Chapter 1

First Order Differential Equations

1.1 Introduction
1. Ordinary differential equations.
An ordinary differential equation (ODE for short) is a relation containing one real variable x, the
real dependent variable y, and some of its derivatives y

, y

, , y
(n)
, , with respect to x.
The order of an ODE is dened to be the order of the highest derivative that occurs in the equation.
Thus, an n-th order ODE has the general form
F(x, y, y

, , y
(n)
) = 0. (1.1.1)
We shall always assume that (1.1.1) can be solved explicitly for y
(n)
in terms of the remaining n+1
quantities as
y
(n)
= f(x, y, y

, , y
(n1)
), (1.1.2)
where f is a known function of x, y, y

, , y
(n1)
.
An n-th order ODE is linear if it can be written in the form
a
0
(x)y
(n)
+ a
1
(x)y
(n1)
+ + a
n
(x)y = r(x). (1.1.3)
The functions a
j
(x), 0 j n are called coefcients of the equation. We shall always assume
that a
0
(x) 0 in any interval in which the equation is dened. If r(x) 0, (1.1.3) is called a
homogeneous equation. If r(x) 0, (1.1.3) is said to be a non-homogeneous equation, and r(x) is
called the non-homogeneous term.
2. Solutions.
A functional relation between the dependent variable y and the independent variable x that satises
the given ODE in some interval J is called a solution of the given ODE on J.
A general solution of an n-th order ODE depends on n arbitrary constants, i.e. the solution y
depends on x and n real constants c
1
, , c
n
.
A rst order ODE may be written as
F(x, y, y

) = 0. (1.1.4)
5
6 CHAPTER 1. FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
In this chapter we consider only rst order ODE. The function y = (x) is called an explicit solution
of (1.1.4) in the interval J provided
F(x, (x),

(x)) = 0 for all x in J. (1.1.5)

A relation of the form(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution of (1.1.4) provided it determines
one or more functions y = (x) which satisfy (1.1.5). The pair of equations
x = x(t), y = y(t) (1.1.6)
is said to be a parametric solution of (1.1.4) if
F
_
x(t), y(t),
y(t)
x(t)
_
= 0.
Example 1.1 Consider the ODE: x + yy

= 0 for x (1, 1). x

2
+ y
2
= 1 is an implicit solution
while x = cos t, y = sint, t (0, ) is a parametric solution.
3. Integral curves.
The solutions of a rst order ODE
y

= f(x, y) (1.1.7)
represent a one-parameter family of curves in the xy-plane. These are called integral curves.
In other words, if y = y(x) is a solution to (1.1.7), then vector eld F(x, y) = 1, f(x, y) is tangent
to the curve r(x) = x, y(x) at every point (x, y) since r

(x) = F(x, y).

4. Elimination of constants: formation of ODE.
Example 1.2 The family of functions y = Ae
x
+Bsinx satises the ODE: y

y = 0 when the
constants A and B are eliminated using the derivatives.
5. Separable equations.
Typical separable equation can be written as
y

=
f(x)
g(y)
, or g(y)dy = f(x)dx. (1.1.8)
The solution is given by
_
g(y)dy =
_
f(x)dx + c.
Exercise 1.1 Solve y

= 2xy, y(0) = 1.
Ans: y = e
x
2
.
The equation y

= f(
y
x
) can be reduced to a separable equation by letting u =
y
x
, i.e. y = xu. So
f(u) = y

= u + xu

,
_
du
f(u) u
=
_
dx
x
+ c.
1.1. INTRODUCTION 7
Exercise 1.2 Solve 2xyy

+ x
2
y
2
= 0.
Ans: x
2
+ y
2
= cx.
6. Homogeneous equations.
A function is called homogeneous of degree n if f(tx, ty) = t
n
f(x, y) for all x, y, t.
For example
_
x
2
+ y
2
and x +y are homogeneous of degree 1, x
2
+y
2
is homogeneous of degree
2 and sin(x/y) is homogeneous of degree 0.
The ODE M(x, y) + N(x, y)y

= 0 is said to be homogeneous of degree n if both M(x, y) and

N(x, y) are homogeneous of degree n.
If we write the above DE as y

= f(x, y), where f(x, y) = M(x, y)/N(x, y). Then f(x, y) is

homogeneous of degree 0. To solve the DE
y

= f(x, y),
where f is homogeneous of degree 0, we use the substitution y = zx. Then
dy
dx
= z + x
dz
dx
.
Thus the DE becomes
z + x
dz
dx
= f(x, zx) = x
0
f(1, z) = f(1, z).
Consequently, the variables can be separated to yield
dz
f(1, z) z
=
dx
x
,
and integrating both sides will give the solution.
Exercise 1.3 Solve y

=
x+y
xy
.
Ans: tan
1
(y/x) = ln
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ c.
Example 1.3 An equation in the form
y

=
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
.
can be reduced to a homogeneous equation by a suitable substitution x = z + h, y = w + k when
a
1
b
2
= a
2
b
1
, where h and k are solutions of the system of linear equations a
1
h + b
1
k + c
1
=
0, a
2
h + b
2
k + c
2
= 0.
Exercise 1.4 Solve y

=
x+y2
xy
.
Ans: tan
1
_
y1
x1
_
= ln
_
(x 1)
2
+ (y 1)
2
+ c.
Exercise 1.5 Solve (x + y + 1) + (2x + 2y + 1)y

= 0.
Ans: x + 2y + ln |x + y| = c, x + y = 0.
8 CHAPTER 1. FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.2 Exact Equations, Integrating Factors
1. Exact equations.
We can write a rst order ODE in the following form
M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0. (1.2.1)
(1.2.1) is called exact if there exists a function u(x, y) such that
M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = du =
u
x
dx +
u
y
dy.
Once (1.2.1) is exact, the general solution is given by
u(x, y) = c.
Theorem 1.1 Assume M and N together with their rst partial derivatives are continuous in the
rectangle S: |x x
0
| < a, |y y
0
| < b. A necessary and sufcient condition for (1.2.1) to be exact
is
M
y
=
N
x
for all (x, y) in S. (1.2.2)
When (1.2.2) is satised, a general solution of (1.2.1) is given by u(x, y) = c, where
u(x, y) =
_
x
x0
M(s, y)ds +
_
y
y0
N(x
0
, t)dt (1.2.3)
and c is an arbitrary constant.
Proof. Let u(x, y) =
_
x
x0
M(s, y)ds +
_
y
y0
N(x
0
, t)dt. We have to show that
u
x
= M(x, y) and
u
y
= N(x, y). The rst equality is immediate by the fundamental theorem of calculus. For the
second equality, we have
u
y
=
_
x
x0

y
M(s, y)ds + N(x
0
, y) =
_
x
x0

x
N(s, y)ds + N(x
0
, y) =
N(x, y) N(x
0
, y) + N(x
0
, y) = N(x, y).
Remark. In Theorem1.1, the rectangle S can be replaced by any region which does not include any
hole. In that case, the proof is by Greens theorem.
Exercise 1.6 Solve (x
3
+ 3xy
2
)dx + (3x
2
y + y
3
)dy = 0.
Ans: x
4
+ 6x
2
y
2
+ y
4
= c.
2. Integrating factors.
A non-zero function (x, y) is an integrating factor of (1.2.1) if the equivalent differential equation
(x, y)M(x, y)dx + (x, y)N(x, y)dy = 0 (1.2.4)
is exact.
If is an integrating factor of (1.2.1) then (M)
y
= (N)
x
, i.e.
N
x
M
y
= (M
y
N
x
). (1.2.5)
1.2. EXACT EQUATIONS, INTEGRATING FACTORS 9
One may look for an integrating factor of the form = (v), where v is a known function of x and
y. Plugging into (1.2.5) we nd
1

d
dv
=
M
y
N
x
Nv
x
Mv
y
. (1.2.6)
If
MyNx
NvxMvy
is a function of v alone, say, (v), then
= e
_
v
(v)dv
is an integrating factor of (1.2.1).
Let v = x. If
MyNx
N
is a function of x alone, say,
1
(x), then e
_
x
1(x)dx
is an integrating factor
of (1.2.1).
Let v = y. If
MyNx
M
is a function of y alone, say,
2
(y), then e
_
y
2(y)dy
is an integrating factor
of (1.2.1).
Let v = xy. If
MyNx
yNxM
is a function of v = xy alone, say
3
(xy), then e
_
xy
3(v)dv
is an integrating
factor of (1.2.1).
Exercise 1.7 Solve (x
2
y + y + 1) + x(1 + x
2
)y

= 0.
Ans: xy + tan
1
x = c.
Exercise 1.8 Solve (y y
2
) + xy

= 0
Ans: y = (1 cx)
1
.
Exercise 1.9 Solve (xy
3
+ 2x
2
y
2
y
2
) + (x
2
y
2
+ 2x
3
y 2x
2
)y

= 0
Ans: e
xy
(1/x + 2/y) = c.
3. Find integrating factors by inspection.
The following are some differential formulas that are often useful.
d(
x
y
) =
ydx xdy
y
2
d(xy) = xdy + ydx
d(x
2
+ y
2
) = 2xdx + 2ydy
d(tan
1
x
y
) =
ydx xdy
x
2
+ y
2
10 CHAPTER 1. FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
d(log
x
y
) =
ydx xdy
xy
We see that the very simple ODE ydxxdy = 0 has 1/x
2
, 1/y
2
, 1/(x
2
+y
2
) and 1/xy as integrating
factors.
1.3 First Order Linear Equations
1. Homogeneous equations.
A rst order homogeneous linear equation is of the form
y

+ p(x)y = 0, (1.3.1)
where p(x) is a continuous function on an interval J. Let P(x) =
_
x
a
p(s)ds. Multiplying (1.3.1)
by e
P(x)
, we get
d
dx
[e
P(x)
y] = 0,
so e
P(x)
y = c. The general solution of (1.3.1) is given by
y(x) = ce
P(x)
, where P(x) =
_
x
a
p(s)ds. (1.3.2)
2. Non-homogeneous equations.
Now consider a rst order non-homogeneous linear equation
y

+ p(x)y = q(x), (1.3.3)

where p(x) and q(x) are continuous functions on an interval J. Let P(x) =
_
x
a
p(s)ds. Multiplying
(1.3.3) by e
P(x)
we get
d
dx
[e
P(x)
y] = e
P(x)
q(x).
Thus
e
P(x)
y(x) =
_
x
a
e
P(t)
q(t)dt + c.
The general solution is given by
y(x) = e
P(x)
[
_
x
a
e
P(t)
q(t)dt + c], where
P(x) =
_
x
a
p(s)ds.
(1.3.4)
Exercise 1.10 Solve y

y = e
2x
.
Ans: y = ce
x
+ e
2x
.
3. The Bernoulli equation.
An ODE in the form
y

+ p(x)y = q(x)y
n
, (1.3.5)
1.3. FIRST ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS 11
where n = 0, 1, is called the Bernoulli equation. The functions p(x) and q(x) are continuous
functions on an interval J.
Let u = y
1n
. Substituting into (1.3.5) we get
u

+ (1 n)p(x)u = (1 n)q(x). (1.3.6)

This is a rst order linear ODE.
Exercise 1.11 Solve xy

+ y = x
4
y
3
.
Ans:
1
y
2
= x
4
+ cx
2
, or y = 0.
4. The Riccati equation.
An ODE of the form
y

= P(x) + Q(x)y + R(x)y

2
(1.3.7)
is called the Riccati equation. The functions P(x), Q(x), R(x) are continuous on an interval J. In
general, the Riccati equation cannot be solved by a sequence of integrations. However, if a particular
solution is known, then (1.3.7) can be reduced to a linear equation, and thus is solvable.
Theorem 1.2 Let y = y
0
(x) be a particular solution of the Riccati equation (1.3.7). Set
H(x) =
_
x
x0
[Q(t) + 2R(t)y
0
(t)]dt,
Z(x) = e
H(x)
_
c
_
x
x0
e
H(t)
R(t)dt
_
,
(1.3.8)
where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the general solution is given by
y = y
0
(x) +
1
Z(x)
. (1.3.9)
Proof. In (1.1.7) we let y = y
0
(x) + u(x) to get
y

0
+ u

= P + Q(y
0
+ u) + R(y
0
+ u)
2
.
Since y
0
satises (1.3.7), we have
y

0
= P + Qy
0
+ Ry
2
0
.
From these two equalities we get
u

= (Q + 2Ry
0
)u + Ru
2
. (1.3.10)
This is a Bernoulli equation with n = 2. Set Z = u
1
and reduce (1.3.10) to
Z

+ (Q + 2Ry
0
)Z = R. (1.3.11)
(1.3.11) is a linear equation and the solution is given by (1.3.8).
12 CHAPTER 1. FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Exercise 1.12 Solve y

= y/x + x
3
y
2
x
5
. Note y
1
= x is a solution.
Ans: ce
2x
5
/5
=
yx
y+x
.
From (1.3.8), (1.3.9), the general solution y of the Riccati equation (1.3.7) can be written as
y =
cF(x) + G(x)
cf(x) + g(x)
, (1.3.12)
where
f(x) = e
H(x)
,
g(x) = e
H(x)
_
x
x0
e
H(t)
R(t)dt,
F(x) = y
0
(x)f(x), G(x) = y
0
g(x) + 1.
Given four distinct functions p(x), q(x), r(x), s(x), we dene the cross ratio by
(p q)(r s)
(p s)(r q)
.
Property 1. The cross ratio of four distinct particular solutions of a Riccati equation is independent
of x.
Proof. From (1.3.12), the four solutions can be written as
y
j
(x) =
c
j
F(x) + G(x)
c
j
f(x) + g(x)
.
Computations show that
(y
1
y
2
)(y
3
y
4
)
(y
1
y
4
)(y
3
y
2
)
=
(c
1
c
2
)(c
3
c
4
)
(c
1
c
4
)(c
3
c
2
)
.
The right hand is independent of x.
As a consequence we get
Property 2. Suppose y
1
, y
2
, y
3
are three distinct particular solutions of a Riccati equation (1.3.7).
Then the general solution is given by
(y
1
y
2
)(y
3
y)
(y
1
y)(y
3
y
2
)
= c, (1.3.13)
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Property 3. Suppose that y
1
and y
2
are two distinct particular solutions of a Riccati equation (1.3.7),
then its general solution is given by
ln

y y
1
y y
2

=
_
[y
1
(x) y
2
(x)]R(x)dx + c, (1.3.14)
1.4. FIRST ORDER IMPLICIT EQUATIONS 13
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Proof. y and y
j
satisfy (1.3.7). So
y

j
= (y y
j
)[Q + R(y + y
j
)],
y

j
y y
j
= Q + R(y + y
j
).
Thus
y

1
y y
1

2
y y
2
= R(y
1
y
2
).
Integrating yields (1.3.14).
Exercise 1.13 Solve y

= e
x
y
2
. Note y
1
= e
x
and y
2
= 0 are 2 solutions.
Ans: y = ce
x
/(c + e
x
).
Exercise 1.14 A natural generalization of Riccatis equation is Abels equation
y

= P(x) + Q(x)y + R(x)y

2
+ S(x)y
3
,
where P(x), Q(x), R(x) and S(x) are continuous functions of x on an interval J. Using the substi-
tution z = y/x, solve the equation
y

=
y
x
+ xy
2
3y
3
.
Ans: x/y + 3 ln|x/y 3| =
x
3
3
+ c, y = x/3 and y = 0.
1.4 First Order Implicit Equations
In the above we discussed rst order explicit equations, i.e. equations in the form y

= f(x, y). In
this section we discuss solution of some rst order explicit equations
F(x, y, y

) = 0 (1.4.1)
which are not solvable in y

.
1. Method of differentiation.
Consider an equations solvable in y:
y = f(x, y

). (1.4.2)
Let p = y

. Differentiating y = f(x, p) we get

[f
x
(x, p) p]dx + f
p
(x, p)dp = 0. (1.4.3)
This is a rst order explicit equation in x and p. If p = (x) is a solution of (1.4.3), then
y = f(x, (x))
is a solution of (1.4.2).
14 CHAPTER 1. FIRST ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example 1.4 Clairauts equation is the equation of the form
y = xy

+ f(y

), (1.4.4)
where f has continuous second order derivative and f

(p) = 0.
Let p = y

. We have y = xp + f(p). Differentiating we get

[x + f

(p)]p

= 0.
When p

= 0 we have p = c and (1.4.4) has a general solution

y = cx + f(c).
When x + f

(p) = 0 we get a solution of (1.4.4) given by parameterized equations

x = f

(p), y = px + f(p).
2. Method of parameterization.
This method can be used to solve equations where either x or y is missing. Consider
F(y, y

) = 0, (1.4.5)
where x is missing. Let p = y

and write (1.4.5) as

F(y, p) = 0.
It determines a family of curves in yp plane. Let y = g(t), p = h(t) be one of the curves, i.e.
F(g(t), h(t)) = 0. Since
dx =
dy
y

=
dy
p
=
g

(t)dt
h(t)
,
we have x =
_
t
t0
g

(t)
h(t)
dt + c. The solutions of (1.4.5.) are given by
x =
_
t
t0
g

(t)
h(t)
dt + c, y = g(t).
This method can also be applied to the equations F(x, y

) = 0, where y is missing.
Exercise 1.15 Solve y
2
+ y
2
1 = 0.
Ans: y = cos(c x).
3. Reduction of order.
Consider the equation
F(x, y

, y

) = 0, (1.4.6)
1.4. FIRST ORDER IMPLICIT EQUATIONS 15
where y is missing. Let p = y

. Then y

= p

. Write (1.4.6) as
F(x, p, p

) = 0. (1.4.7)
It is a rst order equation in x and p. If p = (x, c
1
) is a general solution of (1.4.7), then the general
solution of (1.4.6) is
y =
_
x
x0
(t, c
1
)dt + c
2
.
Exercise 1.16 Solve xy

= 3x
2
.
Ans: y = x
3
+ c
1
x
2
+ c
2
.
Consider the equation
F(y, y

, y

) = 0, (1.4.8)
where x is missing. Let p = y

. Then y

=
dp
dx
=
dp
dy
dy
dx
=
dp
dy
p. Write (1.4.8) as
F(y, p, p
dp
dy
) = 0. (1.4.9)
It is a rst order equation in y and p. If p = (y, c
1
) is a general solution of (1.4.9), then we solve
the equation
y

= (y, c
1
)
to get a general solution of (1.4.8).
Exercise 1.17 Solve y

+ k
2
y = 0, where k is a positive constant.
Ans: y = c
1
sin(kx) + c
2
cos(kx).