A heating curve shows the changes of state occurring when the temperature
of ice is gradually increased. A similar (but not the same) curve results when a
gas is cooled gradually until it forms a solid. This is known as a cooling curve.
110
100
liquid and all
gas (liquid gas
water and
temperature/C
water vapour)
all
liquid
(liquid
0 all solid and liquid water)
–15 solid (ice and liquid
(ice) water)
time/minutes
Figure 1.3 Graph of temperature against time for the change from ice at −15 °C to water to steam
The process begins with ice at a temperature below 0 °C. The temperature
gradually increases until it reaches 0 °C, which is the melting point of ice. At
this point ice and water exist together. The temperature does not change until
all the ice has changed into water which is why the line is horizontal. A sharp
melting point (at one specific temperature) is an indication that any solid
is pure.
The temperature then begins to increase again until it reaches 100 °C which
is the boiling point of water. The temperature does not change until all the
water has changed into water vapour which is why the line is horizontal for
a second time. When all the water has boiled, the temperature begins to rise
again as the particles in the gaseous state gain more energy.
● Kinetic theory
When heat energy is given to a solid, the heat energy causes the particles
to vibrate faster and faster about a fixed position until the particles have
sufficient energy for melting to occur. At the melting point the energy
gained by the particles is sufficient to overcome the attraction between
particles in the solid. The ordered arrangement of particles then breaks
down as the solid turns into a liquid. As this is occurring, there is no further
increase in temperature until the ordered arrangement has completely
broken down and all the solid has turned into a liquid. The energy given to
the particles then causes them to move faster from place to place until they
have sufficient energy for boiling to occur. At the boiling point the energy
gained by the particles is sufficient to completely overcome the attraction

between them in the liquid state. The particles then move as far away from
each other as possible as the forces of attraction between them are almost
completely overcome. Again there is no increase in temperature until the
liquid has turned completely into a gas. In the gaseous state, the gas particles
gain more and more energy and move at increasing speeds.
3
● Brownian motion
When Robert Brown used a microscope to observe pollen grains on the
surface of water in 1827, he noticed that the pollen grains moved in a random
manner. This random movement is known as Brownian motion. The
same thing can be observed if smoke particles in air are observed through a
microscope.
Brownian motion is caused by the larger particles (pollen grains or smoke

particles) being bombarded by smaller particles (water molecules or air
molecules). The smaller particles move in straight lines until they collide
with the larger particles. Because more of the smaller particles may collide
on one side of the larger particles than the other, the movement of the larger
particles is random and unpredictable.
Pollen Brownian motion

particle being causes the random
bombarded motion of the
by water visible particle
molecules
Figure 1.4 Brownian motion
● Diffusion
Particles in solids do not move from one place to another. However, particles
in liquids move slowly and particles in gases move much faster.
Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration is known as diffusion. It can be demonstrated
experimentally in liquids and in gases.
Diffusion in liquids
If crystals of a coloured solid, such as nickel(II) sulfate, are placed in a liquid
such as water, the colour of the nickel(II) sulfate spreads throughout the
liquid in a matter of days, producing a solution with a uniform green colour.
water nickel(II)
sulfate solution bromine
nickel(II) sulfate (green solution) gas
(green crystals)
Figure 1.5 Diffusion in a liquid gas jars
gas jars
Diffusion in gases
If bromine liquid is placed in the bottom of a gas jar with another gas bromine
jar on top, the liquid evaporates and the brown colour of bromine gas liquid
fills both gas jars after a short time. Figure 1.6 Diffusion in gases
4
Sample exam-style questions
When gaseous molecules diffuse, the rate at which they diffuse is inversely
related to the relative molecular mass of the gas. Therefore, molecules in
gases with lower relative molecular mass will diffuse faster than molecules in
gases with higher relative molecular mass. This is because lighter molecules
move faster than heavier molecules.
● Sample exam-style questions

1 A compound has a melting point of −30 °C and a boiling point of 85 °C.
What is its physical state at 25 °C? Explain your answer.
Student’s answer
1 Liquid.
The melting point is below 25 °C and the boiling point is above 25 °C.
Examiner’s comments
There are two common errors in a question of this type.
● Some students ignore the negative sign in −30 °C, which gives them the impression
that −30 °C is higher than 25 °C, which means they think the compound is a solid.
● Some students know that the substance is a liquid, but only state that the
melting point is below 25 °C without mentioning the boiling point. Such candidates
get some credit but not maximum credit.
2 When the apparatus shown in Figure 1.7 is set up, concentrated ammonia
releases ammonia gas, NH3, and concentrated hydrochloric acid releases
hydrogen chloride gas, HCl.
bung glass tube white solid bung
cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked in

in concentrated ammonia concentrated hydrochloric acid
Figure 1.7
When ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas, a white solid is
produced according to the equation:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
a What is the name of the white solid?

b Name the process by which the two gases move through the glass tube.
c Explain why the white solid forms nearer the concentrated hydrochloric
acid end of the glass tube rather than the ammonia solution end.
5
Student’s answer
2 a Ammonium chloride
b Diffusion
c Molecules of ammonia and hydrogen chloride diffuse through the glass
tube. Because ammonia, NH3, has a lower relative molecular mass (17)
than hydrogen chloride, HCl (36.5), ammonia molecules diffuse faster than
hydrogen chloride molecules. Therefore, the gases meet and react nearer
the hydrochloric acid end.
Examiner’s comments
a Ammonium compounds are often mistakenly referred to as ammonia compounds.
Similarly ammonia is often referred to as ammonium. Students should make sure
that they are aware of the difference between ammonia, NH3, and the ammonium
ion, NH4+, which is part of all ammonium salts such as ammonium chloride.
b This is the correct answer.
c It is common to see statements about ammonia moving faster than hydrogen
chloride because ammonia is lighter than hydrogen chloride. This would gain
very little (if any) credit. Answers must refer to ammonia and hydrogen chloride
molecules and also state that ammonia has a smaller relative molecular mass than
hydrogen chloride which is why ammonia molecules diffuse faster.
Students should calculate relative molecular masses, using relative atomic
masses in the Periodic Table, if they are not provided in the question.
Exam-style questions
1 A substance has a melting point of 85 °C and a boiling point of 180 °C.

What is the physical state of the substance at 50 °C?
Explain your answer. [Total: 2 marks]
2 Use the letters A, B, C and D to answer the questions under the table.
Substance Distance between particles Arrangement of particles Movement of particles
A very far apart ordered vibrate about fixed position
B fairly close together irregular move slowly
C very close together ordered vibrate about fixed position
D very far apart random move at high speeds
Which substance out of A, B, C and D is

a a solid [1]
b a liquid [1]
c a gas [1]
d unlikely to represent a real substance? [1]
[Total: 4 marks]
6
Elements, compounds and
2 experimental techniques
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● dissolving, filtration and crystallisation (see also
Chapter 8)
● know the difference between elements, mixtures and
● (simple) distillation
compounds
● fractional distillation (see also Chapter 14)
● know that elements can be classified as metals and non-
metals ● be able to interpret simple chromatograms, including use
● know and understand how to use the following methods of locating agents (which do not need to be named) and
of separation and purification use of Rf values (see Chapter 15).
● chromatography (see also Chapter 15)
● Key terms
Element A substance that cannot be decomposed into anything simpler by chemical means. It is a
substance made up of atoms all of which have the same atomic number (see also Chapter 3)
Compound A substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions by mass
Mixture Contains two or more substances (elements or compounds) which can be present in variable
proportions
Substance A general term that refers to elements, mixtures and compounds
Solution A liquid which contains a substance or substances dissolved in it
Solvent A pure liquid
Solute The dissolved substance in a solution
● Elements
The periodic table consists of elements only. Each element has a chemical symbol. Examiner’s tip
Elements are classified as metals and non-metals as shown in Table 2.1 below. Elements cannot be
decomposed into
Table 2.1 Classification of elements
anything simpler by
Property Metal Non-metal chemical means. Students
sometimes use the
Physical state at room temperature Solid (except mercury) Solid, liquid (bromine only) or gas
word smaller instead of
Malleability Good Poor, usually soft or brittle simpler, which is an error.
Ductility Good Poor, usually soft or brittle For example, a piece of
sulfur can be broken with
Appearance Shiny (lustrous) Usually dull
a hammer into several
Melting point/boiling point Usually high Usually low smaller pieces of sulfur,
Density Usually high Usually low but this is not breaking
Conductivity (electrical and thermal) Good Poor (except graphite) it into anything simpler.
The act of breaking
with a hammer is a
physical process and not
● Compounds a chemical process. Thus
sulfur is an element.
Compounds have a chemical formula which shows them to contain two or
more elements which are chemically combined.
Examples of compounds are:
● sodium chloride, NaCl
● carbon dioxide, CO2
● copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2.
7
2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
A compound, iron(II) sulfide, has the formula FeS. The relative atomic
masses (Ar) of iron (Fe) and sulfur (S) are 56 and 32, respectively. Therefore, Examiner’s tip
the relative molecular mass (Mr) of iron(II) sulfide is 56 + 32 = 88. The If a compound is present
percentages of iron and sulfur in iron(II) sulfide are: in an aqueous solution,
the aqueous solution
Fe = (56 ÷ 88) × 100 = 63.6% is a mixture because it
S = (32 ÷ 88) × 100 = 36.4% contains two substances
which are not chemically
This means that all samples of iron(II) sulfide contain 63.6% iron and 36.4% combined. For example,
sulfur by mass. sodium hydroxide
This is what is meant by the statement that compounds contain elements solution (also referred
chemically combined in fixed proportions by mass. to as aqueous sodium
hydroxide) is a mixture,
not a compound.
Examiner’s tip It contains sodium
Students may state that compounds contain two or more elements, but often do not hydroxide and water, two
mention that the elements are chemically combined (which means that the elements substances that are not
are joined by ionic or covalent bonds). chemically combined.
● Mixtures
Mixtures contain two or more elements and/or compounds in variable
proportions. Mixtures do not have a chemical formula.
Air is an example of a mixture. Air contains nitrogen and oxygen with
smaller amounts of other gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and
argon. Polluted air may also contain other gases such as carbon monoxide,
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
Air has different percentages of its constituent gases in different places
due to, for example, the amounts of pollutant gases which are lower in the
countryside than in industrial areas. However, the different samples are all
called ‘air’, thus showing that the composition of a mixture can vary.
Air does not have a chemical formula because it contains several chemical
substances as opposed to one substance.
Examiner’s tip
Many students are under the impression that a mixture containing two substances,
such as salt and sand, must contain equal amounts of each substance. This is not the
case. If we had a mixture of salt and sand which contained equal amounts of each
substance and we added more salt to it, it would still be called a mixture of salt and
sand. Therefore, a mixture of salt and sand can contain more salt than sand, or more
sand than salt or equal amounts of salt and sand. This is different to the composition
of a compound as shown in the case of iron(II) sulfide above.
● Separation of mixtures
Chromatography
Chromatography can be used to separate the components of solutions which
contain several dissolved substances. The substances are often coloured, but
may be colourless.
Paper chromatography can be used to separate the dyes in ink.
● A spot of the ink is placed on the chromatography paper.
● The paper is placed in a suitable solvent in a beaker. If the solvent is volatile
(vaporises easily) it is necessary to put a lid on the beaker to prevent the
vapour from escaping.
● As the solvent rises, the dyes in the ink separate.
8
Separation of mixtures
Chromatography can also be used to identify the components of a mixture as chromatography

well as separate them. paper
● A mixture of dyes is placed on chromatography paper in the position

marked X.
● Four dyes whose identities are known are placed in positions marked A,
B, C and D, as shown (Figure 2.2). These four dyes are referred to as
black ink
standards. spot
● Chromatography is then carried out and the chromatography paper (also before
known as a chromatogram) is removed from the beaker and dried.

● The paper is then labelled to show what mixture X contains, as described
below. beaker
solvent
soaks
up the
paper solvent
during
A B X C D
Figure 2.2 Before chromatography
D after
Figure 2.1 Paper chromatography
B
A B X C D
Figure 2.3 After chromatography
The results of the experiment show:

● X is composed of three dyes because the mixture has been separated into three.
● The three dyes are A, B and D. We know this because the three dyes in
mixture X have travelled the same distances as the three standards A, B and
D whose identities are known.
● We can also conclude that mixture X does not contain dye C, because none
of the components of X travelled the same distance as dye C.
Chromatography can also be used to identify colourless substances. The

experimental technique is the same, but because the components of the
mixture are colourless, the spots on the chromatography paper are invisible.
After drying, the paper is sprayed with a locating agent which reacts with
the components of the mixture to produce coloured spots. In Chapter 15
which looks at the separation of amino acids by chromatography, the
chromatography paper is sprayed with ninhydrin which is a locating agent
that produces blue coloured spots with amino acids.
Instead of using standards as described in the above experiment,
components of a mixture can be identified by their Rf values.
Chromatography is carried out and after the chromatography paper is
dried, the distance that the solvent has travelled and the distance that the
component of the mixture has travelled are both measured as shown in
Figure 2.4.
9
solvent front
Examiner’s tip
When asked what is meant by Rf value, students are advised to
write down the equation given here, rather than trying to explain
Rf value in the form of a sentence, which is much more difficult.
The correct equation would score all the available marks.
This illustrates the fact that answers need not always be expressed
b in words, sentences and paragraphs alone to get full credit.
Diagrams, equations, sketch graphs and formulae are often much
more appropriate than sentences.
original position of mixture
distance travelled by component a

Rf = =
distance travelled by solvent b
Figure 2.4 Calculating Rf
When the Rf value is calculated, the component of the mixture can be

identified by comparison with Rf values in a data book. Rf values can be
determined for all the components of the mixture.
Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation

Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation are methods used to separate a
mixture of two solids, one of which is soluble in a given solvent and the other
of which is insoluble.
This method can be used to separate a mixture of common salt and sand
and produce pure samples of both solids.
● If the mixture is not powdered it should be ground into a powder using
a mortar and pestle. The powder should be added to water
in a beaker. The common salt dissolves and the sand remains glass rod
undissolved. beaker
● The mixture is then transferred to the filtration apparatus. The sand salt solution
(residue) remains in the filter paper and the salt solution (filtrate) sand
passes through into the conical flask. This process is called filtration.
● To obtain pure sand, distilled water should be passed through the filter paper filter funnel
filter paper (this is known as washing the residue) and then the filter sand (residue)
paper should be removed and dried in a low oven or on a warm
windowsill. conical flask
The final two stages are known as crystallisation: salt solution

(filtrate)
● To obtain salt crystals, the salt solution should then be heated in
an evaporating dish until about half of the water has been removed
(alternatively, when crystals form on a glass rod placed in the hot evaporating dish
solution and withdrawn, it is time to stop heating). salt solution
● The hot saturated salt solution should then be allowed to cool
down slowly. Crystals of salt should then form.
● If there is any liquid left, it should then be separated by filtration. HEAT
The salt crystals should then be washed with a small amount of
cold distilled water and then dried in a low oven or on a warm Figure 2.5 Dissolving, filtration and
windowsill. crystallisation
10
Separation of mixtures
Common errors
Filtration (often spelt wrongly as filteration) can also be called filtering.
There are other common errors when describing the process:
● The words residue and filtrate are often used the wrong way round.
● Filtrate is often used as an incorrect alternative to filtered as in ‘he filtrated
the solution’. The word filtrated does not exist!
● The filtrate should not be heated until all the water evaporates to dryness.
This does not lead to the production of good crystals. In addition, some
crystals contain water of crystallisation which would be driven off by too
much heat (see Chapter 8).
● If the crystals are dried with too much water they will dissolve, which
defeats the purpose. The water should ideally be ice cold to minimise the
amount that dissolves.
(Simple) distillation
(Simple) distillation is a method of separating a pure liquid from a solution.
thermometer
water
out Liebig
condenser
distillation flask
sodium cooling
chloride water in
solution
HEAT
water (distillate)
Figure 2.6 Simple distillation
The flask is heated. The water in the sodium chloride solution evaporates and
water vapour/steam enters the Liebig condenser, where it condenses as water.
The water drips out of the end of the Liebig condenser and collects in the
beaker. The water is pure and can be called distilled water. Sodium chloride
does not vaporise or even melt because it has a very high melting point, and
therefore it remains in the distillation flask.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is a method of separating two (or more) miscible

liquids with different boiling points. It can be carried out in the laboratory
or on an industrial scale as in the fractional distillation of liquid air
(see Chapter 11) or fractional distillation of petroleum (see Chapter 14).
In the laboratory ethanol and water can be separated by fractional
distillation using the apparatus shown in Figure 2.7.
11
thermometer
Liebig
condenser cooling
water in
cooling
water out
fractionating column
with short lengths
of glass rod inside
(increases surface area)
distillation conical
flask flask
ethanol +
water ethanol
(distillate)
HEAT support
Figure 2.7 Apparatus for fractional distillation
Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 °C and water has a boiling point of 100 °C.
The flask is heated and ethanol vapour enters the fractionating column.
However, some water also evaporates (below its boiling point) and enters
the fractionating column as water vapour/steam. The water vapour/
steam condenses in the fractionating column and drips back down into the
distillation flask. When the temperature reaches 78 °C, the ethanol vapour
reaches the top of the fractionating column and enters the Liebig condenser
where it condenses. Finally, liquid ethanol collects as the distillate and all the
water remains in the distillation flask.
● Summary: Methods of separation of mixtures

Method of separation Example of mixture that is separated Property that the method depends on
Paper chromatography Dyes in ink Adsorption by paper/solubility in solvent
Dissolving, filtration and crystallisation Sand and salt Solubility
(Simple) distillation Sodium chloride solution Boiling point
Fractional distillation Ethanol and water Boiling point
● Sample exam-style question

1 State whether the following are elements, mixtures or compounds.
a silver d water
b bronze e bauxite
c sea water f aluminium oxide
12
Student’s answer
1 a element
b mixture
c mixture
d compound
e mixture
f compound
Examiner’s comment
a Metals can be elements, but alloys are mixtures of metals. Silver is an element. It is the
element with atomic number 47 in the Periodic Table. If you are not sure if a substance
is an element you should know that the Periodic Table only contains elements.
b Bronze is an alloy (see Chapter 10) and, as such, it is a mixture of metals. Bronze
contains copper, tin and other metals in variable proportions.
c Sea water is water (which is a compound) containing many substances, in variable
proportions, dissolved in it.
d Water has the formula H2O. Any substance with a formula that shows more than
one element is a compound. Although water is found in many forms such as tap
water, sea water and distilled water, the term water refers to the pure compound.
e Bauxite is a metallic ore from which aluminium is extracted (see Chapter 5).
The word ore refers to an impure substance. Metallic ores are mixtures.
f Aluminium oxide has the formula Al2O3. Bauxite contains the compound aluminium
oxide with impurities.
1 State the name of the process(es) that you would use to obtain
a sugar crystals from a mixture of sugar and sand
b pure water from an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate
c liquid octane (boiling point 126 °C) from a mixture of liquid octane and
liquid decane (boiling point 174 °C)
d pure silver chloride from the precipitate formed when aqueous silver
nitrate is added to dilute hydrochloric acid.
In some cases, only one process is required, but others may require
more than one. [Total: 8 marks]
2 A student was told to make pure crystals of copper(II) sulfate from an
aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate. Describe how the student should
carry this out. [4 marks]

3 A student is given a mixture of two amino acids. The amino acids are
both colourless solids that are soluble in water. Give full experimental
details of how you would separate and identify the amino acids present
in the mixture using paper chromatography. You are provided with all
the necessary apparatus and a suitable locating agent. [5 marks]
13
Atomic structure, bonding and
3 structure of solids
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should ● relate the structures of graphite and diamond to their
uses
● know the relative charges and approximate relative masses
of protons, neutrons and electrons ● know why isotopes have the same chemical properties
● know the definition of proton number (atomic number) ● be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between
and nucleon number (mass number) other metallic and non-metallic elements
● know that proton number is the basis of the Periodic Table ● be able to determine the formulae of ionic compounds
● know the definition of isotopes and that isotopes are from the charges on the ions present
radioactive and non-radioactive ● know that a giant ionic lattice is a regular arrangement of
● know one medical and one industrial use of radioactive positive and negative ions
isotopes ● be able to describe the formation of more complex
● know the build up of electrons in shells for the first 20 covalent molecules, such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2
elements in the Periodic Table ● be able to explain the differences in melting point and
● know the difference between metals and non-metals boiling point between ionic compounds and covalent
● know that ions are formed when atoms lose and gain substances with both giant structures and simple
electrons molecular structures in terms of attractive forces between
● be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between particles
elements from Groups I and VII ● know the structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)
● be able to describe the formation of single covalent bonds ● be able to describe the similarity in properties between
in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3, HCl diamond and silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) related to
● be able to describe the difference in volatility, solubility their structures
and electrical conductivity between ionic compounds and ● be able to describe metallic bonding as a force of
covalent substances with both giant structures and simple attraction between positive ions and a mobile sea of
molecular structures electrons
● know the giant covalent structures of graphite and ● know how the structure of metals can be used to explain
diamond malleability and conduction of electricity.
● Key terms
Proton number The number of protons in one atom of an element
(atomic number)
Nucleon number The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in one atom of an element
(mass number)
Isotopes Atoms of the same element containing the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons, or
Atoms of the same element with the same proton number (atomic number) but different
nucleon number (mass number)
Lattice A regular arrangement of particles present in a solid. The particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) are arranged in a repeated pattern
● Atomic structure
Atoms are made from smaller particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Examiner’s tip
Table 3.1 The properties of protons, neutrons and electrons Make sure you learn the
information in Table 3.1.
Particle Relative mass/atomic mass units Relative charge You need to know the
Proton 1 +1
differences between
relative mass and relative
Neutron 1 0 charge of a proton,
Electron 1/1837 (negligible) −1 neutron and electron.
14
The arrangement of electrons in atoms
The protons and neutrons exist in the centre of the atom in a dense region Examiner’s tip
called the nucleus. The electrons move around the nucleus and exist in In some books, the
electron shells at increasing distances from the nucleus. two numbers may be
Atoms are often represented as shown in Figure 3.1. reversed. It is a good
idea to remember that
nucleon number 31 the nucleon number is
(mass number)
proton number
(atomic number)
15 P always higher than the
proton number (with the
exception of hydrogen,
in which case both
Figure 3.1
numbers are 1 in the
The proton number is the number of protons in one atom of the element. most abundant isotope).
Because atoms do not have a charge, the number of protons in an atom is
always equal to the number of electrons.
The nucleon number is the number of neutrons and protons added together
in one atom of an element.
Therefore
Proton number = number of protons in one atom = number of electrons
in one atom
Number of neutrons = nucleon number − proton number
In the example given in Figure 3.1:
Number of protons = proton Number of electrons = number Number of neutrons = (nucleon
number of protons number − proton number)
15 15 31 − 15 = 16
Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Examples of isotopes of argon are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Examples of isotopes of argon
Isotope Number of protons in Number of neutrons in Number of electrons in

one atom one atom one atom
40
18 Ar
18 (40 − 18) = 22 18
38
18 Ar
18 (38 − 18) = 20 18
36
18 Ar
18 (36 − 18) = 18 18
Some isotopes are radioactive and some are non-radioactive. Radioactive

isotopes decay (which means give off radiation) and usually change into other
elements. Radioactive isotopes are also known as radioisotopes.
Radioactive isotopes/radioisotopes can be used
● in medicine (e.g. cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy treatment)
● in industry (e.g. uranium-235 is used as a source of power in nuclear reactors).
Common error
● Many students think of isotopes as referring only to radioactive isotopes,
but some are also non-radioactive.
● The arrangement of electrons in atoms

Electrons are arranged in electron shells at increasing distances from the
nucleus. These shells can hold up to a maximum number of electrons, as
shown in Table 3.3.
15
3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE, BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
Table 3.3 Maximum number of electrons per shell number
Shell number Maximum number of electrons

1 2
2 8
3 8*
*Shell 3 can, in fact, hold up to 18 electrons, but this does not need to be
considered at this level and only becomes relevant in higher-level courses.
Some examples of arrangement of electrons in shells are shown Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Arrangement of electrons in shells
Element Number of electrons in one atom Arrangement of electrons in shells

Helium, He 2 2
Carbon, C 6 2,4
Phosphorus, P 15 2,8,5
Potassium, K 19 2,8,8,1
Students are expected to be able to write down and draw the electron
arrangement of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.
Isotopes of the same element all have the same number of electrons, and
therefore all have the same number of electrons in their outer shells. This
means that isotopes of the same element all have the same chemical properties.
The chemical properties of elements depend on the number of electrons
in the outer shell of their atoms.
● The Periodic Table

Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing proton
number. This means that as we move from one element to the next element,
the atoms have one extra proton in the nucleus and one extra electron. The
extra electron goes into the outer shell until the outer shell is full. The next
shell then begins to fill up.
Elements in the same group all have the same number of electrons in
the outer shell of their atoms. This applies beyond the first 20 elements.
Examples are:
● All Group (I) elements have 1 electron in the outer shell.
● All Group (II) elements have 2 electrons in the outer shell.
● All Group (VII) elements have 7 electrons in the outer shell.
● All Group (0) elements have a full outer shell.
● Most metallic elements have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shell.
● Most non-metallic elements have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shell
(or a full outer shell in the case of Noble gases).
● Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds containing metallic elements combined
with non-metallic elements.
Metal atoms (with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shells) lose an electron
or electrons in order to achieve a full outer shell and form positive ions
(cations).
16
Ionic bonding
Non-metal atoms (with 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shells) gain an

electron or electrons in order to achieve a full outer shell and form negative
ions (anions). An example occurs in sodium chloride.
Sodium atoms contain 11 protons and 11 electrons and chlorine atoms
contain 17 protons and 17 electrons. Because both contain equal numbers of
protons and electrons both atoms are uncharged.
An electron moves from the outer shell of a sodium atom to the outer shell
of a chlorine atom so that both atoms achieve a full outer shell.
nucleus containing nucleus containing
11 protons 17 protons
sodium atom chlorine atom (Cl)

(Na)
electron electron
arrangement arrangement
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7
Figure 3.2 Movement of electrons between a sodium atom and a chlorine atom
After the transfer of electrons, sodium forms a positive sodium ion and
chlorine forms a negative chloride ion.
nucleus containing nucleus containing
11 protons 17 protons

sodium ion chloride ion

(Na+) (Cl–)
electron electron
arrangement arrangement
2, 8 2, 8, 8
11 protons = 11+ 17 protons = 17+ Examiner’s tip
10 electrons = 10– 18 electrons = 18–
Overall charge = +1 Overall charge = –1 Remember that atoms
have equal numbers of
Figure 3.3 The electron arrangements of the resulting sodium and chloride ions
protons and electrons,
and are therefore
The sodium ion still has 11 protons but only 10 electrons, therefore it has 1+ uncharged.
charge and is written Na+. The chloride ion still has 17 protons but now has Positive ions (cations)
18 electrons; therefore it has 1− charge and is written Cl −. have more protons than
In sodium chloride, the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions is 1:1 and thus electrons and are therefore
the formula of sodium chloride is NaCl. In all examples in which Group (I) positively charged.
elements combine with Group (VII) elements, the ratio of ions is always 1:1. Negative ions (anions)
Other examples occur in which atoms do not combine in the ratio 1:1. This have more electrons than
applies when the number of electrons lost by one metal atom is not equal to protons and are therefore
the number of electrons gained by one non-metallic atom. negatively charged.
17
fluorine atom, F
magnesium atom, Mg
movement of
electrons

nucleus
containing
9 protons
electron arrangement 2,7
nucleus
nucleus fluorine atom, F containing
movement of
containing 9 protons
electrons
12 protons
electron arrangement 2,8,2

fluoride ion, F −
nucleus
containing
9 protons
magnesium ion, Mg2+

nucleus
2
containing
12 protons

fluoride ion, F −
nucleus
electron arrangement 2,8 containing
9 protons

Figure 3.4 Magnesium fluoride
Because the ratio of magnesium ions to fluoride ions is 1:2, the formula of
magnesium fluoride is MgF2.
The formulae of ionic compounds

The formulae of ionic compounds can be deduced from knowledge of the
charges on the ions. Examples of common ions are shown in Table 3.5.
18
Ionic bonding
Table 3.5 Examples of common ions

Examiner’s tip
Charge Example Charge Example Table 3.6 shows the
+ − charges on ions in
1+ Lithium, Li 1− Fluoride, F
Sodium, Na+ Chloride, Cl− different groups in the
Potassium, K+ Bromide, Br− Periodic Table.
Silver, Ag+ Iodide, I−
Table 3.6
Ammonium, NH4+
−
Hydroxide, OH
Nitrite, NO2–
Group Charge on ion
Nitrate, NO3–
I 1+
2+ Magnesium, Mg2+ 2− Oxide, O2−
Calcium, Ca2+ Sulfide, S2− II 2+
Barium, Ba2+ Carbonate, CO32–
III 3+
Zinc, Zn2+
Sulfate, SO42–
Iron(II), Fe2+ V 3−
Copper(II), Cu2+ Sulfite, SO32– VI 2−
Lead, Pb2+
VII 1−
3+ Aluminium, Al3+ 3− Nitride, N3−
3–
Iron(III), Fe3+ Phosphate, PO4 In other cases, e.g. the
transition elements, it is
Bold type denotes polyatomic ions. These are ions which have more than not possible to use the
one capital letter in the formula (see rule 4 below). Periodic Table to deduce
the charges on ions. In
Examples of how to determine formulae of ionic such cases, the charges
must be learned by heart.
compounds
The most important thing to know is that all compounds have no overall
charge; therefore in the case of ionic compounds the number of positive
charges is equal to the number of negative charges.
To work out the formula of a compound you should:
1 Write down the formulae of the positive and the negative ions.
2 Count the number of positive charges and the number of negative
charges.
3 If the charges are not equal, add more positive ions, more negative ions or
both until the charges are equal.
4 If more than one of a polyatomic ion is required, the whole formula of the
ion must go in a bracket and the number of ions goes outside the bracket
as a subscript, e.g. (NO3)2.
Write down the formulae of the following compounds.
Sodium carbonate + 2–
1 Ions Na CO3
+ 2–
2 Charges Na CO3
1+ 2–
+
3 Add 1 extra Na to make the charges equal
+ 2–
Na CO3
+
Na
2+ 2–
2–
4 There is only one (CO3 ) therefore a bracket is not required
5 Formula Na2CO3
19
Magnesium hydroxide 2+
1 Mg OH –
2 Mg 2+ OH –
2+ 1–
3 Mg 2+ OH –
OH –
2+ 2–
− −
4 OH has two capital letters. Since 2OH ions are
required, OH must go in a bracket with the 2
outside the bracket as a subscript.
5 Mg(OH)2
Aluminium oxide 1 Al 3+ O 2–
2 Al 3+ O 2–
3+ 2–
3 Al 3+ O 2–
O 2–
Al 3+
O 2–
6+ 6–
4 There are no polyatomic ions, therefore

brackets are not required.
5 Al2O3
Iron(III) sulfate 2–
1 Fe 3+ SO4
2–
2 Fe 3+ SO4
3+ 2–
2–
3 Fe 3+ SO4
2–
Fe 3+ SO4
2–
SO4
6+ 6–
2–
4 Because (SO4 )
has two capital letters, we need to put SO4
in a bracket with 3 outside the bracket as a subscript.
Common errors
Some common incorrect answers using the formula of iron(III) sulfate as an
example are
● FeSO4: The number of charges has not been made equal. (This is the
Examiner’s tip
correct formula of iron(II) sulfate.)
You should be able
● Fe2(SO)3: The 4 is left out of the formula of sulfate. to write formulae of
compounds containing
● (Fe)2(SO4)3: A bracket is not required around Fe as it only has one all possible combinations
capital letter. of positive and negative
ions in Table 3.5.
● Fe2(SO)4: The 4 is left out of the formula of sulfate and placed incorrectly
outside the bracket.
20
Covalent bonding
● Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding occurs in elements and compounds containing non-metallic
elements only.
Covalent bonds are formed when pairs of electrons are shared. A shared
pair of electrons is known as a single (covalent) bond.
Double bonds (two shared pairs of electrons) and triple bonds (three shared
pairs of electrons) also exist.
Atoms which form a covalent bond join together to form uncharged

molecules. All the atoms involved achieve a full outer shell of electrons.
Examples of covalent molecules containing single bonds only are shown in
Figure 3.5. Only the outer electron shells are shown.
hydrogen, H2 chlorine, Cl2 water, H2O
H H Cl Cl H O H
H H Cl Cl H O H
methanol, CH3OH
methane, CH4 ammonia, NH3 hydrogen chloride, HCl
H H
H C H H N H H Cl H C O H
H H H
H H
H C H H N H H Cl H C O H
H H H
Figure 3.5 Covalent molecules containing single bonds
Examples of covalent molecules containing double and triple bonds are

shown in Figure 3.6. Only the outer electron shells are shown.
nitrogen, N2 ethene, C2H4 carbon dioxide, CO2
H H
N N C C O C O
H H
H H
N N C C O C O
H H
Figure 3.6 Covalent molecules containing double and triple bonds
21
● Structure of solids
Solids have four different types of structures as shown below.
Giant ionic structure

Sodium chloride is an example of a giant ionic structure. It is held together
by strong forces of attraction between oppositely charged sodium ions and
chloride ions (called ionic bonds) which are present in a giant ionic lattice.
Cl–
Na+
Na+ surrounded Cl– surrounded

by 6Cl– ions by 6Na+ ions
Figure 3.7 The structure of sodium chloride
Giant covalent structure (macromolecular structure)

Diamond is an example of a giant covalent structure. It is held together by
strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Graphite is another example of substance with a giant covalent structure,
although it has many differences when compared to diamond (see pages 23–24).
Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2, is another example of a giant covalent structure. It

has similar properties to diamond due to a similar structure.
Giant metallic structures

All metallic elements have giant metallic structures. They contain positive
ions surrounded by a mobile sea of electrons. Metals are held together by
the strong forces of attraction between positive ions and the mobile sea of
electrons known as metallic bonds.
Examiner’s tip
In exam questions which
ask for the meaning of
metallic bonding, students
usually describe the
giant metallic structure
but do not mention the

strong forces of attraction
between positive ions and
the mobile sea of electrons,
known as metallic bonds.
Figure 3.8 Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons
22
Diamond and graphite
Simple molecular structures

Iodine is an example of a substance with a simple molecular structure. It has
strong covalent bonds between the atoms within the molecules (intramolecular)
but weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules.
The properties of different types of solid, related to their structures, are
shown in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Properties of different types of solid, related to their structures
Giant ionic structure Giant molecular Giant metallic structure Simple molecular structure
structure
Example Sodium chloride, NaCl Diamond, C Copper, Cu Iodine, I2
Silicon dioxide, SiO2
Particles present Positive and negative ions Atoms Positive ions and mobile sea Simple molecules
of electrons
Bonding Strong forces of Strong covalent Strong metallic bonds Weak forces of attraction
attraction between bonds between between positive ions and (intermolecular forces) between
oppositely charged ions atoms the mobile sea of electrons uncharged molecules
known as ionic bonds
Solubility in Usually soluble Insoluble Insoluble. Note: some metals Usually insoluble
water react with water
Melting point/ High because all the High because all the High because all the bonds Low because intermolecular forces are
boiling point bonds are strong ionic bonds are strong are strong metallic bonds weak and these are the bonds that
bonds covalent bonds break when these substances melt and
boil, not the covalent bonds
Conduction of Only conduct when Non-conductors Good conductors when solid Non-conductors because they do not
electricity molten or dissolved in (except graphite) because they contain mobile contain mobile electrons or ions and
water, but not when solid because they do electrons (see Chapter 5) consist of uncharged molecules
(see Chapter 5) not contain mobile
electrons or ions
Malleability/ Not malleable or ductile Not malleable or Malleable and ductile Not malleable or ductile
ductility ductile because rows of positive ions
can slide over each other
(see Chapter 10)
Common errors
● In exam questions which ask why substances with simple molecular
structures have low melting points and boiling points, it is very commonly
said that this is because covalent bonds are weak. This is a bad error. All
covalent bonds are strong bonds.
● The correct answer is that intermolecular forces are weak which is why
substances with simple molecular substances are either solids with low melting
points such as iodine, liquids such as water or gases such as carbon dioxide.
● Diamond and graphite

Both diamond and graphite have giant covalent (macromolecular) structures,
but because there are differences in their structure and bonding, these lead to
differences in properties and uses.
Figure 3.9 The structure of diamond

23
showing how the layers fit together one layer

Figure 3.10 The structure of graphite
Table 3.8 Differences in structure and bonding between diamond and graphite
Diamond Graphite
Number of carbon atoms covalently 4 3
bonded to each carbon atom
Arrangement of atoms Tetrahedrally In layers (made of rings containing 6 carbon atoms)
Bonding All covalent Covalent between atoms within layers
Weak van der Waals forces between layers
Mobile electrons None. All outer shell electrons used in One electron from each atom exists in the spaces in
bonding between the layers as mobile electrons
Hardness Hard because all bonds are strong and Soft because weak van der Waals forces between layers
directional allow layers to slide over each other
Conduction of electricity Non-conductor because there are no Good conductors due to mobile electrons between layers
mobile electrons
Use In cutting tools due to high strength As a lubricant because layers can slide
As a conductor in motors
● Silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)

Silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide) has a giant covalent
(macromolecular) structure.
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms.
The bonds are directed tetrahedrally. Each oxygen atom is
covalently bonded to two silicon atoms. O
All the bonds in silicon(IV) oxide are strong covalent bonds.
Si
There are no mobile electrons present. Because of its structure
and bonding, silicon(IV) oxide is strong, hard, has a high melting
and boiling point and is a non-conductor of electricity. These

properties are like those of diamond which has a very similar
structure and the same bonding. Figure 3.11 The structure of silicon(IV) oxide
24
1 Complete the following table

Particle Number of protons Number of electrons Electronic configuration Charge on particle
A 20 18
B 9 10 2,8
C 10 2,8 0
D 8 10 2,8
[Total: 5 marks]
2 Draw dot and cross diagrams showing the arrangement of outer shell electrons in the following
covalent molecules.
H P H
a oxygen, O2 d phosphine, PH3
H
H
Cl
b methanol, CH3OH H C O H e carbonyl chloride, COCl2 C O [Total: 5 marks]

Cl
H
c hydrogen cyanide, HCN H C N
3 Deduce the formulae of the following ionic compounds.

a magnesium hydroxide f calcium carbonate
b calcium chloride g aluminium nitrate
c ammonium phosphate h potassium sulfite
d lithium sulfide i zinc sulfate
e lead nitrate j ammonium sulfate [Total: 10 marks]
4 Use the table to answer the questions that follow. Consider room temperature to be 25 °C.
Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C Conduction of electricity when solid Conduction of electricity when molten
A −40 35 Non-conductor Non-conductor
B 50 150 Non-conductor Non-conductor
C 801 1500 Non-conductor Conductor
D 1500 2500 Conductor Conductor
E 2500 5000 Non-conductor Non-conductor
F −75 −35 Non-conductor Non-conductor
a Which substance or substances are solid at room temperature? [1 mark]

b Which substance or substances are liquid at room temperature? [1 mark]
c Which substance or substances are gaseous at room temperature? [1 mark]

d Which substance could have a giant metallic structure? [1 mark]
e Which substance has a giant ionic structure? [1 mark]
f Which substance has a giant molecular structure? [1 mark]
[Total: 6 marks]
25
9 The Periodic Table
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to ● describe the noble gases in Group VIII or 0 as being
unreactive, monatomic gases and explain this in terms of
● describe the Periodic Table as a means of classifying
electronic structure
elements and its use to predict properties of elements
● be able to describe some properties of transition elements
● describe the change from metallic to non-metallic
character across a period ● describe and explain the relationship between group
● describe some properties of the Group I elements lithium, number, number of outer shell electrons and
sodium and potassium and predict the properties of other metallic/non-metallic character
Group I elements ● identify trends in groups given information about the
● describe some properties of the Group VII elements elements concerned
chlorine, bromine and iodine and predict the properties of ● know that transition elements have variable oxidation states.
other Group VII elements
● Key terms
Periodic Table Contains all the elements arranged in order of proton number
Groups The vertical columns in the Periodic Table
Periods The horizontal rows in the Periodic Table
Alkali metals Group I. Metals which react with water to produce alkaline solutions (such as lithium, sodium
and potassium)
Halogens Group VII. Non-metallic, diatomic molecules
Noble gases Group 0. Unreactive, monatomic, colourless gases
Transition Metals found in the elongated section of the Periodic Table between Groups II and III (such as
elements copper, iron and nickel)
● Periodic Table
The Periodic Table contains the elements arranged in order of proton
number (atomic number).
● The vertical columns of elements are called groups.
● The horizontal rows of elements are called periods.
Across Periods 2 and 3, there is a gradual change from metals on the left-hand
side to non-metals on the right-hand side.
Common error
● Students often think that the elements are arranged in order of mass
number or relative atomic mass. Most of the relative atomic masses of the
elements do increase as proton numbers increase, but in some places the
relative atomic mass decreases, e.g. argon to potassium.
Atoms of elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in
the outer shell. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines the
chemical properties of the element.
The number of shells present in an atom of an element is the same as the
period number in which the element is found in the Periodic Table.
Potassium has proton number 19 and therefore its electron configuration
is 2,8,8,1. There is one electron in the outer shell which means potassium
is in Group I of the Periodic Table. Potassium has electrons in four shells,
which means it is in Period 4.
64
Group properties
● Group properties
Group I
The Group I elements are known as the alkali metals because they react with
water to produce alkaline solutions. The Group I elements are very reactive
metals. Examiner’s tip
The Group I elements, in order of increasing proton number, are lithium, Examination questions
sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. Only lithium, sodium often ask for
and potassium are found in school laboratories, because rubidium, caesium observations, or ask,
‘What would you see …?’
and francium are dangerously reactive and francium is also radioactive.
in a particular chemical
The Group I elements or physical change. When
Group I metals react
● are stored under oil because they react rapidly with oxygen in the air with water, suitable
● are good conductors of heat and electricity observations are
● can be cut with a knife because they are soft ● the metal disappears
● are shiny when cut, but tarnish rapidly due to reaction with oxygen in
● the metal melts
the air
● have low densities and low melting points and boiling points compared to ● bubbles/fizzing/
effervescence (these all
transition metals. effectively mean the
The melting points and boiling points of Group I elements decrease down the same thing)
group. Densities change in an irregular manner. ● the metal floats and
moves around on the
Reaction with water surface
All Group I elements react vigorously with water at room temperature. The ● potassium and those
reactions are usually carried out in a glass trough. Observations are Group I metals below
potassium burst into
● the metal moves around and floats on the surface of the water flames.
● the reaction produces heat which causes the metal to melt as it reacts However, the following
● bubbles of hydrogen gas are given off are not observations:
● the metal rapidly disappears, forming a colourless solution of the alkaline ● names of the products
metal hydroxide.
● a gas is given off (it is
The equation for the reaction with sodium is not possible to see a
colourless gas)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
● an alkaline solution
The equations with all the other Group I metals would be exactly the same forms (it is not possible
(including balancing numbers) if the symbols for the other metals replaced to see that a solution is
that of Na in the above equation. alkaline by observation
alone)
Reactivity of the Group I metals increases down the group. Sodium moves
around the surface faster than lithium and also disappears more rapidly. ● colour change of an
indicator (unless an
Potassium bursts into a lilac flame. If rubidium and caesium are added to
indicator is mentioned
water an explosive reaction occurs, which is why they are not kept in school in the question).
laboratories.
Group VII
The Group VII elements are known as the halogens.
The Group VII elements in order of increasing proton number are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Only chlorine, bromine and iodine are
found in school laboratories. Fluorine is too reactive to be used in schools and
astatine is radioactive.
The elements are all non-metallic and exist as diatomic molecules
(molecules containing two atoms). The appearance of those found in schools
is shown in Table 9.1.
65
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Table 9.1 Physical appearance of chlorine, bromine and iodine
Element Appearance at room temperature

Chlorine Pale green gas
Bromine Red-brown liquid
Iodine Grey-black solid
The colours become darker as the group is descended. The change in physical
state from gas to liquid to solid down the group indicates an increase in
melting point and boiling point and density down the group (due to an
increase in the strength of intermolecular forces).
Halogen displacement reactions

If halogens (or solutions of the halogens in water) are added to colourless
aqueous solutions of potassium halides (chlorides, bromides and iodides),
displacement reactions occur in the examples highlighted in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Displacement reactions observed in chlorine, bromine and iodine
Aqueous potassium chloride, KCl Aqueous potassium bromide, KBr Aqueous potassium iodide, KI
Chlorine, Cl2 Solution turns orange/yellow (bromine Solution turns brown (iodine produced)
produced)
Bromine, Br2 No change Solution turns brown (iodine produced)
Iodine, I2 No change No change
An example of a displacement reaction is when chlorine displaces bromine

from an aqueous solution of potassium bromide. The equation is
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
As can be seen from Table 9.2,

● chlorine displaces bromine and iodine
● bromine displaces iodine, but does not displace chlorine
● iodine does not displace chlorine or bromine.
Halogens higher up the group can displace those lower down. Alternatively,
we can say that reactivity increases up Group VII. This is opposite to the
trend in reactivity shown in Group I.
We can use this information to make predictions about the other halogens
and halides (see the Exam-style questions at the end of the chapter).
Group 0
The Group 0 elements are known as the noble gases. The Group 0 elements,
in order of increasing proton number, are helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon and radon.
The Group 0 elements
● are all colourless gases

● are all monatomic; this means they exist as individual atoms because their
atoms all have a full outer shell of electrons and do not form covalent bonds
with other Group 0 atoms to form diatomic molecules
● are very unreactive because their atoms all have a full outer shell of
electrons, therefore they do not need to share, lose or gain electrons to
achieve a full outer shell of electrons.
66
Uses of Group 0 elements

● Helium is used in filling balloons because of its low density. Its unreactive nature
means that hazards associated with hydrogen are absent if helium is used.
● Argon is used in light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament from burning.
This is because argon does not support burning due to its unreactivity.
● Transition elements
Transition elements are all metals (also known as transition metals). They are
found in the elongated section of the Periodic Table between Groups II and
III. Common examples are copper, iron and nickel.
Physical properties
Transition elements are all metals and show the usual physical properties of
metals (see Chapter 10). In addition, transition metals
● are harder and stronger than the elements in Group I
● have higher densities than the elements in Group I
● have higher melting points than the elements in Group I.
Chemical properties
● Transition elements form coloured compounds, e.g. copper(II) sulfate
crystals are blue and potassium manganate(VII) is purple.
● The elements and their compounds show catalytic activity, e.g. iron in the
Haber process and vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process.
● Transition elements have variable oxidation states, e.g. iron can form Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ions.
1 The diagram below shows part of the Periodic Table. Use the letters A to
H inclusive to answer the questions that follow. Each letter may be used
once, more than once, or not at all. Give the letter that represents
a the Group I element that is most reactive [1 mark]
b the Group VII element that is most reactive [1 mark]
c a transition element [1 mark]
d an element in Period 3 [1 mark]
e an element whose atoms have four electrons in their outer shell. [1 mark]
[Total: 5 marks]
0
I II III IV V VI VII
C D
A
H F
G E
B
Figure 9.1
67
9 THE PERIODIC TABLE
2 Lithium is added to cold water in a glass trough.

a Give three observations you would expect to make. [3 marks]
b Write a chemical equation for the reaction that occurs. Include
state symbols. [3 marks]
c If methyl orange is added to the liquid in the trough after the
reaction, what colour would it turn to? [1 mark]
[Total: 7 marks]
3 Use the table of halogen displacement reactions to answer the following
questions. Write chemical equations (with state symbols) and ionic
equations for the reactions that occur between
a chlorine and aqueous potassium iodide [4 marks]
b bromine and aqueous potassium iodide. [4 marks]
[Total: 8 marks]
4 Use the Periodic Table to predict reactions that would occur between
a fluorine and aqueous potassium chloride
b astatine and aqueous potassium fluoride
c bromine and aqueous potassium astatide
d iodine and aqueous potassium fluoride.
If you predict that a reaction would occur, write a chemical
equation for the reaction. If you predict that a reaction
would not occur write no reaction. [Total: 6 marks]
5 Copper and iron have variable oxidation states. State the formulae of
a copper(I) oxide [1 mark]
b copper(II) nitrate [1 mark]
c iron(II) chloride [1 mark]
d iron(III) sulfate. [1 mark]
[Total: 4 marks]
68

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Study and Revision Guide

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Contents

● Solids, liquids and gases 

Solid Liquid Gas

Figure 1.1 (a) Solid, (b) liquid, (c) gas

Surface boundary Shape

Figure 1.2 Changes of state

● Heating and cooling curves 

gained by the particles is sufﬁcient to completely overcome the attraction

Brownian motion is caused by the larger particles (pollen grains or smoke

Pollen Brownian motion

Figure 1.4 Brownian motion

● Sample exam-style questions 

bung glass tube white solid bung

cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked in

a What is the name of the white solid?

1 A substance has a melting point of 85 °C and a boiling point of 180 °C.

Which substance out of A, B, C and D is

Chromatography can also be used to identify the components of a mixture as chromatography

● A mixture of dyes is placed on chromatography paper in the position

known as a chromatogram) is removed from the beaker and dried.

Figure 2.3 After chromatography

The results of the experiment show:

Chromatography can also be used to identify colourless substances. The

original position of mixture

distance travelled by component a

When the Rf value is calculated, the component of the mixture can be

Dissolving, ﬁltration and crystallisation

The ﬁnal two stages are known as crystallisation: salt solution

Figure 2.6 Simple distillation

Fractional distillation is a method of separating two (or more) miscible

Figure 2.7 Apparatus for fractional distillation

● Summary: Methods of separation of mixtures 

● Sample exam-style question 

carry this out. [4 marks]

Isotope Number of protons in Number of neutrons in Number of electrons in

Some isotopes are radioactive and some are non-radioactive. Radioactive

● in industry (e.g. uranium-235 is used as a source of power in nuclear reactors).

● The arrangement of electrons in atoms 

Table 3.3 Maximum number of electrons per shell number

Shell number Maximum number of electrons

Some examples of arrangement of electrons in shells are shown Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Arrangement of electrons in shells

Element Number of electrons in one atom Arrangement of electrons in shells

● The Periodic Table 

(or a full outer shell in the case of Noble gases).

Non-metal atoms (with 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shells) gain an

sodium atom chlorine atom (Cl)

sodium ion chloride ion

electron arrangement 2,8,2

electron arrangement 2,7

electron arrangement 2,8

Figure 3.4 Magnesium ﬂuoride

magnesium ﬂuoride is MgF2.

The formulae of ionic compounds

Table 3.5 Examples of common ions

4 There are no polyatomic ions, therefore

Atoms which form a covalent bond join together to form uncharged

Figure 3.5 Covalent molecules containing single bonds

Examples of covalent molecules containing double and triple bonds are

Giant ionic structure

● Solids, liquids and gases

● Heating and cooling curves

● Sample exam-style questions

● Summary: Methods of separation of mixtures

● Sample exam-style question

● The arrangement of electrons in atoms

● The Periodic Table

● Diamond and graphite

● Silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)