The Last

Days of
Socrates
You are breathless, but still you run. Uneven cobble-
stones throw you off balance, your feet ache, but on
you run. Others jostle around you, and you almost
stumble, but you can’t because it’s chasing you. A
wave of sharp beats moves over the ancient pavement
behind you. You have to run faster. You glance back
over your shoulder, and you see them. The bulls are
coming. Suddenly, fear overwhelms fatigue, and you
rocket ahead of a few competitors. As you round a
corner, you cast a look backward. The wall of bulls is
steps behind. You search for the bullring ahead of you.
You’ll never make it. You feel a sharp push in the small
of your back, and you almost stumble to the pavement.
One beast seems to have his sights set on you. You bail
out, diving from the main road to one of the even nar-
rower alleyways. Your body skids along the stones.
You are battered, your lungs gasp for oxygen, but at
least you are safe. You hear the distant roar of the
Pamplona crowd in the distance,
as the bulls enter the ring. But you Socrates was
hear another, closer sound behind the son of a
sculptor. He
you in the alleyway. Someone or
was the father
something is behind you. You of three sons,
slowly turn and face that bull from and he was a
the street. He followed you. As your legendary drink-
eyes meet his, he lowers his head, er. Although
no sculptures of
his sharp horns pointing at you.
him were made
His right front hoof begins to paw in his day, since
the cobblestones. his death he
has always been
depicted as an
ugly man, due
General to descriptions
of him by his
Information disciple Plato.
Socrates was
Author and Context accused of
corrupting
Few people in world history young minds
have had as much influence as and, in the end,
the Greek thinker, Plato. One chose death
twentieth-century thinker famously over exile.
2 O m n i b u s I

Socrates was accused of atheism because he called described the history of philosophy as simply “a series
the Greek pantheon of gods into question. Here of footnotes to Plato”—meaning Plato said all the
we see two of those gods, Athena and Apollo, on
important stuff, and everyone else was dependent
either side of the kneeling Orestes, with the Furies
in the background. The scene is from the third play upon him. You have to grasp Plato to understand so
of Aeschylus’s Oresteia trilogy and was painted on a much of anything else in Western history.
fourth-century B.C. Italian vase. Plato lived from around 428 to 347 B.C. near the
 The Last Days of Socrates 3

end of the golden age of Athens (often judged to be ought to disobey the dictate of death and flee Athens,
from 480 to 430 B.C.). When Plato lived, Homer’s writ- preserving his life. His friends argue he should, but he
ings already held a central place in Greek life; they argues against it. Finally, with the fourth dialogue in
had been written over three hundred years before the series, the Phaedo, we get Socrates’ friend Phaedo
Plato’s time. When Plato was born, Herodotus had rehearsing the story of Socrates’ last day, the day of
been dead for decades, and Aeschylus, author of the Socrates’ execution by poison—hemlock. Socrates
Oresteia, had died less than twenty years before. resigns himself to death and even welcomes it. His
Plato came from an aristocratic family in Athens, friends worry and ask him to explain why he is so se-
and his father is believed to have descended from the rene. He discusses with them why he believes in life
early kings of Athens. His mother may have been re- after death. The dialogue closes with an account of
lated to the famous Athenian lawmaker, Solon (one of Socrates’ quiet death in prison.
the men discussed in Plutarch’s Lives).
Early in his life, Plato had an interest in politics
(statecraft), but he soon became disillusioned. Perhaps Significance
this shift occurred near the time he came under the Plato wrote about forty dialogues, and the whole
influence of his famous teacher, Socrates. Socrates collection stands out, in part, because it is not a collec-
introduced Plato to the world of philosophy (more on tion of histories or stories with interesting plots and
philosophy below). Socrates claimed to pursue truth characters. The dialogues are arguments, sometimes
by means of probing questions and precise answers, tedious arguments about ideas and definitions and
and Plato picked up on this style. Socrates claimed to rules. Some think these dialogues were used in the
question just about everything (except his pet values), Academy as teaching tools, sort of like logic textbooks
and this got him into trouble with the authorities of to show students how to argue philosophically. They
his time, and he was finally executed in 399 B.C. Plato became very famous over the centuries, especially as
started his famous school, the Academy, in 387 B.C., a tools of argumentation.
project sometimes called the first European university; Philosophers most often characterize philoso-
there they taught such subjects as mathematics, politi- phy as the pursuit of truth, not by the standard of
cal theory, biology, astronomy and philosophy. It was Scripture, but by means of the standard given by the
during this later time that Plato wrote his dialogues, human mind alone. Where physics studies how mat-
including one of the earliest, Euthyphro. Throughout ter behaves and biology studies how living things act,
these dialogues, Plato inserts Socrates as the key char- philosophy talks about the questions that cannot be
acter representing, presumably, his own views as well discussed in a laboratory, the questions that need to
as Plato’s more developed thought. be figured out before any subject starts: What is truth?
The Last Days of Socrates begins with the What counts as knowledge? What is honesty? Why
Euthyphro, in which we find Socrates heading to- should anyone tell the truth? What standards do we
ward the Athenian court preparing to defend himself use to prove something in a lab?
against accusations that he has corrupted the youth The Euthyphro, in particular, stands out because it
of Athens. The consequences for such a charge are appears to be one of the earliest of Plato’s dialogues.
heady. In the second dialogue in the series, the Apology, It gives readers a good, beginning sense of how both
Socrates’ defends himself within the Athenian court. Socrates and Plato thought we ought to pursue truth—
The Apology moves along as a much more biographi- questions, answers, definitions, qualifications.
cal monologue and less of a dialogue, but it serves as The Phaedo stands out because it completes both
Socrates’ own statement of his views and situation. the four-part series, as well as Socrates’ life itself.
The court famously finds Socrates guilty and sen- Unlike many of the other dialogues, these four include
tences him to death. Then the Crito takes over. Of the just a bit more drama than usual, given their interac-
four dialogues, the Crito is the most political. In it we tion with episodes in Socrates’ life. But the Phaedo
find Socrates waiting in prison for his execution, sit- stands out among the four because it aims to give us a
ting around with his friends. The key question of the dying man’s thoughts. We tend to say the most impor-
Crito concerns civil disobedience, whether Socrates tant things when we know we are dying.
4 O m n i b u s I

Main Characters some higher standard of justice.

The Apology and the Crito have less of a plot than
Most of the short Platonic dialogues, like this
the other dialogues. The Apology just gives us Socrates
one, have only a few speakers or “interlocutors,” with
defending himself before the court, and the Crito shows
Socrates always getting the lead. The Euthyphro has
us a rather static dialogue between Socrates and his
only two characters, Socrates and the young man
friend. Crito urges Socrates to flee, and Socrates gives
Euthyphro. Euthyphro comes to court to prosecute
his reasons against it.
his father, a move that is highly scandalous. In the
The Phaedo gives us more setting and background,
Apology, Socrates finally reaches the Athenian court,
explaining that Socrates’ friends visited him every day
and there we learn of his accuser Meletus through
during his prison wait. Usually executions were carried
Socrates’ monologue. The Crito shows us Socrates in
out swiftly, but a Greek civil celebration had delayed
prison, with his friend Crito by his side. The Phaedo
Socrates’ execution for nearly a month. When Phaedo
gives us more of a mix of characters than the three
arrives that day, he finds Socrates’ wife, Xanthippe,
previous dialogues. The Phaedo is actually a dialogue
and son in a tearful, heartbreaking departure. Soon
within a dialogue. The opening dialogue begins with
Socrates falls into conversation with his friends, Cebes
Echecrates imploring Phaedo to tell him the story of
and Simmias, who want a new defense, better than in
Socrates’ last day. Phaedo takes up this request, and
the Apology. The dialogue closes with a description of
then we hear the main dialogue, made up mostly of
Socrates’ final moments, talking to the prison guard and
Socrates, Simmias and Cebes.
friends and finally drinking the poison.

Summary and Setting

Keeping in mind that Plato’s dia-
logues are argument exercises, we
should not expect a real plot. Readers
often get frustrated by trying to read
this and his other dialogues as plays.
On top of that, most of Plato’s dia-
logues are not intended to give sat-
isfying answers. They are more con-
cerned with the exercise of thinking
than with a strong conclusion or an
identifiable answer. They just want
to get the reader thinking along a
certain pattern.
In the Euthyphro, we find the
character Euthyphro arriving at
court to do something scandalous
yet apparently very “progressive”
and “edgy” for the Greek mind:
he has come to prosecute his own
father for having unintentionally
killed a servant (who happens to
be a murderer). Euthyphro breaks
with his blood relative to pursue

A mosiac depicting Socrates as he

teaches his students.
 The Last Days of Socrates 5

Worldview more than 400 years before Jesus.

He is not even answering on the basis of Greek
Have you ever had someone “boss you around?” I
gods. He has already raised himself above them:
am not talking about parents or teachers telling you
“when I hear anyone telling stories like these about
what to do. They have to; they’re your parents and
the gods I somehow find it difficult to accept them.”
teachers. Sometimes, however, you might run into
Socrates himself is king of truth. He stands as judge
someone who was not an adult, but still seems to
over all the gods. He determines what is possible and
know what is best for you at every turn. They know
impossible. That is quite an assertion for someone
what games you should play. They know what mov-
claiming humility.
ies should be watched. They know how much jelly
Sometimes Socrates leaves it open for both him-
should go on a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. The
self and Euthyphro to be judges. Other times, even
good news for you if you know someone like this is
Euthyphro takes a back seat to Socrates when Socrates
that many (I did not say all) people outgrow this sort
takes on the seat of superior judge of Euthyphro’s
of behavior as they mature, and even those that don’t
words: “An excellent answer, Euthyphro, and in just
usually become more subtle about it and therefore are
the form I wanted.” Here the professedly humble
less bothersome. What if, however, there was a smart
Socrates already assumes he can judge excellence and
person who never grew out of this type of behavior but
proper form. That is another huge claim; it assumes
instead just became more crafty? It might come to the
Socrates already knows the ins-and-outs of all of real-
point where we would say to him (when he was tell-
ity. Where has his ignorance gone?
ing us what house we should buy or what church we
This all means that the largest part of Socrates’ de-
should attend), “Do you think you’re God?”
bate is over even before the Euthyphro gets going. That
is quite a feat: the Trinity and the Christian faith (and
Socrates and Autonomy any revelatory faith) have been excluded from the
Here is a quick question to keep asking as you start, and Socrates has been enthroned as the almighty
read the Euthyphro. What sort of god is most promi- judge of truth, beauty and goodness.
nent in the dialogue? You might at first think of the If we want to understand this text from a Christian
numerous Greek gods mentioned there. But polythe- angle, then, we need to begin with a comparison
ism (many-god-ism) is quite secondary. What being between ultimate judges, between the God of the
with god-like qualities is not so much mentioned but Christian faith and Socrates’ solo human mind: Trinity
actually dominates the whole discussion? Who gets vs. autonomy.
to frame the whole debate, to quietly dictate what “Autonomy” means self-law, and it is a very
counts as true and false in the universe? That turns important claim to understand. The meaning of
out to be Socrates himself (through the authorship of the parts of the word tell us a lot about it. It comes
Plato). Socrates takes on all the most important char- from two Greek words, the first of which is auto,
acteristics of a god. Yet it is put in the background meaning “self.” We see this meaning in words like
and never discussed. That is quite a thing to hide, but autograph (self writing) or automobile (something
it is important for a non-Christian mind like Plato’s that moves us around by itself). The second part of
to hide it. the word, nomy, comes from the Greek word nomos,
On the surface, Socrates presents himself as meaning “law.” We see this root in the name of the
painfully, tediously humble. He pretends to make no biblical book Deuteronomy (which means “Second
claims; he pretends to be a student; he pretends to be Law” because the law was previously given to Moses
ignorant. in Exodus). So, autonomy means that someone is a
But at the same time, he says things like: “Isn’t it “law unto themselves.” An autonomous person gets
true that . . .” and “are we to say these stories are true?” to be the final authority on what is true and what is
Who is supposed to be the judge of the answers? right. It is as if, during a game of chess, a pawn or a
Socrates is obviously not asking whether the Trinity knight condemned the rules of the game and insisted
reveals something or whether Scripture teaches it. that all the other pieces now play by checkers rules,
That is outside his universe. Remember, he was born no questions asked. It was the basic assumption
6 O m n i b u s I

of appeal. But imagine if a Trinitarian Christian could

somehow converse with Socrates. We could ask
simple, “emperor-has-no-clothes” sorts of questions:
Why, Socrates, should I believe in your god? Why
should I believe in your autonomy? Who made you
King of Reality? Did you crown yourself? If not, who
or what did? This is just a start. Socrates has no an-
swer for these important questions.

Socrates and Essences

The focus of the Euthyphro’s debate is the nature
of piety or goodness. Socrates challenges Euthyphro
to give a “definition” of piety, and Euthyphro responds
by giving several proposals, none of which live up to
Socrates’ demands.
The chief demand Socrates makes is that
Euthyphro provide him with a universal definition
applying to all times and places. Socrates wants him
“not to tell me about one or two of these many pious
actions, but to describe the actual feature that makes
all pious actions pious.” He wants a “single charac-
teristic” that binds all pious actions together. Later
Socrates describes this as wanting Euthyphro to “dis-
close its essence.”
What does it mean to find the essence of some-
thing? As noted above, Socrates assumes a whole
universe while pretending to be ignorant. Not every
universe has these odd things called “essences” within
them. Socrates’ world does. Essences are pretty bizarre
Scenes of everyday life, like this student, were objects. They are required to do all sorts of miraculous
frequently depicted on Greek pottery. The very best things, like being in many different places at the same
pottery was made in Athens using the local, high time. For Socrates, an essence is an object that some-
quality, reddish brown clay. how actually connects objects and actions of the same
kind—“the actual feature that makes all pious actions
of Socrates and all of Greek philosophy, and it has pious.” For example, all dogs have the same essence.
come back with a more explicit vengeance since the The same essences bind everything of the same kind,
1700’s and remains prominent in our day. Hopefully, whether oranges, shoes, trees or triangles. Essences
you can see that this claim (“I can understand the are not like DNA strands; DNA strands are merely
world and know truth without the help of God, the similar biological structures; Socrates and Plato insist
gods or anything else!”) is unbiblical. Yet few people on something stronger: the exact same essence must
who assume autonomy argue for it openly (probably show up in each thing of a kind. The essence in this
because it would sound really arrogant). They just one dog here is exactly the same one that shows up in
assume autonomy is the simple, natural, common this other dog, even though the one essence exists in
response to life. In fact, though, it is the height of different places.
pridefulness. For Socrates, essences are also invisible “patterns”
Euthyphro, of course, cannot challenge Socrates of some sort. Socrates says, “explain to me what this
on autonomy because Euthyphro shares the same characteristic is in itself, so that by fixing my eyes
faith. He, too, assumes his intellect is the highest court upon it and using it as a pattern I may be able to
 The Last Days of Socrates 7

describe any action, yours or anyone else’s, as pious if Trinity and Polytheism
it corresponds to the pattern.” So an essence is not just In the course of Socrates’ search for the essence of
an object that miraculously lives in each and every ac- piety, he sets up Euthyphro to lead him through vari-
tion of piety, it also can somehow be seen and serve as ous definitions. We hear Euthyphro start off by defin-
a rule, a pattern, a model for finding other acts of piety. ing piety as “what I am doing now.” But Socrates tells
If you can figure out the invisible pattern, the essence, him he needs an essence, a general pattern. Euthyphro
of a triangle or orange or tree, then you can somehow subsequently offers the following essences: “piety is
“see” the same invisible pattern in other triangles and that which is dear to the gods,” “piety is that which all
oranges and trees. the gods love,” “the godly and pious is that part of the
In the Euthyphro, Plato gives us only a hint of this just that is concerned with the care of the gods,” and
elaborate and famous theory of essences or Forms, piety is “how to say and do what is pleasing to the gods
as they will later be called. Later, especially in Plato’s at prayer and sacrifice.” These are only four defini-
Republic, we learn that Plato’s world is divided into tions. Some commentators find up to seven differing
two dimensions, that of matter (flesh, dirt, metal, water, definitions, some find less.
etc.) and that of essences or Forms (invisible, eternal, Right at the center of these definitions, we find
timeless, impersonal patterns) that magically bind all them grappling with the problems of Greek polythe-
the material things together. ism. This poses certain problems for both Socrates
What is the motivation for thinking the world is and Euthyphro, but it actually highlights much big-
made up of essences and matter? We get one hint in ger problems in secular thinking in contrast with the
the Euthyphro. Socrates assumes that knowledge is al- Trinity.
ways something universal. When Euthyphro defines The Trinity is not three gods; that would be poly-
piety as just “what I’m doing right now” that is too nar- theism or tritheism. Father, Son and Holy Spirit are
row because then no one else could be pious, no one three and one at the same time. The Trinity is one God
else could stand in Euthyphro’s sandals at that very in three persons. The Trinity’s oneness and threeness
moment. Goodness has to be more universal; it shows are both equally important.
up many places. If goodness or piety cannot appear in Every non-Christian culture is some sort of distor-
many places, then there is no way to judge good and tion of the Trinity. It is as if they try to break the Trinity
bad. It is all chaos. That is the word: chaos. For the apart. Some cultures (like Islamic cultures) break the
Greek mind, chaos motivated just about everything. Trinity in favor of Oneness. Conformity to that one-
Greeks dreaded chaos, and so much of their philoso- ness becomes the overriding feature of those cultures.
phy was geared toward avoiding chaos in truth, good- Other cultures distort the Trinity on the “manyness”
ness and beauty. side. They are polytheistic, believing in many gods,
Christians are not motivated by a fear of chaos and difference and manyness often characterize those
in the same way. Our world starts with the Trinity, a cultures, on the surface.
bond of three persons in one, who love and serve one In ancient Greek polytheism we find this type of
another in harmony. The material world the Trinity unifying force. The Greeks often appealed to Fate,
creates follows the artistic design of Father, Son and another impersonal force that controls everything,
Holy Spirit; it is not running wild or out of control. including the gods. Other Greeks, especially the
So Christians do not have the same motivation for a philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, be-
world of essences or Forms that Socrates and Plato lieved that Logic, another impersonal force, unified
(and Aristotle) do. Morality does not depend on us the world, locking essences together and ridding the
discerning some invisible, impersonal essences to world of chaos.
hold everything together. We do not say, like Socrates In the dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphro,
and Plato, that by means of essences all things hang we see the problems with polytheism coming to the
together; we say “in Him [Christ] all things consist” surface. Early on, Euthyphro defines piety as “that
(Col. 1:17). which is dear to the gods.” Socrates promptly points
8 O m n i b u s I

out that often “the gods are divided . . . and feel en- impersonal force to save him from chaos. He places
mity towards one another.” Euthyphro then fixes that this force above the gods.
definition and suggests that “piety is that which all the Socrates nudges Euthyphro toward adopting
gods love,” thus making it explicit that, even though Socrates’ faith in an impersonal goodness. We see this
the gods sometimes disagree, that which they unani- in his famous question (10a–11b): “Is what is pious
mously agree to would count as pious. loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious be-
Socrates finds this definition unhelpful. Just cause it is loved?” What does this mean? It means that
as noted above, every culture is a distortion of the there is a standard above the gods (i.e., goodness) that
Trinity. Euthyphro naively ignores the problems rules over the gods. It has two parts: 1. “Is what is pious
of polytheism, but Socrates recognizes that “di- loved by the gods because it is pious?” 2. “Is it pious be-
vided” gods destroy any universal absolutes. Unlike cause it is loved by the gods?” Both parts are meant to
Euthyphro, Socrates understands the dangerous demonstrate the problems with Euthyphro’s reliance
chaos of polytheism. But Socrates is no Trinitarian, on the gods and move him toward faith in impersonal
so he cannot propose a genuine, personal oneness essences.
among the gods. He only knows the “many” gods The type of argument that Socrates uses is called
(Zeus, Athena, Apollo, etc.). They are not one. Like the dilemma. It happens when someone is faced with
the followers of Karma and Fate, Socrates opts for an two choices, one of which must be chosen. These two

School of Athens by Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520)

 The Last Days of Socrates 9

choices are called the horns of the dilemma and the Turning the Bull on Socrates
dilemma is often pictured as a bull. Socrates throws We could even use a form of Socrates’ own famous
Euthyphro onto the horns of the bull. question against him. “Socrates, is something true be-
How does it do this? Look at the second horn first. It cause you simply decree it so, or is it true because of
asks “is an action pious because it is loved by the gods?” some higher standard which your mind made up?”
In other words, is something pious merely because all Either way, truth becomes random. Socrates and the
the gods love it? Socrates goes on to show a contradic- whole autonomous tradition will want to insist that
tion in Euthyphro’s statements about being “god-be- there is a higher, independent, non-random standard,
loved” and “piety.” This part of the argument falls apart namely, Reason. Reason is supposed to be this set of
when we simply ask why the gods love something. If the universal rules hanging in the air that everyone must
gods do not love an action or a person because it is pi- obey; they have no personality but are more like laws
ous (remember that is the second part of the dilemma), of math for thought. But humans would have to be ro-
then why do they love it? They must love it for no reason bots for this view of Reason to work; only robots follow
at all. In other words, is piety merely a personal whim rules precisely.
of the gods? Is goodness arbitrary? Then the gods are But similar challenges arise: Where did the god
irrelevant; humans, too, can arbitrarily love things. That Reason come from? What are the laws of Reason
option would take us back to chaos. It has to be rejected, made out of? Why should I believe in an invisible
and Euthyphro does. god? How do they differ from magic? Who decreed
But what of the first part of the dilemma: “is what the laws of Reason? Why should I believe Socrates-
is pious loved by the gods because it is pious?” Here we Plato-Aristotle’s claims about them? Why should I
see Socrates driving a wedge between the gods and pi- obey impersonal rules anyway? Did the Greek make
ety. He wants Euthyphro to see that there is a difference them up? Why should ancient Greeks have authority
between the gods and piety. He is moving Euthyphro to- over me?
ward viewing goodness as an impersonal essence. This Challenging Reason, of course, does not make us
part of the dilemma means: do the gods love a pious ac- reject rationality; in other words, it does not make us
tion because they, too, see it as corresponding to a higher reject orderliness, giving arguments, or refuting false
standard of piety (i.e., higher than the gods themselves). claims. The Trinity is the Christian source of rational-
Are they looking up to the invisible pattern in the heaven ity, not Socrates. Scripture is the supreme standard.
of essences, too? Euthyphro agrees with this option: “it is The Trinity is personal, not a set of mechanical rules.
loved because it is pious.” The Trinity lives and moves within history and peo-
But where does that leave the gods? They become ples; Reason is frozen and faceless. The Trinity obli-
completely unnecessary; they are irrelevant to the gates us out of love and goodness, and we want to love
question of goodness. If they love something because in return. Reason cannot love and give grace. It oper-
it exemplifies the eternal essence of piety, then they ates only out of force (necessity), somehow magically
are just like us. Both gods and humans need to find es- pushing ideas around infallibly.
sences together, since essences stand above both gods However we challenge Socrates, we should not
and humans. be tricked into using his rules just on his say-so. His
Take a step back from the initial question. Now imagined world is hostile to God and Christianity, and
we can read it this way: is goodness independent of his rules sometimes rule out our world from the start.
the gods or is goodness arbitrary? Independent or Socrates needs to give an answer. He needs to defend
arbitrary? Choosing either option makes the gods his gods: Autonomy and Reason.
irrelevant. Polytheism offers either personal but
arbitrary gods (which are gods that you cannot count
on—they are not the same every day but, to steal a Loving Death
biblical phrase, they are “new every morning”) or “All those who hate me love death” (Prov. 8:36).
the gods must resort to a oneness over and above Usually we think of this verse in terms of some bloody,
themselves. That is a very typical dilemma for ax-wielding criminal. Serial killers, we might say, hate
polytheistic cultures. God and love death. But we also find nicer, calmer
10 O m n i b u s I

sorts of people who love death. In the Phaedo we find Realities” which “are always constant and invariable,
nice, calm Socrates talking at great length about loving never admitting any alteration in any respect or in
death. any sense.” Among these Forms he cites perfect or
Socrates tells us that death is “nothing more or “absolute equality, beauty, goodness, rightness, holi-
less than” the “release of the soul from the body.” He ness.” These cannot be seen with the bodily eye, only
then urges the wise person to live a life in terms of this the soul’s eye, and they exist in some invisible dimen-
“release” by “separating the soul as much as possible sion. But, and this is important, they are far more real
from the body.” By doing this, he says, the wise person than anything material. Everything material is some-
can live “in a state as close as possible to death.” how a lesser copy of them. Train tracks on earth ap-
If Socrates loves death, then Proverbs leads us to pear parallel, but they are imperfect, mere copies of
think there must be some sense in which Socrates perfect Parallelism in the heavens; similarly, every
hates the God of the Bible. But how? Socrates seems beautiful woman or good action is a lesser copy of
rather innocuous; he is a little annoying and misled, real beauty and real goodness which are invisible,
we might say, but he is no serial killer or blasphemer. unchanging, rules in the world of the Forms. This
He is just a kind, noble pagan: “I have done my best in world is pure, uncontaminated, absolute and perfect.
every way,” he says. Surely, he cannot be said to hate Socrates loves his imagined world of perfection more
the God of Scripture? than anything else, even life.
Scripture suggest something much deeper is going In stark contrast, the God of Scripture loves all
on. There is a very serious connection between loving sorts of things Socrates would count as messy. “Can
death and hating the Trinity. The book of Romans pro- you send out lightnings, that they may go, and say to
vides some of the background. There we learn that we you, ‘Here we are!’?” (Job 38:35). “Who can number the
are not as innocent as we look on the surface. We all clouds by wisdom?” (38:37). “Can you hunt the prey
know the true God because God has made sure of that: for the lion, Or satisfy the appetite of the young lions”
“what may be known of God is manifest in them, for (38:39). “Does the eagle mount up at your command,
God has shown it to them” (Rom. 1:19). Paul tells us that and make its nest on high? Its young ones suck up
even before Socrates’ time, even “since the creation of blood” (38:27, 30).
the world His invisible attributes are clearly seen . . . so Crooked lightning, serrated clouds, dying an-
that they are without excuse” (Rom. 1:20). telope, bloody baby eagles – the God of Scripture
Instead of rejoicing in God, they twisted things; loves all these things. He boasts in them; they tell
they denied the easy truth: “although they knew God, us about His style. Socrates turns up his nose at this
they did not glorify Him as God, nor were thankful, sort of messiness: “the corporeal is heavy, oppressive,
but became futile in their thoughts, and their foolish earthly, and visible.” Yuck! Earthly rocks, he says,
hearts were darkened. Professing to be wise, they be- are “damaged by decay and corroded by salt water,”
came fools” (Rom. 1:21, 22). causing “disfigurement and disease to stones and
Socrates and Plato and all Greek philosophy, play earth.” Yick, earth!
a part in this ungrateful game. In some very important Now we can see what Socrates’ “noble” perfec-
sense best known to God, Socrates truly knew the God tionism leads him to. It leads him to despise cre-
of Scripture. But instead of being grateful, he insisted ation. He loves perfection so much, nothing on earth
on his own way and became foolish. How might we matches up to it. He is ungrateful for creation, just
see this in the Phaedo? as Romans 1 says. And instead of thanking God for
Another way of asking this question is: what all the wonderful messiness of the world, he resents
drives Socrates to love death? What is it in his imag- it. He prefers another world, another creator free
ined world that makes death attractive? One impor- of messiness. He would prefer it if the Trinity were
tant answer is: perfectionism. Socrates is in love with not the creator; he hates the God of crooked things.
perfection. We know from the Phaedo and other “Consider the work of God; For who can make straight
places that he divides the whole cosmos into “two what He has made crooked?” (Eccls. 7:13). Socrates
classes of things, one visible and the other invisible.” prefers his own brand of absolute purity, but the God
Invisible things are essences or Forms or “absolute of Scripture says, “Where no oxen are, the trough is
 The Last Days of Socrates 11

clean, but much increase comes by the strength of an views. Christians have long held that the dead in
ox” (Prov. 14:4). Ultimately, Socrates loves death so Christ live forever in fellowship with the Trinity, but
much he looks forward to his execution by poison in that is not immortality. Immortality in Plato’s sense
order to escape this world and enter his world of sim- does not need God or anything to sustain it. It goes
plistic purity. To that we hear Scripture say, “Do not by itself; it is rather automatic. It has a life of its own.
be overly righteous, nor be overly wise: Why should Scripture says that God is immortal (1 Tim. 1:17), but
you destroy yourself?” (Eccls. 7:16). it does not say that about created beings. We certainly
This is one way, then, of understanding the Proverb do not have self-sustaining life in ourselves, and we
“those who hate Me love death” within Socrates’ life. certainly do not want to say that we are made out of
Under his veneer of calmness and niceness, we find unchanging, timeless stuff like Platonic souls. We live
a deep resentment against God. The Trinity gives the forever but always dependent upon the sustaining life
gift of creation with a particular, twisted style, and of God, whether in blessing or cursing.
Socrates rejects the gift. He can think up something But look how narrow life has become on the
better than God—a perfectionism that stands in judg- Socratic vision. Socrates has thrown out the importance
ment over the Trinity. of the created order. Then he narrows life down to the
intellect. Body is gone; no pleasure in feasts or marriage.
Immortality and Life Then we find that real life is not personal; it doesn’t
The topics of death and body make up the first involve communication and friends. The good life for
highlights of the Phaedo, and those lead into the topic Socrates is being a Form. Life means turning into a pil-
which makes up the bulk of the dialogue: immortal- lar of timeless, invisible, changeless, loveless essence.
ity of the soul, the view that the soul has life enough Oddly, he is excited about this: “the Form of life . . . can
in itself to live on forever after death. The discussion never cease to exist.”
about immortality is supposed to provide the basis for In contrast, life in the Trinity is not some stiff,
Socrates’ calm confidence in the face of death: “I have frozen rule. The Trinity is persons—Father, Son and
a firm hope that there is something in store for those Holy Spirit. Forever they have been communing, com-
who have died, . . . and something much better for the municating and serving one another, all while mys-
good than for the wicked.” teriously one God. Right at the heart of the Trinity
It is in this line of discussion that we find interest- is joy, the fellowship of friends, three and one. They
ing contrasts between Trinitarian reality and Plato’s have forever enjoyed one another’s company, and at

Death of Socrates by Jacques-

Louis David (1748–1825)
12 O m n i b u s I

creation that love of life overflowed to us, calling us 1. When did Plato live?
to join their dance. They sent the Son to take on our Plato lived from 428 to 347B.C., near the end
flesh, and as we join to Him in baptism and love, we of the golden age of Athens.
are brought, forever, right into the very heart of the 2. How do we characterize the Socratic style of
Trinity. Here is a company of friends and laughter dialogue?
that Socrates couldn’t dream of. He was too angry at It is a discussion characterized by means of
the gifts God was giving, and he convinced millions probing questions in search of logically pre-
of others to love death rather than laughter. cise answers.
So, Socrates’ philosophy fails in the end to deliver 3. Are the four dialogues wholly disconnected or do
to us a life worth living. His dilemmas fall back on they capture a series of events in Socrates’ life?
their originator. Thankfully, we do not live in the world They capture the last days of Socrates, specif-
that Socrates describes, a world in which death is bet- ically, his approach to the court (Euthyphro),
ter than life. Instead, we live in a world brimming over his defense within the court (Apology), his
with life pouring out of our God, the endless fountain imprisonment (Crito) and his execution in
of imagination which ceaselessly erupts with truth, prison (Phaedo).
beauty and goodness. 4. Why should these dialogues not be thought of as
—Doug Jones epic poems or great dramas?
These dialogues were not intended for enter-
tainment but as examples of how to argue in
For Further Reading Socratic fashion. They were textbooks rather
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. Eighth than recreational.
Edition. Boston, Mass.: Wadsworth, 2012. 80–82. 5. What is the name of Socrates’ wife and in which
Veritas Press History Cards: New Testament, Greece dialogue is she mentioned?
and Rome. Lancaster, Pa.: Veritas Press. 15. Her name is Xanthippe, and she appears in
the Phaedo.
6. Why might Euthyphro think his plan at court is
righteous and cutting-edge?
Greek culture held that blood bonds were
Session I: Prelude very important. To prosecute one’s father
A Question to Consider would have been very scandalous. To do it for
some higher cause such as piety would have
Is it always bad for people to argue? Why should
signaled a rebellious break with Greek cul-
we argue?
ture. Socrates is doing something equally as
No. Both Jesus and Paul argue with their
radical, but he thinks he has better reasons.
opponents, and sometimes they even use
strong language (see Luke 11 and 1 Cor. 15).
But they do not argue selfishly, and they do Optional Activity
not argue the same way with everyone. They Study the painting, School of Athens, which appears in
adjust their message and strategy to the the General Information above, then answer the following
people and circumstances, sometimes softer, questions.
sometimes harsher, but always in a way that 1. How does the painting express some of the same
promotes life over death. interests as the Euthyphro?
The purpose of arguing is to try to change It focuses on dialogue and contemplation
another person’s or group’s mind about like the Euthyphro, rather than activities like
something for a holy end. farming or building.
From the General Information above answer the following 2. Find Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (a later, equally
questions: famous, Greek philosopher) within the painting.
 The Last Days of Socrates 13

(Hint: Socrates taught Plato and then Plato trained The implications of this difference are
Aristotle. Aristotle rejected some of Plato’s conclu- staggering. Christians serve a loving savior
sions, setting up his own rival system of philoso- who died for them. Plato served an imper-
phy. Try to identify the two central characters and sonal force. For Christians, sin is a personal
the young man four people to the right of the old affront to the Christ that bought them. For
man in the center.) the followers of Plato, immorality was, at its
In the very center point of the painting, we worst, a self-destructive misunderstanding.
find two figures, walking forward, one older Discuss or list short answers to the following questions:
in a reddish cloak and the other, younger,
in a bluish cloak. The older is Plato, and the Text Analysis
younger is Aristotle. Socrates is off to Plato’s 1. Socrates says he is looking for a pattern or model
right (our left as we look on), about four fig- of piety on which he can meditate. What sort of
ures over, turned sideways, wearing a brown pattern is he talking about? Give some characteris-
cloak. tics that would please him.
3. What does the fact that the Renaissance artist He does not want a particular or material
Raphael put Plato and Aristotle at the center of his pattern. He wants a rule or definition that
work tell us about what he thought of their impor- applies at all times and in all circumstances.
tance to philosophy? For him, it will be a Form, and Forms are
Artistically, by placing them at the center invisible, universal, eternal and timeless. It
of his work, he is telling us that these phi- will be sort of a mathematical formula that
losophers are the most important of all the determines piety and goodness (5a–6e).
Greeks. 2. What is Euthyphro’s second definition of piety?
4. Plato had a more spiritually directed philosophy, Piety is that which is dear to the gods
and Aristotle focused more on earthly questions. (7a–11a).
What about their figures in the painting lines up 3. What does Socrates like about this second
with this observation? definition?
Plato points away from the earth toward It is universal in scope, not particular. That
the changeless Forms or Ideas, and Aristotle means the definition applies to everyone
directs our attention to the earth. and everything, not just Euthyphro’s family.
Socrates wants that sort of universal answer
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : (7a–11a).
Euthyphro, Introduction–11a 4. What does he dislike about this second definition?
It is self-defeating because the gods
disagree among themselves about what is
dear. This highlights the problem of Greek
paganism. How can you have truth if the
gods disagree among themselves about
Session II: Discussion what truth is? Many gods result in many
Euthyphro, Introduction–11a “truths” (7a–11a).
5. What is Euthyphro’s third definition of piety?
A Question to Consider Piety is that which all the gods love (7a–11a).
What is goodness? 6. How does Socrates dismantle this definition?
For Christians, goodness is a person, Jesus. He shows that it produces a dilemma, name-
Jesus’ actions, words, faith and hope all work ly, that goodness is arbitrary like the gods
together to show us goodness. For Plato and or that there is a standard above the gods,
Socrates, goodness is an impersonal rule. making them irrelevant. (7a–11a).
14 O m n i b u s I

Cultural Analysis Biblical Analysis

1. What counts as piety in our contemporary secular 1. How does the Bible define moral goodness? (Ex. 20)
society? God defines goodness using the moral
Singing to the flag at sports events. Fighting law. These laws can be summed up in
inequality. Sticking to principles whatever the statements “Love the Lord your
they are. Living simply. Recycling. Fighting God . . . and love your neighbor as yourself”
for a cause. These definitions would be (Deut. 6:5; Lev. 19:18; Matt. 22:36–40). This
unsatisfying to Socrates and are also bibli- summation, however, demands that we ask
cally inadequate. the next logical question: how shall we
2. What counts as piety in Christian circles? love God and our neighbor?. This sends
Many Christians’ lives seem to imply that us back to the moral law for an answer:
doing only religious things is what piety is all You love God by having no other gods
about. These “pious” things would include: before him, worshiping rightly, etc., and
not liking bodily things, never arguing, never you love your neighbor by not killing him,
being judgmental and always being nice no committing adultery with his wife or stealing
matter what. from him, etc.
3. What part does television play in defining the 2. If this was the goodness that pleased, in light of
good? Heb. 13:8, James 1:17 and Rom. 13:9; should we
It often tells us that God is irrelevant to expect any change in these standards of goodness?
goodness and that only sincerity counts. Because God is unchanging we should not
Goodness is living for yourself, doing your think that his standards or goodness waver
own thing. Or goodness is defending equal- either. This is one gigantic philosophical
ity everywhere. advantage that Trinitarian Christianity has
4. What part does the U.S. Supreme Court play in de- over the mass of disagreeing deities in the
fining the good? Greek “pantheon.” As a Greek, you always
It is the highest court in the land, but it had to guess which god would carry the day
defines good in a very narrow portion of in your particular circumstance to see what
life. Most of life is not made up of things you must do to please them. The true God
that go before the court. Some people view never disagrees and never changes, so we
the court like it is a god, with no standards can know true goodness and please Him.
above it. 3. What are God’s standards of goodness and moral
5. Almost every beginning university class in Ethics holiness a reflection of? (Matt. 5:48)
uses Socrates’ challenge to Euthyphro as a chal- The moral law and the holiness it demands
lenge against the Christian faith. How would that are simply a reflection of God’s holy charac-
challenge be attempted against a Christian view of ter. He demands that we act and behave like
goodness? Him. The moral law must not be viewed as a
Christians often speak of morality or ethics set of laws outside of this connection.
as an expression of God’s will. Socrates chal-
lenges that with a dilemma: is something Summa
good because God loves it or because he Write an essay or discuss this question, integrating
recognizes it as already good? The former what you have learned from the material above.
option suggests that morality is arbitrary, What is goodness?
since God could change His mind and make Goodness can be defined only as being like
murder good; the latter option suggests that the one true God, Who is the fountain and
goodness exists independently of God, thus source of all true goodness. Both Euthyphro
making God irrelevant to morality. and Socrates stumble in darkness at this
 The Last Days of Socrates 15

point. Euthyphro’s ignorance is laid bare and threw him into a ditch. He sent a mes-
to the world. He is shown to know little of senger to call the authorities. The messenger
goodness because his ever-changing deities took too long, and the murdering servant
have no way of establishing anything per- himself died of neglect in the ditch (4a–4e ).
manent. Socrates appears to have a better 4. What sort of pollution is Euthyphro concerned
grasp on goodness, claiming that it has to about?
be some standard outside of the deities to He is concerned about the moral pollution
which they themselves must submit. But this for a crime (4a–4e ).
theory is also bankrupt because in the end 5. Why does Socrates want to become Euthyphro’s
it is determined by Socrates himself (who student?
claims to know nothing). Only Trinitarian He pretends to want to become Euthyphro’s
Christianity sets a standard of righteousness student because Euthyphro claims to know
that is unchanging and a way of salvation much about the nature of piety. (But Socrates
that satisfies this same perfect standard. already believes that Euthyphro knows a lot
less than he thinks he knows) (5a–5d ).
Optional Activity 6. What is Euthyphro’s first definition of piety?
Have a teacher or parent read over the Euthyphro Euthyphro says that piety is that which I
and the worldview essay carefully. Now it is your turn [Euthyphro] am doing right now (namely,
to face the bull of Socrates’ dilemma as a Christian. prosecuting my father for murder). Ironic,
Have a discussion in which “Socrates” asks questions isn’t it. Students should not attempt this
and see if you can pin the gadfly to the wall. After a argument with their parents especially if
short time, switch places and see if your parent or they are taking them to court (5d–5e ).
teacher can win the argument. 7. Why does Socrates reject this first definition?
It is too narrow. It covers only the present
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : action at hand. Socrates wants a definition
Euthyphro, 11b–16a that applies in all cases, not just Euthyphro’s
current action (5d–6e ).
8. Why does Socrates say Euthyphro is like Daedalus?
Because Daedalus was supposedly such a
wonderful sculptor that his creation got up
Session III: Recitation and ran away. Socrates is pretending that
Euthyphro Euthyphro is consciously dancing around
with definitions in this way, but Socrates and
Comprehension Questions the reader can see Euthyphro is just rather
Answer these questions for factual recall. confused (11c–11d).
1. Why is Socrates going to court? 9.  What is the fourth definition of piety that
He is going to court to defend himself Euthyphro gives?
against public charges brought against him The godly and pious is the part of that which
by Meletus for corrupting the youth of we call just that is concerned with the care
Athens (2a–4e). of the gods. In other words, piety is a subcat-
2. Why is Euthyphro going to court? egory of justice (11e–14a).
Euthyphro is going to court to prosecute his 10. How does Euthyphro end the discussion?
father for murder (2a–4e ). He gets confused and then says he has an
3. What are the details of the murder in question? urgent appointment elsewhere (even though
One of Euthyphro’s father’s servants mur- he is supposed to be prosecuting his father)
dered another servant in a drunken rage, so (15a–16a).
Euthyphro’s father had the murderer tied up 11. What does Socrates want to do?
16 O m n i b u s I

He wants to continue the discussion that has The first prosecutor is to be given ten minutes to
now come back to the start (15a–16a). make the case that Socrates is an atheist and the first
12. How does Euthyphro’s attitude change from the Socrates is to be given ten minutes to defend himself.
beginning to the end of the dialogue? Other people from the jury can add evidence to either
Euthyphro starts out rather smug but is intel- side by raising their hands and being called on to offer
lectually humbled by Socrates. contributing statements.
The process is then repeated for the charge of cor-
Activity rupting the youth.
Your reading assignment is the Apology, which After both charges have been argued, there is to be
is the trial of Socrates. To prepare for the Trial of a short time where jury members can ask questions of
Socrates activity in the next session, as you read this each other to clarify their decision.
dialogue, consider the evidence—both for and against Then all as jury are to consider whether Socrates is
Socrates. The charges are two: atheism (meaning that guilty or innocent. The majority of votes wins.
Socrates denied the gods) and corrupting the youth Help the students through this process, by
(teaching them things that would harm both them and pointing out evidence in the book for each
Athens). Compile a list of evidence for and against point. There are a number of reasons to find
Socrates that you may refer to later. Socrates guilty of the charges, but in our age
See the evidence listed in the class plan for (when the Enlightenment has helped make
Session IV. all of us compassionate toward rationalists)
it is easy to see him as a sympathetic charac-
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : ter. Evidence is summarized below:
Apology Charge: Atheism
Evidence against Socrates:
He is teaching that the gods disagree with
each other (7a–11a, 26b–28a).
Session IV: Activity He is teaching that the poetry about the
Apology gods is unreliable (7a–14e, 27c–28a).

The Trial of Socrates Evidence for Socrates:

The trial of Socrates was one of the most famous He is not teaching that there is not a god
legal hearings in all of history. Plato sets before us a of some sort. His entire life, in fact, is a quest
trial in which his mentor is found guilty of the charges to find the meaning of the prophecy that the
against him (atheism and corrupting the youth). Plato, Oracle uttered over him (7a–11a, 26b–28a.
of course, is presenting the case against Socrates in a This is not explicitly stated in this passage; it
way that will cause us to feel sympathy for his teacher. is listed to show that he is not denying the
Today, we are going to revisit the trial, and you get to existence of deities).
be the judge and jury. He is not denying that there is a spiri-
To do this, follow these steps (smaller groups or indi- tual reality (7a–11a, for the same reason as
viduals may write a brief, which is a legal statement arguing above).
the evidence): Charge: Corrupting the Youth
Elect a judge, two prosecutors (to set forth the case Evidence against Socrates:
against Socrates—each of them will prosecute him He is showing the youth that many lead-
on one of the charges) and two individuals to play ers of the community are ignorant of that
Socrates. which they claim to know much. This makes
Others will be the witnesses. Take out the lists that them look foolish and destroys the faith
you created from yesterday’s reading. The judge should of the youth in their elders (The entire
write out the charges on the blackboard for all to see. Euthyphro does this).
 The Last Days of Socrates 17

He is teaching them to hold the same avoid it by any just means, but should reject
view of the gods as he has, and this could any unjust manner of avoiding injustice (e.g.,
harm the level of commitment to the state “I ran away from home because my parents
(23a–23e). grounded me for a month for sneaking out,
even though I did not”).
Evidence for Socrates:
Discuss or list short answers to the following questions:
The young men that Socrates trained
were influenced by his training to hold the Text Analysis
truth in the highest esteem. This cannot be
1. What are the arguments that Crito uses to attempt
bad for them or for the state (30c–31c).
to convince Socrates to escape from prison?
Socrates is in submission to the state and
He uses few arguments. The first is that
hardly seems a threat (30c–31c).
Socrates is wronging himself by accepting
The outcome of the trial is a complicated
the unjust punishment that his enemies have
matter. If Socrates were teaching his errors in
brought against him. Second, he argues that
a Christian culture, we should certainly find
Socrates is wronging his sons by accepting
him guilty. In that case, he would be leading
death before they have completed their
believers away from faith in the true God
education. He also tells Socrates that his dis-
as the standard of all truth, goodness and
ciples will be badly treated by public opinion
beauty. In pagan Greek society, however,
if he does not let them free their teacher
Socrates’ rationalism seems a sensible
(44b–46a).
alternative to the rampant and chaotic
2. Could Crito have worked out a way for Socrates to
paganism of his day. As Christians, we might
escape?
say he is guilty on both counts, but that he
Crito says that it would have been easy
should not have been found guilty by the
for him to bribe a few people and effect
court that condemned him.
Socrates’ release (45a-c).
3. What harm does Socrates believe he will bring
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : to himself if he consents and lets Crito spirit him
Crito away?
Socrates says that the unjust punishment
that his enemies are forcing on him will harm
his body, but that if he would escape, he
Session V: Discussion would harm his own soul (50b–51e).
Crito 4. What does Socrates believe he would be wronging
if he escaped?
A Question to Consider He thinks that he would be wronging the
Is it wrong to avoid unjust punishment? laws of Athens (50b–51e).
The answer depends on many variables. 5. How does Socrates claim that this wrong would be
Certainly, if your parents are mistakenly pun- done? Why?
ishing you for something that you did not Socrates believes that he would be wronging
do, you must submit to their authority (after the laws by abandoning his commitment
pleading your case). In a setting outside of to the laws. He cannot do this, because
the family, there may be various grounds and the laws have done him so much good.
places of appeal, and you should use them They solemnized the marriage of his parent
to avoid unjust punishment. God gave the (50b–51e).
family, the church and the state authority to 6. Why would Socrates say that his escape would
rule. This authority, however, is not absolute prove that he was guilty?
(only God’s authority is). If a tyrannical ruler He thought that he would be corrupting the
punishes you unjustly, you should seek to youth by teaching them that they could set
18 O m n i b u s I

aside any of the laws whenever they wanted 3. How is Paul and Silas’s refusal to escape from
(53b–54d). the Philippian jail different from Socrates? (Acts
16:24–26)
Cultural Analysis Paul and Silas refuse to leave the jail in order
1. What does our culture think that you should do to to save the life of the jailer who is ready to
avoid unjust punishment? commit suicide (he would have been exe-
Our culture thinks that you should do any- cuted for allowing the prisoners to escape).
thing that you can, by any means necessary, Through this, they gain an opportunity to
to avoid unjust suffering or punishment. preach the gospel to the jailer, and he and
2. Does our culture have any sense that breaking the his family become Christians.
law is wronging the law? 4. How is Peter’s escape from jail in Acts 12:5–10
Our culture does not have this sense. We do justifiable?
not view our laws in the same way that the Peter is set free by a higher authority (God)
Greeks did. And we must admit that our lack and commanded by an angel to flee. He is
of care in obeying our laws causes our young being released by a higher authority and
people to break laws. must be obedient. He owes no allegiance to
3. How could anyone corrupt the youth in our cul- the laws of Herod that would keep him from
ture today? being obedient to the command of the King
Our culture does not have a concept of cor- of Kings.
ruption, except in cases where crimes are
committed. We have abandoned the concept Summa
that the teacher is responsible for the false Write an essay or discuss this question, integrating
and wrong ideas that they might place in the what you have learned from the material above.
minds of students. When is it right to seek to escape punishment?
When someone is about to be punished, he
Biblical Analysis can always plead for mercy. If the punish-
1. What encouragement does 1 Pet. 4:15–17 give us ment that he is receiving is just, he should
concerning unjust suffering? bear up under it as best he can. If, however,
Peter tells us that facing suffering because the punishment is unjust but avoidable,
you are a Christian should be something issues of strategy must be considered. Paul
that you are not ashamed to do. He also and Silas remained in jail and thereby gained
reminds us that, as we face persecution, we the ability to take the gospel to many. Peter
can remember that God will also judge those fled at the behest of an angel and was right
outside of His Household. in doing so. In this situation, concern for the
2. What does Christ in Matt. 10:22–24 say that glory of God must be our motivation. It is to
His disciples should do when they are wrongly Him and to His reflection in His Law that we
persecuted? owe obedience, not to the abstracted laws
Christ tells His disciples in this instance to of the City of Athens (if they are command-
flee to another city if they are unjustly ing injustice). If the punishment is unjust and
persecuted. While much of this persecution unavoidable, we must suffer it with hope,
came from the general populace, at times knowing that God takes note of the unjust
Christ’s apostles were fleeing persecuting suffering that we bear and will judge our
governments. enemies as well.

R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t :
Phaedo, Introduction–72e
 The Last Days of Socrates 19

Session VI:
Discussion A Jury of Your Peers
Phaedo, Introduction–72e In Socrates’ day, jury service was voluntary but restricted
to male citizens at least thirty years old. Each year, a
A Question to jury panel of 6,000 was selected and sworn in. On any of
Consider the 150 to 200 days of the year that the courts were in
Why do people nearing death session, anyone on the jury panel who wanted to serve
start talking about the big ques- (and collect jury pay) could report to the lawcourts.
tions of life? The process of assigning jurors to cases differed in
There are various answers to various periods. Each member of the jury panel was
this question. Some might issued a wood or bronze allotment ticket (pinakion) that
fear that they have wasted stated his name, deme and one of the ten letters from
their lives and want to make alpha to kappa. On each court day, the juror tickets
one last effort by saying or were collected and used in conjunction with allotment
doing something meaning- stone machines (kleroteria) to select jurors at random.
ful. Others might fear the The kleroteria had two sets of five, or one set of ten,
judgment that is coming and vertical columns, each of which corresponded to one
want to try to figure out of the ten letters on the tickets. Tickets were placed in
some way to avoid it. Some slots below the relevant
might be interested in trying letter such that the letter, Speaking time in trials was
to justify themselves before but not the name, was divided evenly between the
other people whom they had visible. Several black and parties and measured by a
wronged. Others might sim- white balls were dropped klepsydra. A klepsydra was
ply want to summarize their into a container attached a water-clock consisting of
life and tie things up neatly. to a thin tube next to the a large ceramic vessel with
Finally, some believers might horizontal rows of tickets. a hole that drained into a
find themselves rejoicing The rows next to black second vessel set below
and wanting to recall the balls were rejected; those it. The flow of water was
great goodness that God has next to white balls were stopped for the reading of
shown them. selected. The men whose evidence such as laws and
To start a discussion see tickets were in the select- witness testimony.
if anyone has had an experi- ed rows would serve as
ence of a family member or jurors on that day.
an acquaintance who had to Verdicts were deter-
face up to death. mined by a simple major-
Discuss or list short answers to the fol- ity vote. In the fifth century,
lowing questions: jurors filed past two urns, one of
which held votes for a conviction,
Text Analysis
the other those for acquittal. Each
1. Does Socrates have a positive juror dropped a ballot pebble into
or negative view of the human one of the urns. In Aristotle’s time,
body, and for what ills does he each juror was issued a set of two
blame it? bronze discs with an axle running
Socrates has a very negative through the centers: the ballot
view of the human body. He for the defendant had a solid axle,
blames our body for start- for the plaintiff a hollow axle.
ing wars and for keeping
20 O m n i b u s I

us ignorant. The body causes wars, because Biblical Analysis

wars are fought for money, and money is 1. How does the creation account of Genesis 1 affirm
only wanted to satisfy bodily desires. The that the material world and the body are not evil?
body keeps us ignorant by twisting our per- When God created the material world, at
ceptions and making us see only particular, every step, He called it “good.” When he
material things (61c–69e). made Adam and creation was complete, He
2. How does he urge our intellects to live in light of said that it is “very good.” There is no hint
the “prison” of the body? of Socrates’ hatred of the material world in
Socrates urges us to live as distant from our Genesis 1.
bodies as possible, as close to death as pos- 2. Look up the following passages in the book of
sible. This shows a radical and unbelieving Ecclesiastes: 2:24; 3:13; 5:18; 8:15; 9:7. Do they
view of the material world (67a–67d). agree or disagree with Socrates’ claims about life
3. What is the basic thrust of Socrates’ Argument and the body?
from Opposites (70a–72e)? Answers could begin by noting how
The basic idea is that every birth is a genera- Ecclesiastes exhorts us to rejoice in material
tion from its opposite, so if we die on earth, things and see them as gifts of God. In fact,
that gives birth to life in the next world. Ecclesiastes seems to suggest that rejoicing
By any account, this is a bit of a stretch. in the material gifts of God is the key to the
His argument is more asserted than proven good life. Socrates would see these as mere
convincingly. shadows and distractions, and though we
4. What sort of examples does Socrates give of may partake, they should not be central. He
opposites? would claim we ought instead to seek intel-
He gives examples of cooling and heating, lectual pleasures first and foremost.
separating and combining, beauty and ugli- 3. How might Proverbs 14:4 be used against Socrates’
ness, right and wrong, larger and smaller, notion of perfection (especially consider what
life and death, etc (70a–72e). Socrates would have thought about the kind of
messes animals make)?
Cultural Analysis
“Where no oxen are, the trough is clean; But
1. Has contemporary culture completely escaped much increase comes by the strength of an
Socrates’ hatred of the body? ox” (Prov. 14:4). This verse suggests that real
No, contemporary culture sometimes hates work and productivity make messes; if the
the body by neglecting it or assuming it is trough is too clean and pure (like the realm
unimportant. Immorality shows a hatred for of the Forms), then we should smell a hint of
the body, too. death. Life is messy (but this in no way justifies
2. What is a secularist? Socrates was a secularist, but a messy bedroom—if your parents forbid it).
modern secularists do not talk about immortality 4. “All those who hate me love death” (Prov. 8:36).
the way he does. Why is that? Make a short speech arguing that Socrates is a
A secularist is commonly explained as some- lover of death.
one who has no use for religion, but this just The argument might try (as argued in the
hides their assumed religion. Secularism is Worldview Essay) to show how Socrates’
better explained as the view that embraces claim of autonomy is arrogant, and arro-
autonomy, the view in which they them- gance seeks to displace God. Similarly,
selves are the ultimate standard of truth, Socrates’ devotion to perfectionism leads
beauty and goodness. Modern secularists him to be ungrateful, and ingratitude is a
sound different because evolution has gut- hatred of God.
ted any serious secular talk about immortal-
ity of the soul.
 The Last Days of Socrates 21

Summa Session VII: Activity

Write an essay or discuss this question, integrating Phaedo, 72e–89a
what you have learned from the material above.
Is the material world and body evil or good? Analyze the Art
Both the body and the world were made Study the painting, Death of Socrates, which appears in
good by God. When Adam fell and sinned, the General Information above, then answer the following
he was cursed. It was not his body alone that questions.
was cursed, but all of him—including his 1. What differences can you see between the painting
intellect and soul. Socrates claims that many and the account in the Phaedo? (Hint: think about
of the problems that we face are caused Socrates’ posture when he drinks the hemlock.)
solely by the body. The Bible presents us as Socrates first drinks the poison while stand-
wholly infected with evil and cursed. Still, ing (117a). But a painting is doing something
even though the world and the body are other than just depicting.
cursed and have been twisted by sin, they are 2. The painter of this work, David, was a supporter
still good and continue to bear the marks of of the French Revolution. As we will discover in
the handiwork of their Maker. future years of study, the French Revolution re-
turned to the Greek idea of radical autonomy that
Application assumes “man is the measure of all things” and
Plan a picnic. Find someplace beautiful in nature. that Reason is the only sure way to discover truth.
Make up some tasty sandwiches. Take some fruit Before the Revolution, some radicals were op-
along as well. By using your outstretched arms and pressed and even killed for maintaining this belief.
extended thumbs make a picture frame of nature and In light of this, why would someone sympathetic to
compete with your family members or classmates to the French Revolution pick this subject?
see who can find the most glorious “picture.” When He is highlighting the fact that Socrates was
God created the world, He said, “It is good!” Was He a martyr for Reason in a way similar to the
correct? deaths of the radicals under the monarchy.
3. What might Socrates be saying just before he
Optional Activity drinks the hemlock according to the Phaedo? (Hint:
If you have the ability, go to a particularly beauti- Look at the people around him for one possible
ful place for your picnic. These places might include answer and think about his most important ideas
(but are certainly not limited to) the rolling hills of for another possible answer.)
the Palouse in Northern Idaho, the rolling hills of He could be exhorting his friends not to weep,
Lancaster County, Pa., the Badlands in South Dakota, which the painting shows them doing dra-
Napa Valley, the Rocky Mountains, the Grand Canyon matically, or he could be pointing upwards to
or Longwood Gardens outside Philadelphia. remind them of the Forms and the direction in
which his soul was going to travel.
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : 4. In light of the fact that Plato believed that our
Phaedo, 72e–89a world was only a shade of the world of Forms, why
might a Socratic-Platonic sort of person object to
the realistic style of the painting? What is most
real in Plato’s world?
Perhaps the sharp realism of the painting
suggests that the material world is more real
than the realm of the Forms. Perhaps a more
shadowy feel to material things would have
better captured Socrates’ perspective.
22 O m n i b u s I

Session VIII: Activity or vituperation, condemns an individual, exactly the

opposite of an encomium. Another exercise is called
Death of Socrates a comparison. A comparison takes the next step by
Create your own artistic version of the Death of weighing one individual against another and making
Socrates. This can be done in a number of different a judgment about which one is the greatest. A com-
ways: parison expounds the virtue of a specific person over
One way would be to draw a copy of David’s Death and against another (e.g., Joe is a stronger warrior than
of Socrates exactly as it is shown earlier in this chap- Ted), but does not talk about virtue in a general sense
ter, or take the painting forward in time and show (e.g., strength in war is admirable).
Socrates drinking the cup or lying dead in the same Although the encomium has six parts, the com-
style as David. parison has five. This is because the fifth part of the
Another option is to make a poster. Use an over- encomium (the Comparison) is incorporated into the
head projector and a transparency of the David piece other parts when writing a comparison. The Prologue
to trace a copy of the work. Then paint it and put a comes first. It introduces the topic and, at the end of
title at the top of the poster. You might want to call it the paragraph, states or implies the opinion of the
“Know Thyself”—this was Socrates’ famous maxim. writer. The second part of this exercise is a paragraph
If you are feeling slightly more irreverent, you might called Description of Heritage comparing the persons
want to try the title: “Know thy Drink!” in question. The writer looks for ways to praise or dis-
Or ignore the visual arts and write an ode to parage the subjects on account of their family history.
Socrates. An ode is a poem praising a person, place For instance, if a person comes from righteous parents,
or thing. It might look like this first stanza from John then highlight the fact that he learned his righteous
Keats’s Ode to a Nightingale (notice the allusion to habits at home and added to the glory of the family
Socrates): name. In a comparison, remember that the two people
that you are considering must be viewed in relation to
My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains each other. So you might say, “Both Teddy Roosevelt
My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, and Franklin Roosevelt came from strong families that
Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains taught them tenacity, but Teddy Roosevelt’s family did
One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: a better job of training him in righteousness. Next
’Tis not through envy of thy happy lot, comes a paragraph called Description of Upbringing.
But being too happy in thine happiness,— The point is to show how the individuals profited
That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees, from good education or overcame faulty education.
In some melodious plot Again, make sure that you compare the two people
Of beechen green, and shadows numberless, in this paragraph. You might say, “Both Washington
Singest of summer in full-throated ease. and Franklin had educations that in many ways were
lacking, but Franklin exceeded Washington in this
R e a di n g A s s ig n m e n t : area, because he worked so hard to train himself in
Phaedo, 89b–118a the art of language that he became one the nation’s
most popular writers.” The most powerful part of the
comparison comes next: the Description of Deeds. In
this section the writer discusses the excellencies or
Session IX: Writing evils of the mind, body and fortune of the subjects. For
Phaedo, 89b–118a example, the writer praises the practice of philosophi-
cal virtue, the way the person looked and his wealth,
Christ and Socrates influence or social stature. Since Christianity has
We continue practicing the progymnasmata, a transformed our society it seems out of place to dwell
series of exercises used for classical training in writ- on physical appearance or possessions, so instead the
ing. You may remember that the encomium praises an paragraph should concentrate on the actions and mo-
individual. A companion exercise, called an invective tives of the subject. This can be especially powerful
 The Last Days of Socrates 23

if his life demonstrates a pattern. Again, comparing surmised. Jesus grew up in a pious Jewish fam-
the two subjects is critical. In this section, you might ily. He learned and mastered the Scriptures
say, “Although Grant conquered Lee on the battle- at an early age and was looked to as a man
field, Lee’s stellar Christian life has outshone all of of great learning. Even as a youngster he
Grants accomplishments.” The final paragraph is an was able to discuss God’s word with the
Exhortation or Prayer in which others are called on to scholars of His day (Luke 2:41–50). He was
imitate the best in the examples. also trained in the trade of carpentry by his
father. Socrates was a stone-cutter by trade.
I. Prologue He must have received either a natural abil-
• Introduce the topic ity to reason or a good dialectic education.
• State your opinion In some ways, however, it seems he did not
Some have compared Socrates to Jesus pass the bothersome dialectic stage [note to
Christ, and it must be admitted that there teachers—dialectic students will probably
are many similarities between them. Both of not include this last sentence].
them showed a tremendous level of commit- Again, however, Christ excels Socrates. On
ment to their teaching by dying instead of earth, Christ claims and demonstrates knowl-
renouncing what they believed to be true. edge of the truth. Socrates claims ignorance
Still, the closer you get to them, the more but demonstrates arrogance by subtly claim-
the similarities break down and Christ is ing knowledge—at least of the ignorance of
shown to excel Socrates and all others. others. Christ’s knowledge on earth, how-
II. Description of Heritage ever, is only part of the picture. In His divine
• Praise or condemn them on account of their nature, Christ stands alone as a person who
family histories needed no upbringing. He knows everything
Both Socrates and Christ were born into and has known it eternally (Matt. 11:27).
obscure families among proud and storied IV. Description of Deeds
people. Socrates was born to a mother who • Praise or disparage the excellencies or evils of
was a midwife, but little else is known of his their actions and motives
family. He was born a Greek during one of There are some similarities between the
the most glorious periods of their renowned deeds of Socrates and Christ. Both of them
history. Christ was born into an even more were teachers. Both of them had a following.
blessed people, the covenant people of Israel. Both of them were hated by and eventually
Jesus, however, also was born into obscurity, killed by the authorities in their respective
even though he was born into the kingly line lands. More than all this, they have had
of David. His father, Joseph, was a carpenter great influence on the world through their
and His mother, Mary, was a faithful virgin disciples who have followed after them.
when Christ was born. (Author and Context Socrates taught Plato, who taught Aristotle.
section of this chapter, Luke 2) The thought of Plato and Aristotle have
This similarity, however, fades when it is inspired philosophers in every age to re-
recognized that Jesus’ heritage has another examine many important questions. Christ’s
important aspect. Jesus is the Son of God. apostles carried His gospel into the world.
He is the only Son of God, and through Him This message has transformed the world.
the world was made. No one’s heritage com- While there are many similarities between
pares to Jesus’ (John 17). the two, Jesus outshines Socrates like the Sun
III. Description of Upbringing outshines a dim light bulb. Both Socrates and
• Show how the subjects profited from or were Christ went to their deaths at the hands of the
hindered by their education government. Socrates’ death inspired art and
Little is known of the upbringing of either the dialogue of Plato called Phaedo. Christ’s
Christ or Socrates, but some things can be death saved the world. How can the two
24 O m n i b u s I

even be compared? Socrates’ whole approach claims about opposites always creating opposites?
appears more self-focused and individualistic. A counterexample provides an example of
Christ acted in terms of a whole kingdom and something that violates the rule in question.
people. Christ’s final hours were gruesome Here Socrates’ rule says that every opposite
and traumatic. Bloodshed was crucial for or everything that stands in contrast or dif-
Christ because He was a sacrifice. Socrates’ ference creates its own opposite. Perhaps the
disciples clung to him, while Christ’s fled. Christian God Himself is a counterexample to
Christ’s death redeemed His followers and this. The Father, Son and Holy Spirit stand in
destroyed death. contrast and are different from one another,
V. Exhortation or Prayer yet they do not create one another or turn
• Call upon others to imitate one of the person’s into one another.
examples 6. Why does the Argument for Recollection by itself
When we compare Socrates and Christ, there not prove immortality?
is really no comparison. Christ excels Socrates It does not for many reasons, but it cannot
in every area. because, even if it were true, it only proves
life outside the body before birth, not after
death (72e–77a).
7. What is the difference between immorality and
Session X: Recitation immortality?
Immorality has to do with violations of the
Comprehension Questions standards of goodness or the lack of morals.
Answer these questions for factual recall. Immortality has to do with the lack of death.
1. What is the basic thrust of Socrates’ Argument 8. As the Phaedo begins, is Socrates dead or alive?
from Recollection (72e–76e)? He is already dead. Phaedo retells the account
He says that we have knowledge of perfec- of his last day. (57a–b.)
tion because we know of the absolute truth 9. Why does Phaedo do most of the talking?
in the realm of Forms. We cannot see per- He was a friend of Socrates and an eyewit-
fection now, but we do know things, so we ness to the last discussion. (57a–59b)
must have lived outside our bodies among 10. Where does the meeting with Socrates take place?
the Forms before we were born. Life at least It takes place in the Athenian prison.
existed before the body (67e–76e). (59d–60a)
2. What is most real for Socrates? 11. Why has the execution been so delayed?
The invisible, eternal, unchangeable essences It has been delayed due to a civil ceremony
called the Forms (67b–69e). that involved a long journey. (58a–c)
3. How does the most real world of Forms differ from 12. Why are Simmias and Cebes a little upset with
the material world? Socrates?
It differs primarily because the real world They are upset because Socrates seems a
does not change and is not made up of mat- little to happy to die. They want him to want
ter. Material things are always changing, but to live. (61d–63b)
the Forms do not. Forms are general pat- 13. What does Socrates say he should have been
terns, material things are specific (67b–69e). working on instead of philosophy?
4. What dangers might flow from treasuring an ide- He claims that he should have been working
al, perfect world over this world? more on the arts, especially poetry. Perhaps
You might end up hating the troubles and the closer look that art and poetry would
messiness of this world, longing for escape, have demanded concerning the material
while God wants us to wrestle with messiness world could have convinced Socrates to give
(69e–72e). up his hatred of it and feel more comfortable
5. Can you think of any counterexamples to Socrates’ in his own skin. (60d–61c)
 The Last Days of Socrates 25

14. What does Socrates expect to see in the afterlife? Optional Session B
He expects to see good and wise men. (63c)
15. Are Simmias and Cebes convinced by Socrates’ Evaluation
arguments? Grammar
No, they raise objections to Socrates’ argu- All tests and quizzes are to be taken with an open Bible and
ments (84c–88c). open book. Write one or two sentences on each of the following
16. What is a lyre? What is the objection that Simmias questions. (2 points each)
and Cebes make concerning the tuning of a lyre? 1. In the Euthyphro, as the argument proceeds, what
A lyre is a stringed instrument like a harp. does Socrates repeatedly press Euthyphro to give?
The objection from the lyre suggests that the Socrates wants a precise definition of piety/
soul is like the music or tuning of a lyre; the goodness.
attunement lives while the lyre lives, but if 2. What is Socrates’ famous challenge to Euthyphro’s
the lyre breaks, so the attunement vanishes. third definition (Piety is that which all the gods
Perhaps the soul vanishes in the same way love)?
(86a–86d). Socrates put poor Euthyphro into his famous
17. What is the objection that they make concerning dilemma by asking, “Is what is pious loved
the wearing out of cloaks? by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious
The objection from cloaks suggests that a because it is loved?” (7a–11b).
soul to body is like a body to cloak. We out- 3. What are the two charges leveled against Socrates
last many cloaks, but finally our body wears in the Apology?
out, too. Perhaps the soul wears out after He is charged with atheism and with corrupt-
several bodies (87a–88c). ing the youth (19b).
18. Who gives Socrates the poison? 4. What is the outcome of Socrates’ Trial?
The prison guard gives it to Socrates (117a). He is sentenced to death (38c).
5. Why does Socrates refuse Crito’s help to escape
prison?
He believes that he would be wronging
Optional Session A the laws of Athens if he escapes. He would
also be setting a bad example for others
Socrates in the Dock
(51b–54d).
Have three or four people act as friends of Socrates 6. How does Socrates view the human body?
on his deathbed. Have the person playing Socrates ex- He views the body very negatively, describ-
plain one or both of the arguments for immortality ing it as a disease that hinders the soul’s
and let the others discuss the arguments with him/her pursuit of truth (78c–80e).
in casual style, not reading. 7. What is Socrates’ first argument for immortality?
Next, add a twist. Have one or more of the friends It involves the claim that the world has a law
become (act as) Christians. Let them pepper Socrates of opposites, in which one opposite always
with questions. See if your Socrates can answer the produces another. So life leads to death, and
questions of the Christians. If there are people watch- death produces afterlife (69e–72e).
ing the bedside conversation, have them help out both 8. What is Socrates’ second argument for
sides as the questions come up. immortality?
Change the argument and talk about the human It involves the claim that knowledge assumes
body. Use the same arrangement and have “Socrates” perfect standards, so we must have been in
run through his dislike of the human body and have contact at some time with the perfect Forms.
other characters debate him about his negative views, The only time this could have been is in a
with some defending the body from a biblical angle. pre-birth life, so the soul at least at one time
Make sure that you have a lot of tea to sip, but existed outside the body (72e–77a).
make sure that it is not hemlock!
26 O m n i b u s I

9. What sorts of objects make up Socrates’ two class- that the Trinity is wrong and uncouth.
es of things? Give examples of each. Socrates wants out of a world like this one
Socrates says the world is divided into two to escape into the world of Ideas or Forms
groups, visible and invisible things. The vis- (Eccls. 7:13, 107a–115a).
ible things are material and shifting like 4. Explain the Socratic–Platonic story about Forms.
circles, water and tables. Invisible things are What are they? Why do they say we need them?
Forms or Ideas and are unchanging like circu- It starts from a claim about knowledge, mainly
larity, waterness and tableness (100b–102a). that real knowledge must involve knowledge
10. How does Socrates die in the end? of perfect standards. But life on earth is mate-
The court decrees he should die by drinking rial and always shifting and changing. So
poison, and he obeys the court’s order with there must be a higher realm where perfect
the help of the guard (115b­–118a). patterns of everything on earth are found,
and these patterns must be eternal, unchang-
Logic Questions ing and invisible. For every dog, there must be
Demonstrate your understanding of the themes of The Last a Form of dogness, for triangles the Form of
Days of Socrates by answering two of the following four ques- triangularity, for trees a Form of treeness, and
tions in complete sentences. Answers should be a paragraph or so on. Forms give impersonal unity to knowl-
two. (10 points per answer) edge and language, and they help us, accord-
1. How does the Trinity differ from the world of the ing to Socrates and Plato, to avoid relativism
Forms? (100b–102a).
The Trinity is personal, a bond of love and
joy. From all eternity Father, Son and Holy Lateral Thinking
Ghost have been communing with each Answer one of the following two questions. These questions
other in love. The world of the Forms is fro- will require more substantial answers than the prior essays.
zen and impersonal. It cannot give or receive (12 points per answer)
or inspire loyalty. It is not personal, and for 1. Compare and contrast Socrates and Christ.
that reason, it can not show love amongst Answers might include some of these
the forms nor toward those people, like elements:
Socrates, who are devoted to them (John Christ’s humility is something that goes
5:19–21; 100b–102a). against His self interest (Rom. 3:21–26).
2. How does a Christian view of creation conflict Socrates dies trying to escape this world and
with a Platonic view of matter? find a better one which is in his own interest
The doctrine of creation teaches us that (107a–118a). But Jesus died “for the joy set
God delighted in shaping matter and called before Him.”
it good. He did this at every step of cre- Both Socrates and Christ battle arro-
ation. Platonism ungratefully sees creation gant people in Euthyphro and the Pharisees
as a disease and a hindrance. For this rea- (Matt. 9).
son Socrates wishes to escape the world, Socrates fights to breed a deeper form of
because he wants his own world away from selfishness in each person, a deeper autonomy
the imperfections of creation (Genesis 1, (Euthyphro—especially concerning the oft-
105d–107a). mentioned dilemma in which Socrates sets
3. Why is the type of perfectionism practiced by himself above the gods), whereas Christ fights
Socrates in conflict with the Trinity? arrogance so that we might all grow in com-
Sometimes perfectionism shows itself in atti- munity and communion with the Trinity (Phil.
tudes that think they are holier than God 2).
Himself; he loves crooked and messy and Both die, but Christ’s death destroys death
bloody things, and denigrating those things and wins eternal life with God for His people
out of some holier-than-God ideal suggests (Rev. 1:18, 115b–118a).
 The Last Days of Socrates 27

Their motivation is probably the most 2. Socrates said he took up poetry late
striking contrast. Socrates is motivated by his in life and said he “was not good at
conviction that he understands the way the inventing stories,” but Solomon had
world is. He is devoted to the contemplation much more practice with it: “And he
of the Forms (100b–102a). spake three thousand proverbs: and
Christ is in love with His people. He comes his songs were a thousand and five”
and lays down His life as a sacrifice for His (60e–61c; I Kings 4:32).
people (Heb. 12:1–3). 3. Socrates says the body is a bad thing
Christ loves the material world so much and that its desires “intrude” into
that He comes to redeem it (John 3:16, Rom. the life of philosophy, but Solomon
8:21–23). says that “there is nothing better for
2. Compare and contrast Socrates and King Solomon a man, than that he should eat and
(Ecclesiastes) on the good life. drink, and that he should make his
Answers might include some of these soul enjoy good in his labor. This also I
elements: saw, that it was from the hand of God”
1. Socrates meditated on invisible, unearth- (66b–67a; Eccls. 2:24).
ly rules, but Solomon studied “trees and 4. Socrates says that pure knowledge is
plants, from the Lebanon cedars to the possible only after death, but Solomon
hyssop that grows on walls; he talked says that wisdom and knowledge
about animals, birds, reptiles and fish” are possible here and now on earth
(100b–107a; 1 Kings 4:34). (67a–b; Prov. 1).