116

Chapter 6 – TRUSSES, FRAMES, AND MACHINES

Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. identify zero-force members in a truss.
2. classify a truss as simple or complex.
3. apply the method of joints and the method of sections to determine the forces in the members of a truss.
4. use the method of members in the analysis of frames and machines.

6.a. Plane Trusses

Truss – a structure composed of straight members connected together with pin joints at their ends and loaded
only at their joints. Trusses are assumed to be of negligible weight (compared to the loads they carry)
and every member of a truss is a two-force member; i.e., members acted upon by two equal and
opposite forces directed along the member.
Truss analysis involves determining the external reactions and determining the internal forces in
each of the members (tension or compression).
Plane truss – a truss that lie in a single plane which is used to support roofs and bridges.
Simple Truss – constructed from a "base" triangle by adding two members at a time that meet at a new joint.

Compound Truss – consists of two or more simple trusses

6.b. Zero-force Members

Zero-force members in a truss usually arise in one of two general ways:
1. When only two members form a non-collinear truss joint and no external load or support reaction is
applied to the joint, then the members must be zero-force members.
2. When three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear and the third forms
an angle with the first two, then the non-collinear member is a zero-force member provided no external
force or support reactions applied to that joint. The two collinear members carry equal loads.
 117

EXERCISES
In the trusses shown, determine all members that are subjected to a zero force.
1. D
B
F

A H
C E G

2.
B E H J M

C F K N
A P
D G I L O

3.

D H
B J
A K
C E G I

4.

B C E G I K M

A N
D F H J L

5.

C D I J O

E K N
B
H

A M
F G L
 118

6.c. Method of Joints

The method of joints is based on the fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is
also in equilibrium. The free-body diagram of each joint is used to obtain the member forces acting at the joint.
Since the members of a plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each joint is subjected
to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent; hence, only Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 need to be satisfied for
equilibrium.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Using the method of joints, determine the force in each member of the truss shown. (Beer, 2010)
945 lb

9 ft

C
B

12 ft
3.75 ft

Solution:
a. FBD of Joint A
4 5
y Fx = 0] AB – AC = 0 Eq. 1
5 13
945 lb
3 12
Fy = 0] AB + AC – 945 = 0 Eq. 2
x 5 13
3 y
4
12 Solving the two equations simultaneously,
AB 5
AC AB = 375 lb (C) and AC = 780 lb (C)

b. FBD of Joint C
AC
5
Fx = 0] AC – BC = 0
12 13
5
BC x BC = 300 lb (T)
y

c. Summary

Force, pounds
Member
Tension Compression
AB 375
AC 780
BC 300
 119

2. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. (Beer, 2010)
A B
900 N

2.25 m

C D
900 N

2.25 m

E F

3m

Solution:
a. Find the reactions at the supports
A B
900 N
ME = 0] 3FV – 900(2.25) – 900(4.5) =0
2.25 m
FV = 2025 N
C D
900 N MF = 0] 3EV – 900(2.25) – 900(4.5) = 0
EV = 2025 N
2.25 m
FH = 0] 900(2) – EH = 0
E F
EH EH = 1800 N
3m

EV FV

b. By inspection of Joint B, AB = 0 and BD = 0 (zero force members)

c. FBD of Joint A
4
y Fx = 0] 900 AD = 0; AD = 1125 N (C)
5
3
900 N
Fy = 0] AD – AC = 0; AC = 675 N (T)
x 5
3 y
4
AD
AC

d. FBD of Joint D
4
y Fx = 0] AD CD = 0; CD = 900 N (T)
AD = 1125 N 5
3
3 Fy = 0] DF – AD = 0; DF = 675 N (C)
4 5
CD x
y

DF
 120

e. FBD of Joint F
y 3
Fy = 0] FV – DF – CF = 0; CF = 2250 N (C)
5
CF DF = 675 N
4
3 Fx = 0] CF EF = 0; EF = 1800 N (T)
4 5
EF x
y

2025 N

f. FBD of Joint E
y

CE Fy = 0] EV – CE = 0; CE = 2025 N (C)

1800 N EF = 1800 N
x
y

EV = 2025 N

g. Summary

Force, Newtons
Member
Tension Compression
AB 0
CD 900
EF 1800
AC 675
BD 0
CE 2025
DF 675
AD 1125
CF 2250

3. Determine the force in each member of the truss loaded as shown. All members are 3 m long. (Riley, 1993)

5 kN 3 kN

C D

B
E

A F
 121

Solution:
a. FBD of Joint D
y
3 kN Fy = 0] DE sin 60 3 = 0; DE = 3.464 kN (C)
Fx = 0] DE cos 60 CD = 0; CD = 1.732 kN (T)
CD
x
60º y

DE
b. FBD of Joint C

Fx = 0] 1.732 sin 60 5 sin 30 + BC sin 60 = 0

y 5 kN
BC = 1.155 k N (C)
30º x
y Fy = 0] BC cos 60 5 cos 30 1.732 cos 60 + CE = 0
1.732 kN
60º CE = 4.619 kN (C)
60º
BC CE

c. FBD of Joint E
y
Fy = 0] EF sin 60 4.619 sin 60 3.464 sin 60 = 0
4.619 kN 3.464 kN
EF = 8.083 kN (C)
60º 60º Fx = 0] EF cos 60 + 4.619 cos 60 3.464 cos 60 BE = 0
BE x
60º BE = 4.619 kN (T)
y

EF

d. FBD of Joint B

y 1.155 kN
x Fx = 0] 4.619 sin 60 1.155 sin 60 AB sin 60 = 0
60º
y AB = 3.464 kN (T)
4.619 kN
60º
60º Fy = 0] –4.619 sin 30 – 1.155 sin 30 – AB sin 30 + BF = 0
AB BF BF = 4.619 kN (C)

e. FBD of Joint A
y
3.464 kN Fx = 0] 3.464 cos 60 AF = 0
60º AF = 1.732 kN (C)
x
AF
AV
 122

f. Summary
Force, kilonewtons
Member
Tension Compression
AF 1.732
BE 4.619
CD 1.732
AB 3.464
EF 8.083
BC 1.155
DE 3.464
BF 4.619
CE 4.619

4. Calculate the forces in members DE, DF, and EF of the scissors truss shown. (Riley, 1993)
800 lb C

400 lb
D
B

F 30º
30º
A 30º 30º
E

4 ft 4 ft

Solution:
a. Reaction at support E
800 lb C

MA = 0] 8EV 400(4) – 800(8) = 0

400 lb
D
B EV = 1000 lb
F 30º
30º
A 30º 30º
E
AH

4 ft 4 ft
AV EV

b. FBD of Joint E
DE Fy = 0] 1000 cos 30 DE sin 30 = 0
EF 30º
DE = 1732.051 lb (C)
30º
Fx = 0] DE cos 30 1000 sin 30 EF = 0
EF = 1000 lb (T)

EV
 123

c. FBD of Joint C
y
800 lb
Fx = 0] CD sin 60 800 = 0
CD = 923.76 lb (C)

60º
x
BC CD y

d. FBD of Joint D

y
923.76 lb Fy = 0] 1732.051 sin 60 923.76 cos 30 DF sin 30 = 0
kN DF = 1400 lb (T)
60º
BD x
30º
y lb
1732.051
DF 30º

e. Summary

Force, pounds
Member
Tension Compression
DE 1732.051
DF 1400
EF 1000

5. The signboard truss shown is designed to support a horizontal wind load of 4 kN. A separate analysis shows
that ⅝ of this force is transmitted to the center connection at C and the rest is equally divided between D and
B. Calculate the forces in members BE and BC. (Meriam, 1980)

P=
 124

Solution:
a. Convert the distributed loads into concentrated loads

3
16 P
P 5 5
P 4 = 2.5 kN
8 8
5
8 P
P 3 3
P 4 = 0.75 kN
16 16
3
16 P
P

b. FBD of Joint D
y Fx = 0] 0.75 – 1 DE = 0 ; DE = 1.677 kN (C)
5
0.75 kN
x 2
Fy = 0] DE – CD = 0 ; CD = 1.5 kN (T)
y 5
2
1 DE
CD

c. By inspection of Joint C, CE = 2.5 kN (C) and BC = 1.5 kN (T)

d. FBD of Joint E
1 1 1
1.677 kN y Fx = 0] 2.5 + (1.677) – BE – EF = 0
5 5 5
2
1 Fy = 0] – 2 (1.677) – 2 BE + 2 EF = 0
x 5 5 5
2.5 kN
2 y
1
2 BE = 2.795 kN (T)
1
BE EF
E
e. Summary

Force, kilonewtons
Member
Tension Compression
BE 2.795
BC 1.5
 125

6. Determine the force in each member of the double-pitch roof truss shown. (Beer, 1998)

4m 4m 4m 3m 3m
1.75 kN
2 kN
1.75 kN
2 kN F

1 kN D
0.75 kN
G 6m
B

A H
C E
6m 6m 6m

Solution:
a. Find the reactions at the supports
4m 4m 4m 3m 3m
1.75 kN
2 kN
1.75 kN
2 kN F

1 kN D 0.75 kN
G 6m
B

A H
C E
6m 6m 6m

AV HV

MH = 0] 1(18) + 2(14+10) + 1.75(6) + 1.5 (3) – 18AV = 0

AV = 4.5 kN
MA = 0] 18HV – 2(4+8) + 1.75(12) + 1.5(15) + 0.75(18) = 0
HV = 4.5 kN
b. FBD of Joint A
y

1 kN
AB Fy = 0] 4.5 – 1 – 1 AB = 0; AB = 7.826 kN (C)
2 5
1
x 2
Fx = 0] AC AB = 0; AC = 7 kN (T)
AC 5

AV = 4.5 kN

c. FBD of Joint B
y 2 kN Fy = 0] BC sin 71.57 – 2 cos 26.57 = 0
26.57º x
BD BC = 1.885 kN (C)
y
71.57º Fx = 0] 7.826 BD – BC cos 71.57 – 2 sin 26.57 = 0
BD = 6.335 kN (C)
7.826 kN BC
 126

d. FBD of Joint C
y 2
CD Fy = 0] CD – 1 (1.885) = 0; CD = 1.49 kN (T)
1.885 kN 5 2
kN 1 1
(1.885) – 7 + 1 CD + CE = 0; CE = 5.001 kN (T)
2
1 1
Fx = 0]
7 kN x 2 5
CE y
e. FBD of Joint D
y 2 kN Fy = 0] DE sin 71.57 1.49 sin 36.86 – 2 cos 26.57 = 0
26.57º x
DF DE = 2.828 kN (C)
y
D Fx = 0] 6.335 1.49 cos 36.86 – 2 sin 26.57 DE cos 71.57 DF = 0
71.57º
6.335 kN
36.86º DF = 3.354 kN (C)
DE
1.49 kN

f. FBD of Joint H
y
Fy = 0] 4.5 – 0.75 – 1 GH = 0; GH = 5.303 kN (C)
0.75 kN
2
GH 1
1
Fx = 0] GH EH = 0; EH = 3.75 kN (T)
1
2
EH x

HV = 4.5 kN

g. FBD of Joint G
y 1.5 kN x
45º Fx = 0] EG – 1.5 cos 45 = 0; EG = 1.061 kN (C)
FG
Fy = 0] 5.303 – FG – 1.5 sin 45 = 0; FG = 4.242 kN (C)
1 5.303 kN
EG 1

h. FBD of Joint E
y
2.828 kN EF 1.061 kN Fy = 0] EF 2.828 sin 45 – 1.061sin 45 = 0
kN 1 1 EF = 3.122 kN (T)
1 1
x
5.001 kN 3.75 kN y

g. Summary
Force, kilonewtons Force, kilonewtons
Member Member
Tension Compression Tension Compression
AB 7.826 EH 3.75
BD 6.335 BC 1.885
DF 3.354 CD 1.49
FG 4.242 DE 2.828
GH 5.303 EF 3.122
AC 7 EG 1.061
CE 5.001
 127

EXERCISES

1. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members are in tension or compression.
(Hibbeler 2010) Ans. DC = 1.34 kN (C), DE = 1.20 kN (T), CE = 0, CB = 1.34 kN (C), EB = 1.27 kN (C),
EA = 2.10 kN (T)

D
600 N

2m

E C
900 N

2m

A B

2m

2. Determine the force in each member of the Howe roof truss shown. State whether each member is in tension
or compression. (Beer 2010) Ans. AB = FH =1500 lb (C), AC = CE = EG = GH = 1200 lb (T),
BC = FG = 0, BD = DF = 1000 lb (C), BE = EF = 500 lb (C), DE = 600 lb (T)

600 lb

600 lb 600 lb
D
6 ft
300 lb F 300 lb
B

6 ft
A H
C E G
8 ft 8 ft 8 ft 8 ft

3. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members are in tension or compression if
P = 2500 lb. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. BG= AF= 0, BC = AE = 2450 lb (C), CG = EF = 1768 lb (T),
CD = DE = 1250 lb (C), GD = FD = 1768 lb (C), FG = 2500 lb (T)

1200 lb P 1200 lb
4 ft 4 ft 4 ft 4 ft
E D C

4 ft

F G

30º 30º

A B
 128

4. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. (Beer, 2010) Ans. AB=7.5 kN (T), AC = 60 kN (T),
BC = 24.012 kN (C), BD = 48.75 kN (C), CD = 6.25 kN (T), CE = 45 kN (T), DE = 19.526 kN (C),
DF = FG = 32.5 kN (C), EF = 0, EG = 30 kN (T)

12.5 kN 12.5 kN 12.5 kN 12.5 kN

2m 2m 2m
A C E
G

2.5 m F
D
B

5. The portion of truss shown represents the upper part of a power transmission line tower. For the given
loading, determine the force in each of the members located above HJ. State whether each member is in
tension or compression. (Beer, 2010) Ans. AB= DF= 2.29 kN (T), AC = EF = 2.29 kN (C), BC = DE = 0.60
kN (C), BD = 2.21 kN (T), BE = EH = 0, CE = 2.21 kN (C), CH = EJ = 1.20 kN (C)

1.2 kN
1.2 kN

1.2 kN 1.2 kN

1.2 kN 1.2 kN

6.d. Method of Sections

Analyzing the free-body diagram of a part of a truss that contains two or more joints is called the
method of sections. It is used when the force of only a few members of a truss are to be found. The following
steps are followed using if this method is used:
1. Determine the reactions at the supports by using the free-body diagram of the entire truss.
2. Imagine a cut through the members of interest, cutting the least number of members (preferably 3).
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the two different parts of the truss.
4. Use the equilibrium equations to find the forces in the 3 members that are cut.
 129

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Find the forces in members CD and CG of the stairs truss shown. (Riley, 1993)
1m
E

1m 1m
F
D
1m 1m
C 1 kN
1m
G
1m
B 2 kN
H
1m
A 2 kN
J

1 kN

Solution:
a. Reaction at E from the FBD of the whole truss
1m
a
E EH
1m 1m
F MA 0 1 (1) 2 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 4RE 0
D
1m 1m
1 kN EH = 3.75 kN
C
1m
G
1m
B 2 kN
H
1m
A 2 kN
AH J
a
AV 1 kN

b. Right portion of section a-a

1
MG 0 3.75 (2) 1 (1) CD (1) 0
E 3.75 kN 2
CD = 9.192 kN (C)
1m
D 1
F MC 0 3.75 (2) 1 (2) 2 (1) HG (1) 0
CD 2
1 1
1m HG = 4.95 kN (T)
1 1 kN
1
C G 1 1
CG FH 0 CD HG 3.75 CG 0
2 kN 2 2
HG
1m 1m CG = 0.75 kN (C)
 130

2. Find the forces in members EJ and HJ of the roof truss shown in the figure. (Riley, 1993)

4m 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m
5 kN

4 kN 3 kN
D
3 kN 4 kN
C E
10 m
B F

A G
K J H
6m 6m 6m 6m

Solution:
a. Reaction at G
4m 4m 4m 4m 4m 4m
5 kN
a
MA = 0] 3(4+16) + 4(8+20) + 5(12) – 24GV = 0
4 kN 3 kN GV = 9.667 kN
D
3 kN 4 kN
C E
10 m
B F

A G
AH K J H
6m 6m 6m 6m

AV a GV

b. Right portion of section a-a

4m 4m 20
ME = 0] 9.667(8) – 4(4) – HJ = 0
3
3 kN
CD HJ = 9.2 kN (T)
4 kN
E 5
MG = 0] 4(4) +3(8) – EJ(12) = 0
5 34
20 m 3 F
3 EJ
EJ = 3.887 kN (C)
G
J
HJ H
12 m

9.667 kN
 131

3. The sign board truss supports the load shown. Determine the forces in members CD, CE, and EF.
(Riley, 1993)
2 kN 2 kN 2 kN 2 kN 2 kN

3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
2 kN C D

3m

F E

6m

A B

Solution:
a. Find the reaction at B using the FBD of the whole truss
a
2 kN 2 kN 2 kN 2 kN 2 kN MA = 0] 18BV – 2(9 + 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 +15) = 0
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m BV = 6 kN
2 kN C D

3m

F E
a
6m

A B

BV
b. Right portion of section a-a
2 kN 2 kN 2 kN
ME = 0] 6(9) 2(3 + 6) – 3CD = 0
CD D CD = 12 kN (C)
C
CE 3m MC = 0] 6(12) 2(3 + 6 + 9) – 3EF = 0
1
1
EF EF = 12 kN (T)
E
1
6m FV = 0] 6 2(3) + CE = 0
2
CE = 0

3m 3m 3m 3m

6 kN
 132

4. Determine the forces in members DJ, DE, EF, and GH of the truss loaded as shown. (Pytel, 1996)

Solution:
a. Transform the distributed load to concentrated loads and find the reactions
20 kN 20 kN
a b
c

a b AV = GV = 30 kN

AV GV

b. By inspection of Joint G, GH = 0
c. Left portion of section a-a: d. Right portion of section b-b:
20 kN 20 kN

CD D DE E
C D
DJ DH 3 3m
3m 3 4
B 4 F
IH
J JI H
5m 5m

G
A 4m 4m 4 4
m m
30 kN
30 kN

3
FV 0 30 20 DJ 0 MH 0 30(4) DE (3) 0
5
DJ = 16.667 kN (C) DE = 40 kN (C)
 133

e. Right portion of section c-c:

3
EF
4
H F 3
FH MH 0 EF (4) 4 (30) 0
5
5m
EF = 50 kN
GH G

4m

30 kN

5. Find the forces in members CD, DG, and EG of the transmission line truss shown. (Riley, 1993)

b b
a a

Solution:
a. FBD of upper portion of section a-a:

461.538 lb
461.538 lb

192.308 lb 192.308 lb

1
2 EF
CD
CG GF F

MF = 0] 461.538(35) –192.308(30)(2) – 461.538(15) + 2 CD (20) = 0

5
CD = 129.005 lb (T)
 134

b. FBD of upper portion of section b-b:

461.538 lb 461.538 lb

192.308 lb 192.308 lb

1
2 2
1
CD DG EG EF
2
ME = 0] 461.538(30) –192.308(20)(2) – 461.538(20) + CD (10) + 2 DG (10) = 0
5 5
DG = 215.007 lb (T)
c. FBD of Joint G
DG EG 2 2
FV = 0] DG EG = 0
2
5 5
2
1 1
CG GF EG = 215.007 lb (C)

EXERCISES

1. Determine the force in members EF, CF, and BC of the truss. State if the members are in tension or
compression. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. EF = 600 lb (C); CF = 346 lb (T); BC = 346 lb (T)
F

G E

30º 30º
A D
B C
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft

300 lb 300 lb

2. A Pratt roof truss is loaded as shown. Determine the force in members CE, DE, and DF. (Beer, 2010)
Ans. CE = 8.00 kN (T); DE = 4.50 kN (C); DF = 10.00 kN (C)

3 kN
3 kN 3 kN
F
3 kN 3 kN
D H
1.5 kN 1.5 kN
6.75 m
B J

A L
C E G I K
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
 135

3. Determine the force in members BD and DE of the truss shown. (Beer, 2010)
Ans. BD = 216 kN (T); DE = 270 kN (T)
135 kN A

2.4 m

135 kN
C
B
2.4 m

135 kN
E
D
2.4 m

F
G

4.5 m

4. The Howe bridge truss is subjected to the loading shown. Determine the force in members HI, HB, and BC,
and state if the members are in tension or compression. (Hibbeler, 2010)
Ans. HI = 35.0 kN (C); HB = 21.2 kN (C); BC = 50.0 kN (T)
30 kN 20 kN 20 kN 40 kN

J I H G F

4m

A
B C D E
4 @ 4 m = 16 m

5. Determine the force in members CD and GF of the truss and state if the members are in tension or
compression. Also indicate all zero-force members. (Hibbeler, 2010)
Ans. CD = 1.92 kN (C); GF = 1.53 kN (T); FD = FC = 0
C
2 kN

B 1.5 m
0.8 m D

A E
H G F
1m 1.5 kN 1m
2m 2m

6. A Polynesian, or duopitch, roof truss is loaded as shown. Determine the force in members DF, EF, and EG.
Ans. DF = 3710.795 lb (C); EF = 400 lb (T); EG = 3600 lb (T)
 136

Worksheet No. 11 – Analysis of Trusses

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ___________________

I. Identify the zero-force members.

1. P

F I
C

B E H K

A L
D G J

2.

II. Analysis of Trusses

1. Analyze completely the truss loaded as shown.

4m
1.92 kN
C
B
3m 4.5 m
 137

2. A sign is subjected to a wind loading that exerts horizontal forces of 300 lb on joints B and C of one of the
side supporting trusses. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members are in
tension or compression.
C
300 lb

12 ft
13 ft

D
5 ft
300 lb
B 12 ft
13 ft

A 45º
E
 138

3. Determine the force in each member of the Warren bridge truss shown. State whether each member is in
tension or compression.

9 ft 18 ft 18 ft 9 ft

B D F

12 ft

A G
C E
18 ft 18 ft 18 ft

6 kips 6 kips
 139

6.e. Frames and Machines

Frame – a structure that always contains at least one member acted on by forces at three or more points. Frames
are structures which are designed to support applied loads and are usually fixed in s position.
Machines or mechanism – frame-like structures that are not fully constrained. They are structures which contain
moving parts and are designed to transmit forces or couples from input values to output values.
The forces acting on each member of a connected system are found by isolating the member with a free-
body diagram and applying the established equations of equilibrium. The principle of action and reaction must
be carefully observed when we represent the forces of interaction on the separate free-body diagrams.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A cord BD is used to keep the frame shown from collapsing under the distributed load w. Determine w when
the tension in the cord is 600 N. (Riley, 1993) CV
C C CV
• •
CH CH

B T = 600 N
• T = 600 N •D
0.5w

AH •E
A
•

AV EV
Solution:
a. FBD of member CE b. FBD of member AC
MC 0 600(1) 1.155 EV 0 2
MA 0 600(1) w(1.5) 0.5w
EV = 519.615 N 3
w = 327.273 N/m
FH 0 CH 600 0
CH = 600 N

2. The compound beam is pin supported at B and supported by rockers at A and C. There is a hinge (pin) at D.
Determine the reactions at the supports. (Hibbeler, 2007)

Solution:
a. FBD of beam DC

MC = 0] 7 sin 60º (3) – DV (4) = 0

DH DV = 4.547 kN
FH = 0] DH – 7 cos 60º = 0
DV DH = 3.5 kN
 140

b. FBD of beam DC

4.547 kN MB = 0] 16 (4) – 6 (2) – 4.547 (6) – AV (4) = 0

BH 3.5 kN
AV = 6.179 kN
FV = 0] BV + AV – 16 – 6 – 4.547 = 0
BV = 20.368 kN
AV DV FH = 0] BH – 3.5 = 0
BH = 3.5 kN

3. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force that pins A and B exert on the two-member
frame. Set F = 500 N. (Hibbeler, 2010)
CV

CH

1.299 m

AH
:
0.75 m
Solution: AV

a. FBD of member AC
MA = 0] CH (1.299) – CV (0.75) – 400 (1.5)(0.75) = 0
1.299 CH – 0.75CV = 450 Eq. 1
b. FBD of member CB

CH 500 N
MB = 0] 500 (1) – CH (1) – CV (1) = 0
CH + CV = 500 Eq. 2
CV

BH

BV
Solving Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously, we get CH = 402.635 N and CV = 97.365 N.
c. From the FBD of member AC
FH = 0] 400 (1.5) cos 30º – CH – AH = 0 ; AH = 116.980 N
FV = 0] AV – CV – 400 (1.5) sin 30º= 0 ; AV = 397.365 N
d. From the FBD of member BC
FH = 0] CH – BH – 500 = 0 ; BH = 97.365 N
FV = 0] CV – BV = 0 ; BV = 97.365 N
 141

4. Determine the forces acting on member DEF of the frame loaded as shown. (Riley, 1993)
269.15 lb
140 lb/ft
AH A
• • •C
B CD
AV 2.536 ft BE
1.309 ft
BE CD
FH F E
• • •D
2 ft 3 ft
FV

Solution:
a. FBD of member AC
MA 0 BE sin 75 (2.536) 269.15 (2.563) CD sin 60 (3.845) 0
2.45 BE – 3.33 CD = 689.921 Eq. 1
b. FBD of member FD
MF 0 CD sin 60 (5) BE sin 75 (2) 0
4.33 CD – 1.932 BE = 0 Eq. 2
Solving Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously, we get
BE = 715.644 lb and CD = 319.341 lb
FV 0 FV CD sin 60 BE sin 75 0; FV 414.7 lb
FV = 414.7 lb
FH 0 FH CD cos 60 BE cos 75 0; FH 344.89 lb
FH = 344.89 lb

5. The cord of the figure shown is wrapped around a frictionless pulley and supports a 40-lb weight. Determine
all forces acting on member EG. (Riley, 1993)
EV
EV
E
EH •E •
EH

DH •D
DV • T T
BH •B C
A• AH CH •
AV BV
CV
40 lb
A BH B C
GH AH • • •
G
CH
AV BV CV
Solution:
a. FBD of pulley
MC 0 3 (40) 3T 0; T 40 lb
FH 0 CH T 0; CH 40 lb
FV 0 CV 40 0; CV 40 lb
 142

b. FBD of AC
MA 0 23 CV 8 BV 0; BV 115 lb

MB 0 15 CV 8 AV 0; AV 75 lb
c. FBD of BE
ME 0 12 BH 8BV 9T 0, BH = 46.667 lb

FH 0 T BH EH 0 , EH = 86.667 lb
FV 0 EV BV 0; EV 115 lb
d. FBD of AC
FH 0 AH BH CH 0 , AH = 86.667 lb
e. FBD of EG
MD 0 6 EH 6 AH 18 GH 0; GH 57.778 lb
FH 0 GH AH DH EH 0; DH 57.778 lb
FV 0 AV DV EV 0; DV 40 lb

EXERCISES

1. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at pins A and C of the two-member frame.
(Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. Ax = 300 N, Ay = 300 N, Cx = 300 N, Cy = 300 N

2. The compound beam is supported by a rocker at B and is fixed to the wall at A. If it is hinged (pinned)
together at C, determine the components of reaction at the supports. Neglect the thickness of the beam.
(Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. Ax = 92.3 lb, Ay = 186 lb, MA = 359 lb-ft, Cx = 100 lb, Cy = 273.6 lb By = 449 lb
 143

3. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which the pins exert on member BCE of the
frame. (Hibbeler, 1986) Ans. Bx = 341 lb, By = 500 lb, Cx = 662 lb, Cy = 20 lb, Ex = 1000 lb, Ey = 520 lb

4. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction that the pins at A, B, and C exert on the frame.
The cylinder has a mass of 80 kg. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. Ax = 2.98 kN, Ay = 235 N, Bx = 2.98 kN, By = 549
N, Cx = 2.98 kN, Cy = 1.33 kN

5. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction which the pins exert on member EDC of the
frame. Ans. Ex = 945 lb, Ey = 500 lb, Dx = 945 lb, Dy = 1000 lb
 144

Worksheet No. 12 – Analysis of Rigid Frames and Machines

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: __________________

Solve the following problems.

1. For the frame and loading shown, determine the components of all forces acting on member ABC.

2. The compound beam shown is pin connected at B. Determine the components of reaction at its supports.
Neglect its weight and thickness.
 145

3. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at pin C.

4. The frame is used to support the 50-kg cylinder. Determine the force of the pin at C on member ABC and on
member CD.
 146

Chapter 7 – FRICTION
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. apply the formulas of dry friction to the analysis of rigid bodies in equilibrium subjected to friction.
2. extend the application of the formulas to the analysis of wedges and belt friction.

7-a. Introduction
Whenever a tendency exists for one contacting surface to slide along another surface, the friction forces
developed are always in a direction to oppose this tendency. The two main types of friction that are commonly
encountered in engineering practice are dry friction and fluid friction.
Dry friction or Coulomb friction – refers to the friction force that exists between two unlubricated solid surfaces.
Fluid friction – acts between moving surfaces that are separated by a layer of fluid.
Impending motion – the condition when the friction force is at its maximum value.
mg
7-b. Coulomb’s Theory of Dry Friction

P P
m
F

(a) (b) N R
Fig. 7-1

The maximum value of static friction (when motion is impending) is proportional to the normal force; i.e.,
Fmax = s N; where: s = coefficient of static friction
Once the block starts to slip relative to the surface, the friction force will decrease to
Fmax = k N; where k = coefficient of kinetic friction
The total force R exerted by the supporting surface on the block is the resultant of F and N, therefore,
F
R N2 F 2 and tan
N
At the point of impending motion,
2 Fmax
R N2 Fmax and tan
N
Fmax
Since Fmax = s N, s
and tan = s, where = angle of static friction
N

When a block rests on an inclined surface and is acted on only by gravity, the resultant of the normal and
friction forces must be collinear. The angle between the resultant and the normal force can never be greater than
the angle of static friction; therefore, the steepest inclination for which the block will be in equilibrium is
equal to the angle of static friction. This angle is called the angle of repose.
 147

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The block in figure weighs 500 lb and the coefficient of friction between the block and the floor is 0.2.
a. Determine if the system would be in equilibrium for P = 400 lb.
b. Calculate the minimum P to prevent motion.
c. Determine the maximum P for which the system is in equilibrium.
(Riley, 1993)
P
20

30

Solution:
a. With P = 400 lb
a-1. Draw the FBD of the block
y P = 400 lb
500 lb
20 x
30

a-2. Apply the equations of equilibrium

Fy 0 N 500 cos 30 P sin 20 0
N 500 cos 30 400 sin 20 0
N = 296.205 lb
Fx 0 P cos 20 500 sin 30 F 0
400 cos 20 500 sin 30 F 0
F = 125.877 lb
Maximum F for impending motion:
F= N
F = 0.2 (296.205)
= 59.24 lb
Since the available friction force is greater than F for impending motion, the body is not
in equilibrium.

b. Minimum P to prevent motion (block tends to move downward)

b-1. Draw the FBD of the block
P
500 lb
y 20 x
30

F N
 148

b-2. Apply the equations of equilibrium

Fy 0 N 500 cos 30 P sin 20 0
N = 433.013 – 0.342 P
Fx 0 P cos 20 500 sin 30 F 0
F = 250 – 0.94 P
but F = 0.2 N
250 – 0.94 P = 0.2 (433.013 – 0.342 P)
P = 187.468 lb

c. Maximum P for which the system is in equilibrium (block tends to move upward)
c-1. Draw the FBD of the block
y P
500 lb
20 x
30

N
c-2. Apply the equations of equilibrium
Fy 0 N 500 cos 30 P sin 20 0

N = 433.013 – 0.342 P
Fx 0 P cos 20 500 sin 30 F 0
F = 0.94 P – 250
but F = 0.2 N
0.94 P – 250 = 0.2 (433.013 – 0.342 P)
P = 333.799 lb

2. The rods in the figure are lightweight and all pins are frictionless. The coefficient of friction between the 40-
kg slider block and the floor is 0.40.
a. Assume that the force P is horizontal and determine the maximum force P for which motion does not
occur.
b. Determine the angle that gives the absolute greatest force P for which motion does not occur.
(Riley, 1993)
 149

Solution:
a. Maximum force P for which motion does not occur
a-1. Draw the FBD of the block
392.4 N
AB
3
4

N
a-2. Apply the equations of equilibrium
3
FV 0 N 392.4 AB 0 ; N = 392.4 + 0.6 AB
5
4
FH 0 AB F 0; F = 0.8 AB
5
but F = 0.4N
0.8 AB = 0.4 (392.4 + 0.6 AB)
0.8 AB = 156.96 + 0.24 AB
AB = 280.286 N
a-3. FBD of Joint B
BC 3 6
6 FV 0 AB BC 0 ; BC = 170.491 N
1
5 37
P
1 4
FH 0 P BC AB 0 ; P = 196.2 N
3
AB 37 5
4

b. Angle θ that gives the absolute greatest force P for which motion does not occur
b-1. FBD of Joint B
1 4
FH 0 P cos BC (280.286) 0
B 37 5
C
6 1
P BC 224.229 P cos Eq. 1
1
37
6 3
3 FV 0 P sin BC (280.286) 0
4 37 5
AB
6
P sin BC 168.172 0 Eq. 2
37
Substitute Eq. 1 in Eq. 2:
P sin 6 (224.229 – P cos ) + 168.172 = 0
P sin + 6 P cos = 1177.202
P cos + sin dP + 6P ( sin ) + 6 cos dP = 0
d d
P cos 6P sin = 0
tan = 1 ; = 9.46
6
 150

3. The 200-lb crate is being moved by a rope that passes over a smooth pulley. The coefficient of friction
between the crate and the floor is 0.30.
a. Assume that h = 4 ft and determine the force P necessary to produce impending motion.
b. Determine the value of h for which impending motion by slipping and by tipping would occur
simultaneously.
(Riley, 1993)

Solution:
a. Force P to produce impending motion
a-1. If slipping impends: a-2. If tipping impends:

200 lb 200 lb
1 ft
P P

F
F A

N N

FV 0 N – 200 = 0 MA 0 200(1) P (4) 0

N = 200 lb P = 50 lb
F = 0.3 Hence, P = 50 lb to produce impending
F = 60 lb motion.

FH 0 P–F=0
P = 60 lb
 151

b. Value of h for which impending motion by slipping and by tipping would occur simultaneously.
b-1. If slipping impends: b-2. If tipping impends:

200 lb 200 lb
1 ft
P P

F
F A

N N

N = 200 lb MA 0 P h 200 (1) 0

F = 60 lb h = 3.33 ft
P = 60 lb

4. A lightweight rope is wrapped around a 100- lb drum, passes over a frictionless pulley, and is attached to a
weight W. The coefficient of friction between the drum and the surfaces is 0.50. Determine the maximum
amount of weight that can be supported by this arrangement. (Riley, 1993)

Solution:
FBD of cylinder
W F1 = 0.5 N1; N1 = 2F1
F2 = 0.5 N2; N2 = 2F2
N2
FV 0 N1 F2 100 0
2 F1 + F2 = 100
F1 F2 F2 = 100 – 2F1 Eq. 1
FH 0 F1 W N 2 0
N1
F1 + W – 2F2 = 0 Eq. 2
Substitute Eq. 1 in Eq. 2:
F1 + W – 2(100 – 2F1) = 0
F1 + W – 200 + 4F1 = 0
5F1 + W – 200 = 0 Eq. 3
 152

MC 0 rW rF1 rF2 0
W – F1 – F2 = 0 Eq. 4
Substitute Eq. 1 in Eq. 4:
W – F1 – (100 – 2F1) = 0
W – F1 – 100 + 2F1 = 0
F1 = 100 – W Eq. 5
Substitute Eq. 5 in Eq. 3:
5 (100 – W) + W – 200 = 0
500 – 5W + W – 200 = 0
300 – 4W = 0
W = 75 lb

5. The three blocks A, B, and C with weights 60 lb, 40 lb, and 20 lb, respectively, are placed on a 20 incline
so that they are in contact with each other and at rest. Determine which, if any, of the blocks will move and
the friction force acting under each. Assume that under blocks A and C the coefficients of friction are fs =
0.50 and fk = 0.40 while under B they are fs = 0.30 and fk = 0.20. (Singer, 1975)
C
B
A 20 lb
40 lb
60 lb
20

Solution:
a. Compute for the angle of repose
For blocks A and C:
tan = 0.50; = 26.57 > 20º; hence, the blocks do not move
For block B:
tan = 0.20; = 16.7 < 20º; hence, the block moves

b. Free-body diagrams of the blocks

y y
y 40 lb
60 lb 20 20 lb
20 20
x
R x
x C R
B R
A R
R FC
FB
FA NC
NB
NA

c. FBD of block C:
Fx 0 FC 20 sin 20 0 ; FC = 6.84 lb
d. FBD of block B:
Fy 0 NB 40 cos 20 0; NB = 37.588 lb

FB = 0.3NB ; FB = 11.276 lb
Fx 0 R FB 40 sin 20 0; R = 2.404 lb
 153

e. FBD of block A
Fy 0 NA 60 cos 20 0; NA = 56.382 lb

FA = 0.5NA ; FA = 28.191 lb
Fx 0 FA 60 sin 20 R 0; FA = 22.925 lb

Therefore, the friction force under the blocks are FA = 22.925 lb, FB = 11.276 lb,
and FC = 6.84 lb.

6. The 200-N board is placed across the channel and a 400-N boy attempts to walk across. If the coefficient of
static friction at A and B is s = 0.4, determine if he can make the crossing; and if not, how far will he get
from A before the board slips?

Solution:
FBD of the board:
400 N 200 N For impending motion at B:
d
= arc tan ¾ = 36.87º
FA A B
Angle of friction:
FB tan = 0.4
NB
RA NA RB = 21.8º < ; hence, the board slips.

FV 0 R A cos 21.8 R B cos 15.07 600 0

0.9285 R A 0.9656 RB 600 Eq. 1

FH 0 RA sin 21.8 RB sin15.07 0

0.3714 RA 0.26 RB 0 Eq. 2
Solving Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously, we get
RB = 371.379 N
MA 0 RA cos15.07 (3) 200(1.5) 400 d 0
d = 1.94 m
 154

EXERCISES

1. Specify the angle and the magnitude P of the smallest force needed to tow the 120-kg crate up the incline
shown. The coefficient of friction between the plane and the crate is B = 0.5.
P

20

2. Determine the smallest couple moment which can be applied to the 20-N wheel that will cause impending
motion. The cord is attached to the 30-N block and the coefficients of static friction are B = 0.2 and D =
0.3. (Hibbeler, 2007) Ans. M = 1.2 N-m

3. Two blocks A and B, each having a mass of 6 kg, are connected by the linkage shown. If the coefficient of
static friction at the contacting surfaces is B = 0.8 and A = 0.2, determine the largest vertical force P that
may be applied to pin C without causing the blocks to slip. Neglect the weight of the links. (Hibbeler, 1986)
Ans. 28.1 N

4. A lightweight rope is wrapped around a drum as shown in the figure. The coefficient of friction between the
drum and the ground is 0.30. Determine the maximum angle such that the drum does not slip. Also
determine the tension in the cable for this angle if the drum weights 100 N. (Riley, 1993) Ans. θ = 31.3º,
T = 34.6 N

60
 155

7-c. Systems Involving Dry Friction

7-c.1. Wedges
Wedge – it is a block that has two flat faces that make a small angle with each other which are often used in
pairs to raise heavy loads.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A pair of wedges is used to move a crate of weight W = 2400 N. The coefficient of friction is the same at all
surfaces and the weight of the wedges are negligible. If the coefficient of static friction is 0.30 and the
wedge angle is 20 , determine the force P necessary to insert the wedge. (Riley, 1993)

Solution:
a. FBD of the crate:
R3
2400 N tan = 0.3
56.6º
R3 106.7º = 16.7º
2400 N R2 R2 2400
16.7º sin 106.7 sin 56.6
R2 = 2753.524 N
R2

b. FBD of the wedge:

P
R2
53.3º 73.3º P R2
sin 53.4 sin 53.3
P R1 R2
53.4º
P = 2757.1 N
R1
20º

2. A wedge rest between a 75-lb drum and wall. The coefficient of friction between the drum and the floor is
0.15 while the coefficient of friction is 0.50 at all other surfaces. Assuming a wedge angle of 40 ,
determine the minimum weight of the wedge that will cause motion. (Riley, 1993)
 156

Solution:
a. FBD of the drum:

R2 75 lb 1 = Arc tan 0.5 = 26.57º

1

40º 75 lb
8.53º 2 = Arc tan 0.15 = 8.53º
75 lb R1
R2 1200
156.57º
sin 8.53 sin 14.9
14.9º
R2 R2 = 43.264 lb
2
R1
b. From the FBD of the wedge:
W W R2
23.43º sin 93.14 sin 63.43
R2
W W = 48.3 lb
1
40º 93.14º
R3 1 63.43º
R2 R3

3. Determine the range of P for which the system of the two blocks will be in equilibrium. Friction is
negligible except for the surface under block B. (Pytel, 1996)

A
60 kg

P B 30

40 kg

μs = 0.2

Solution:
a. Weight of the blocks
WA = 60(9.81) = 588.6 N
WB = 40(9.81) = 392.4 N
b. Minimum P
588.6 N FBD of block A:

A
FV 0 R2 cos 30 588.6 0
R1
R2 = 679.659 N
30
R2 FBD of block B:
B R2 FV 0 N 392.4 R2 cos 30 0
P 30
N = 981 N
392.4 N
F = N = 0.2(981)
=196.2 N
F FH 0 P F R2 sin 30 0
N P = 143.629 N
 157

c. Maximum P
588.6 N FBD of block A:
FV 0 R2 cos 30 588.6 0
R1 R2 = 679.659 N
30 R FBD of block B:
2
FV 0 N 392.4 R2 cos 30 0
P R2
30 N = 981 N
392.4 N F= N = 0.2 (981)
=196.2 N
F FH 0 P F R2 sin 30 0
N
P = 536.029 N
Hence, range of P is 143.629 < P < 536.029 N.

4. A pair of wedges is used to move a crate of weight W = 1200 N. The coefficient of friction between the
contacting surfaces of the wedges is 0.35 while the coefficient of friction at all other surfaces is 0.10. The
weight of the wedges may be neglected. Determine the force P necessary to insert the wedge for = 10 .
(Riley, 1993)

Solution:
a. Find the angles of friction
1 = Arc tan 0.35 = 19.29º; 2 = Arc tan 0.10 = 5.71º

b. FBD of the crate:

1200 N

R2 1200
R2 5.71º
2 R1 sin 5.71 sin 78.58
1200 N
R2 = 121.804 N
95.71º
78.58º

R1 R2
2

c. FBD of the wedge:

P R2
84.29º P R2
35º sin 35 sin 60.71
P
10º 2
60.71º P = 80.105 N
1 R2 R3
R3
 158

5. A small wedge is placed beneath corner B of the 4000-kg block of marble. Determine the largest angle for
which the wedge is self-locking, i.e., the wedge will not slide out from under the block. Neglect the mass of
the wedge and the small angle between surface AB and the horizontal. (Pytel, 1996)

= 0.12
B
A C
= 0.2
Solution:
a. FBD of block:
Weight of block:
39240 N W = 4000 (9.81) = 39240 N
FV 0 NB 39240 0
NB = 39240 N
F= N
FB
FB = 0.12(39240)
NB
= 4708.8 N
b. FBD of wedge:
NB
FB

FC

NC

FV 0 NC N B cos FB sin 0
NC 39240 cos 4708.8 sin 0
NC 39240 cos 4708 .8 sin Eq. 1
FH 0 N B sin FB cos FC 0
39240 sin 4708.8 cos FC 0

39240 sin 4708.8 cos 0. 2 N C 0

NC 196200 sin 23544 cos Eq. 2

Equate Eq. 1 and Eq. 2:
39240cos 4708.8 sin 196200sin 23544cos
191491.2 sin = 62784 cos
tan = 0.32787
= 18.15º
 159

EXERCISES

1. Determine the force P needed to lift the 100-lb load. Smooth rollers are placed between the wedges. The
coefficient of friction between A and C and B and D is μ = 0.3. Neglect the weight of each wedge.
(Hibbeler, 1986) Ans. 60.9 lb

2. A wedge is being forced under an 80-kg drum as shown in the figure. The coefficient of friction between the
wedge and the drum is 0.10 while the coefficient of friction is 0.30 at all other surfaces. Assuming a wedge
angle θ of 25º and that the weight of the wedge may be neglected, determine the minimum force P necessary
to insert the wedge. (Riley, 1993)

3. Block A supports a pipe column and rests as shown on wedge B. Knowing that the coefficient of static
friction at all surfaces of contact is 0.25 and that θ = 45°, determine the smallest force P required to raise
block A. (Beer, 2010) Ans. 9.86 kN
3 kN

4. An 8° wedge is to be forced under a machine base at B. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction at all
surfaces of contact is 0.15, (a) determine the force P required to move the wedge, (b) indicate whether the
machine base will slide on the floor. (Beer, 2010) Ans. a) 90 lb b) base moves
300 lb

200 lb

P
 160

7-c.2. Flexible Belts

The relationship between the tensions on the ropes for problems involving a flat belt passing over a
fixed cylinder can be determined from the formula
T2 T1e
where: T2 > T1
μ = coefficient of friction
β = angle of contact in radians

It should be noted that the tension in the direction of impending motion (or motion) of the belt is greater than the
tension on the other side of the rope.

The following points should be kept in mind when using the above equation:
1. T2 is the belt tension that is directed opposite the belt friction. Thus, T2 must always refer to the larger of the
two tensions.
2. For impending motion, use = s. If there is relative motion between the belt and the cylinder, use = k..
3. The angle of contact must be expressed in radians.
4. Since the equation is independent of r, its use is not restricted to circular contact surfaces; it may also be
used for a surface of arbitrary shape.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. How many turns of rope around the capstan are needed for the 300-N force to resist the 120-kN pull of a
docked ship? The coefficient of static friction between the capstan and the rope is 0.20.

Given:
T1 = 300 N
T2 = 120 kN
= 0.2

Req’d.
number of turns, n
Solution:
a. Angle of contact
T2 120
e ; e 0.2
T1 0.3
= 29.957 rad
= 1716.428º
b. Number of turns

n
360
= 4.77 turns
 161

2. The force P applied to the brake handle enables the band brake to reduce the angular speed of a rotating
drum. If the tensile strength of the band is 17 kN, find the maximum safe value of P and the corresponding
braking torque acting on the drum. Assume that the drum is rotating clockwise.

T1
T1

T2
T2

Solution:
a. FBD of drum: b. FBD of the brake handle:
T2 MA 0 0.15 T2 0.3 T1 0.5 P 0
e
T1 0.15 (17) 0.3 (9.069) 0.5 P 0
17 P = 0.342 kN
e 0.2
T1 Braking torque that acts on the drum:
T1 = 9.069 kN C T2 T1 r
0.45
C 17 9.069
2
C = 1.784 kN-m

3. A rope attached to a 35-lb crate passes around two fixed pegs. The 45-lb crate is attached to a wall y a
second cord. The coefficient of friction between the two crates is 0.25; between the crate and the floor, 0.25;
and between the rope and the pegs, 0.20. Determine the minimum force P that must be used to cause
motion. (Riley, 1993)

45 lb

T2
T3

F1
N1
T2
N1
F1
Solution: 35 lb
T1 T1
a. FBD of upper block F2
FV 0 ] N1 45 0
N2
N1 = 45 lb
F1 = 0.25(45)
= 11.25 lb
 162

b. FBD of lower block c. FBD of the lower peg:

FV 0 N2 N 1 35 0 T2
e
N2 = 80 lb T1
F2 = 0.25(80) T2 0.2
e 2
= 20 lb 31.25
T2 = 42.785 lb
FH 0 F1 F2 T1 0
d. FBD of the upper peg:
T1 = 31.25 lb
P 0.2
2
e
T2
P = 58.577 lb

4. The band brake in the figure is used to control the rotation of a drum. The coefficient of friction between the
belt and the drum is 0.35 and the weight of the handle is 15 N. If a force of 200 N is applied to the end of the
handle, determine the maximum torque for which no motion occurs if the torque is applied clockwise.
(Riley, 1993)

T1
T1 T2
15 N 200 N
T2

AH A

AV
Solution:
a. FBD of handle:
MA 0 75 T1 15 (225) 200(675) 0
T1 = 1755 N
T1
e
T2
0.35 210
1755 180
e
T2
T2 = 486.583 N
b. FBD of the drum:
Mo 0 T T1 (0.15) T2 (0.15) 0

T 1755 (0.15) 486.583 (0.15) 0

T = 190.263 N
 163

5. A 100-N crate is sitting on a 200-N crate. The rope that joins the crates passes around a frictionless pulley
and a fixed drum. The coefficient of friction is 0.30 at all surfaces. Determine the minimum force P that
must be applied to the 200-N crate to start motion. (Riley, 1993)

T1

T1

N1
F1
F1
N1 T2
T2

F2

Solution: N2
N2
a. FBD of upper crate: b. FBD of the drum:
If slipping impends: T2
e
FV 0 N 1 100 0 T1

N1 = 100 N T2 0.3 120

180
e
24
F1 = 0.3(100)
T2 = 44.987 N
= 30 N
c. FBD of lower crate:
FH 0 F1 T1 0
FV 0 N 2 200 100 0
T1 = 30 N
N2 = 300 lb
If tipping impends:
F2 = 0.3(300)
MA 0 100 (0.6) - 2.5 T1 0
= 90 lb
T1 = 24 N
FH 0 P F1 F2 T2 0
P = 158.987 N

6. A rope is attached to the top corner of a 450-N block, passes over a fixed drum and is attached to another
block. The coefficient of friction between the 450-N block and the floor is 0.30; between the rope and the
drum, 0.60. Determine the maximum mass of block B for which no motion occurs. (Riley, 1993)

T
T

N
 164

Solution:
a. FBD of the block: b. FBD of the drum:
If slipping impends: W
e
T
FV 0 N 450 T sin 20 0
0.6 110
N 450 0.342T W 180
e
117.914
FH 0 T cos 20 F 0
W = 373.11 N
F = 0.94T
Mg = 373.11
but F = 0.3N
373.11
M
0.94T 0.3 450 0.342T 9.81
0.94T 135 0.1026T M = 38.034 kg
T = 129.484 N
If tipping impends:
MA 0 T cos 20 (1) T sin 20 (0.6) 450(0.3) 0
T = 117.914 N

EXERCISES

1. The cylinder shown weighs 10 lb and is held in equilibrium by the belt and wall. If slipping does not occur
at the wall, determine the minimum vertical force P which must be applied to the belt for equilibrium. The
coefficient of friction between the belt and the cylinder is μ = 0.25. (Hibbeler, 1986) Ans. 78.7 lb

2. A rope connecting two blocks is wrapped around a fixed peg as shown. The coefficient of friction between
the peg and the rope is 0.15; between the 65-lb block and the floor, 0.40. Determine the minimum and
maximum weight of block B for which no motion occurs. (Riley, 1993)
 165

3. A cable is attached to an 80-lb plate B, passes over a fixed disk at C, and is attached to the block at A. Using
the coefficients of friction shown in the figure, determine the smallest weight of block A that will prevent
sliding motion of B down the plane. (Hibbeler, 1986) Ans. 8.89 lb

4. A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from drum B to drum A. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction
is 0.40 and that the allowable belt tension is 450 N, determine the largest couple that can be exerted on drum
A. (Beer, 2010) Ans. 35.1 N-m

5. A recording tape passes over the 20-mm-radius drive drum B and under the idler drum C. Knowing that the
coefficients of friction between the tape and the drums are μs = 0.40 and μk = 0.30 and that the drum C is
free to rotate, determine the smallest allowable value of P if slipping of the tape on drum B is not to occur.
(Beer, 2010) Ans. 5.97 N

0.3 N-m

TA

P
 166

Worksheet No. 13 – Friction

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ___________________

Solve the following problems.

1. The crate has mass of 350 kg and is subjected to a towing force P acting at a 20º angle with the horizontal. If
the coefficient of static friction is s = 0.5, determine the magnitude of P to just start the crate moving down
the plane.

2. The cylinder shown is of weight W and radius r, and the coefficient of static friction μs is the same
at A and B. Determine the magnitude of the largest couple M that can be applied to the cylinder if it
is not to rotate.
 167

3. The band wrench is used to unscrew an oil filter from a car. (The filter acts as if it were a wheel
with a resisting torque of 40 lb-ft.) Determine the minimum coefficient of friction between the
band and the filter that will prevent slippage. The weight of the handle can be neglected. (Riley,
1993)

Chapter 8 – CENTROIDS and CENTERS OF GRAVITY

 168

Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. determine the location of the centroid of a given plane area.
2. determine the location of the center of gravity of a system of discrete particles and a given body.

8.a. Center of Mass and Center of Gravity

Center of mass – it is used to denote the point in a system of particles or physical body where the mass can be
conceived to be concentrated
Center of gravity – the point in the body through which the weight acts

8.b. Center of Gravity of a Two-dimensional Body

My = ∑My
x W = ∑ x ∆W or xW x dW

Mx = ∑Mx
y W = ∑ y ∆W or yW y dW

8.c. Centroid of Areas and Lines

In the case of a flat homogeneous plate of uniform thickness, the magnitude ∆W of the weight of an
element of the plate can be expressed as
∆W = γt ∆A
where: γ = specific weight (weight per unit volume) of the material
t = thickness of the plate
∆A = area of the element
Similarly, we can express the magnitude W of the weight of the entire plate as
W = γtA
where: A is the total area of the plate.
Substituting in the above equations yield
x A ∑ x ∆A or xA x dA
y A = ∑ y ∆A or yA y dA
In the case of a homogeneous wire of uniform cross section,
x L ∑ x ∆L or xL x dL
y L = ∑ y ∆L or yL y dL

8.d. Centroids of Composite Figures

The location of the center of gravity of a body or the centroid of a composite geometrical object
represented by a line, area, or volume can be determined by dividing the body or object into a finite number of
composite parts that have simpler shapes. And then using the formulas
x A ∑ x ∆A; y A = ∑ y ∆A
x L ∑ x ∆L; y L = ∑ y ∆L
8.e. Centroid of the Common Geometric Shapes

Shape x y Area
 169

h h bh
Triangular area
y 3 2
b b
2 2

4r πr 2
Semi-circular Area 0
y r 3π 2
h

r
h
4r 4r πr 2
Quarter-circular Area y 3π 3π 4
x

a
y = kx2
h 3a 3h ah
Parabolic spandrel
O y 4 10 3
x

r
2r sin
Circular Sector 0 r2
O 3
x

2r
Semicircular arc y r 0 πr
π
O h

r 2r 2r r
Quarter-circular arc y
h π π 2
O x

r
r sin
Arc of a circle 0 2 r
O
x

Shape x y Area
 170

r
h 3a 2 3
Hemisphere r
x 8 3

a
Semiellipsoid of 3h 2 2
h a h
revolution 8 3

a h 1 2
Paraboloid of
h a h
revolution 3 2

r
h 1 2
Cone h r h
4 3

h
x

a
h 1
Pyramid abh
h 4 3

b
h
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Locate the centroid of the wire bent in the shape shown. (Hibbeler, 2010)
 171

L1
L2

L3

Solution:

Line Length, mm x , mm y , mm z , mm
L1 300 150 0 0

L2 600 300 300 0

L3 400 300 600 –200

∑ 1300

x L 300(150) 600(300) 400(300)

x = = 265 mm
L 1300
y L 300(0) 600(300) 400(600)
y = = 323 mm
L 1300
z L 300(0) 600(0) (400)( 200)
z = = – 61.5 mm
L 1300

2. Locate the centroid of the wire shown. (Hibbeler, 2010)

L1

L2
L4

L3
Solution:
a. For the semicircle
2( 4)
L3 = 4 = 12.566 in., y3 = = 2.546 in.

b. For the inclined line

L4 = 6 2 4 2 = 7.211 in.
c. Tabulated results
 172

Line Length, in. x , in. y , in. z , in.

L1 4 –2 0 6
L2 6 –4 0 3
L3 12.566 0 2.546 0
L4 7.211 2 0 3
∑ 29.777

x L 4( 2) 6( 4) 12.566(0) 7.211(2)
x = = – 0.590 in.
L 29.777
y L 4(0) 6(0) 12.566(2.546) 7.211(0)
y = = 1.074 in.
L 29.777
z L 4(6) 6(3) 12.566(0) 7.211(3)
z = = 2.137 in.
L 29.777

3. Locate the centroid with respect to the x-axis of the beam’s cross-sectional area.
200 mm 200 mm
A1
40 mm 40 mm

100 mm 100 mm
A2 y
x

20 mm
20 mm
Solution:

Area, mm2 y , mm
8000(120) 2000(50)
A1 8000 120
y
10000
A2 2000 50
y = 106 mm
∑ 10000

4. Locate the centroid of the section shown.

1.in 6.in 1.in

6.in C
•
1.in d
x

Area, in2 y , in
A1 6 3 18d = 6(3)(2) + 6(0.5)
A2 6 3 d = 2.167 in.
A2 6 0.5
∑ 18
5. Locate the centroid of the plane area shown. (Beer, 2010)
 173

y
6 in 8 in

8 in

4 in

12 in

x
229.734 x = 280 (7) – 50.266 (6)
Area, in2 x , in. y , in
x = 7.219 in.
A1 280 7 10 229.734 y = 280 (10) – 50.266 (12)
A2 50.266 6 12 y = 9.562 in.

∑ 229.734

6. Determine the distance h to which a hole must be bored into the cylinder so that the center of mass of the
assembly is located at x = 64 mm. The material has a density of 8 Mg/m3. (Hibbeler, 2010)

Volume, mm3 x , in.

V1 192000π 60

V2 400πh h/2

∑ 192000π – 400πh

(192000π – 400πh) x = 192000π (60) – 400πh (h/2)

(192000π – 400πh)(64) = 192000π (60) – 400πh (h/2)
12288000 – 25600h = 11520000 – 200h2
h2 – 128h + 3840 = 0
h = 80 mm, 40 mm

EXERCISES
 174

1. Locate the centroid x , y, z of the wire which is bent in the shape shown. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. (0.074 in,
0.037 in. 0.157 in)

2. Locate the centroid of the channel’s crosssectional area. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. = 2.0 in

3. Locate the centroid x, y of the composite area. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. (4.83 in., 2.56 in.)

4. Locate the centroid of the cross-sectional area of the concrete beam. (Hibbeler, 2010)
 175

5. Where is the centroid of the shaded area shown?

y

60 mm

30 mm

30 mm
x
O 45 mm

6. Locate the centroid of the shaded area. (Beer, 2010) Ans. (92.0 mm, 23.3 mm)

7. Determine the location of the centroid of the composite body shown when h = 2b. (Beer, 2010) Ans. b/10 to
the left of the base of the cone
 176

Worksheet No. 14 – Centroids and Centers of Gravity

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ___________________

1. Locate the centroid of the invertred T-section with respect to the x-axis.

2. The gravity wall shown is made of concrete. Determine the location ( x , y ) of the center of mass G for the
wall.
 177

3. Locate the centroid ( x , y ) of the composite area.

 178

Chapter 9 – MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. determine the moment of inertia of a given plane area.
2. determine the maximum and mninimum moments of inertia of an area.

9.a. Moment of Inertia of an Area

In the application of mechanics, if a load is distributed continuously over an area on which they act, the
computation of the loading distribution about an axis perpendicular to the area will involve a quantity called the
moment of inertia or the second moment of the area.
Referring to Fig. 9-1, the moments of inertia of a differential area dA
about the x and y axes are dI x y 2 dA and dI y x 2 dA , respectively. For the
entire area, the moments of inertia are
Ix y 2 dA and I y x 2 dA
The moment of inertia about the pole O or about the z axis is
IO r 2 dA
These moments of inertia about the x and y axes are called the rectangular
moment of inertia while the moment of inertia about the origin or about the z
axis is called the polar moment of inertia. Since r 2 x 2 y 2 , Fig. 9-1
IO Ix Iy
The moment of inertia of an area is always positive and is expressed in units of length to the fourth power.

9.b. The Parallel Axis Theorem for an Area

The moment of inertia of an area about any axis that is parallel to the centroidal axis can be determined
by the parallel-axis theorem.

In Fig. 9-2, the moment of inertia of a differential area dA about the

x axis is dI x y d y 2 dA . For the entire area, the moment of inertia is
2
Ix y 2 dA 2d y y dA d y dA
2
Ix Ix 0 Ady
2
or Ix Ix Ady
2
Also, Iy Iy A dx

and IO IC Ad2
Fig. 9-2
 179

9-c. Moment of Inertia by Integration

9-c.1. Moment of inertia of a rectangle with respect to its base and with respect to its centroidal x-axis.
y Moment of inertia with Moment of inertia with
respect to the base: respect to the centroidal x-axis:
h
Ix b dy y 2 Appy the parallel-axis theorem:
0
h
h xO Ix b y 2 dy Ix I xO Ad 2
0

dy h h 2
y y3 bh 3 h
2 Ix b I xO bh
x 3 0
3 2
b 3
h bh 3 bh 3
Ix b 0 I xO
3 3 4
bh 3 bh 3
Ix I xO
3 12

9-c.2. Moment of inertia of a triangle with respect to its base and with respect to its centroidal x-axis.
Moment of inertia with respect to the base:
h
Ix l dy y 2
0
y b l
by ratio and proportion,
h h y
b
h–y l (h y )
h
h
h b
dy Ix (h-y) dy y 2
0 h
y
b h
x Ix hy 2 y 3 dy
l h 0
h
b b y3 y4
Ix h
h 3 4 0
4 4
b h h
Ix
h 3 4
bh 3
Ix
12
Moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal x-axis:
Appy the parallel-axis theorem:

Ix I xO Ad 2
2
bh 3 bh h
I xO
12 2 3
3
bh bh 3
I xO
12 18
3
bh
I xO
36
 180

9-c.3. Moment of inertia of a circle with respect to a diameter.

r
Ix 4 x dy y 2
0
r
Ix 4 r2 y 2 dy y 2
0
y
by trigonometric substitution,
x
put y r sin
dy r cos d
dy r 2 2
y Ix 4 r2 r sin r sin r cos d
0
x
O
r 2 1 sin 2 r 2 sin 2 r cos d
2

r Ix 4
0
2 2 2
x +y =r
r 2 cos 2 r 2 sin 2
2
Ix 4 r cos d
0

4r 4 sin 2 cos 2 d
2
Ix
0

Apply Walli’s formula:

1 r4
Ix 4r 4 = Ix
44 4
4
d d4
or Ix = Ix
2 4 64

9.d. Radius of Gyration

Imagine an area A which has a moment of
inertia Ix with respect to the x axis (Fig. 9-3a) to be
concentrated into a thin strip parallel to the x axis
(Fig. 9.3b). If the area is to have the same moment
of inertia with respect to the x axis, the strip should (b)
be placed at a distance kx from the x axis, where kx (a)
is Fig. 9-3

defined by the relation I 2 Ix

x kx A or kx
A
The distance k x is referred to as the radius of gyration of the area with respect to the x axis. In a similar way, the
radii of gyration k y and k O (Fig. 9-4) are, respectively

Iy
ky
A

IO
and kO
A
Fig. 9-4

The radius of gyration of an area about an axis has units of length and is a quantity that is often used for the
design of columns in structural mechanics.
 181

9-e. Moments of Inertia of Composite Areas

A composite area consists of smaller simpler areas such as a rectangle, a triangle, and circles. The
moment of inertia of a composite area with respect to a given axis is obtained by considering each component
area separately, computing the moment of inertia of each area with respect to the same axis, and then summing
the results.
The table below shows the moments of inertia of the common geometric shapes.

Ix Iy I xO I yO IO
y b yO
2

h xO bh 3 b3h bh 3 b3h
Rectangle O
h 3 3 12 12
2
x
b

h
xO bh3 bh3
Triangle
h 12 36
3
x
b

yO

r4 r4 r4
4 4 2
Circle xO or or or
O
r d4 d4 d4
64 64 32

y or yO

r4 r4 r4
Semicircle 0.11r 4
r O xO 8 8 8
x
4r
3
y yO

r r4 r4
Quartercircle O xO 0.055r 4 0.055r 4
16 16
4r
x
3
 182

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of the shaded area shown
with respect to point P. (Beer, 2010)
y

a
P
x
a a a a

Solution:
y y y

a a
A1
= –
a a A2 a
P P P
x x x
a a a a a a a a a a

a. Moment of inertia with respect b. Moment of inertia with respect to

to the x-axis the y-axis
4a ( 2a ) 3 32a 4 2a ( 4a ) 3 32a 4
I x1 I y1
3 3 12 3
2a ( a ) 3 2a 4 2a ( a ) 3 2a 4
I x2 I y2
3 3 3 3
Ix I x1 I x2 Iy I y1 I y2

32a 4 2a 4 32a 4 2a 4
3 3 3 3
Ix = 10 a 4 Iy =10 a 4

c. Polar moment of inertia d. Polar radius of gyration

IP = Ix + Iy AT = 4a(2a) – 2a(a)
4 4
IP = 10a + 10a = 6a2
IP 20a 4
= 20a4 ko = =
AT 6a 2
= 1.826a
 183

2. Determine the moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-sectional area about the centroidal x and y axes.
(Hibbeler, 2010)

Solution:
y
y

50 mm
= 450 mm x + x

150 mm 150 mm
50 mm
50 mm

(50)(450) 3 (300)(50) 3
Ix = 383 × 106 mm4
12 12
(450)(50) 3 (50)(150) 3 6 4
Iy 2 (50)(150)(100) 2 = 183 × 10 mm
12 12

3. Determine the moment of inertia of the composite area about the y axis. (Hibbeler, 2010)

Solution:
y y

= + +
 184

(150)(150) 3 (150)(150) 3 (300)(150) 3

Iy
12 3 3
= 548.4375 × 106 mm4

4. Determine the moment of inertia and the radius of gyration of the shaded area with respect to the y-aixs.
(Beer, 2010)

Solution:

= + +

(48)(8) 3 (6)(24) 3 (6)(48) 3

Iy = 64,256 mm4
12 12 12
A = (48)(6) + (8)(48) + (24)(6) = 816 mm2

Iy 64256
ky = = 8.874 mm
A 816

5. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown with respect to a) point O; b) the centroid of the
area. (Beer, 2010)
 185

Solution:
a) y

x
= + +

(100) 4 (50)(100) 3 (100)(50) 3

Ix = 40.468 × 106 mm4
16 3 3
(100) 4 (100)(50) 3 (50)(100) 3
Iy = 40.468 × 106 mm4
16 3 3
IO = Ix + Iy = 40.468 × 106 mm4 + 40.468 × 106 mm4
= 80.936 × 106 mm4
b)
y

C
d
y = A1 + A2
x + A3

(100) 2
A1 7853.9816
4
A2 (50)(100) 5000
A3 (100)(50) 5000
ATotal 17853 .9816
AT y A1 y1 A2 y 2 A3 y3
4(100)
17853.9816 y 7853.9816 5000(50) 5000( 25)
3
y 25.6712 mm
x 25.6712 mm
d (25.6712) 2 (25.6712) 2 = 36.305 mm
IO IC Ad2
80.936 × 106 = IC + 17853.9816(36.305)2
IC = 57.404 × 106 mm4
 186

6. Two 20-mm steel plates are welded to a rolled S section as shown. Determine the moments of
inertia and the radii of gyration of the combined section with respect to the centroidal x and y axes.
(Beer, 2010)

Properties of S310 × 47.3:

A = 6010 mm2
depth = 305 mm
width = 127 mm
Ix = 90.3 × 106 mm4
Iy = 3.88 × 106 mm4
kx = 123 mm
ky = 25.4 mm

2
6 (160)(20) 3 305 20 = 259.513 × 106 mm4
Ix 90.3 10 2 (160)(20)
12 2 2

(20)(160) 3
Iy 3.88 10 6 2 = 17.533 × 106 mm4
12

Ix 259.513 10 6
kx = = 144.608 mm
A 12410
Iy 17.533 10 6
ky = = 37.587 mm
A 12410

EXERCISES

1. Determine the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the T-beam with respect to the x' axis passing
through the centroid of the cross section. (Hibbeler, 2010) Ans. 25.1 × 106 mm4

2. Determine the beam’s moment of inertia about the centroidal y axis. (Hibbeler, 2010)
 187

3. Determine the moment of inertia of the composite area about the x axis. (Hibbeler, 2010)

4. Determine the moments of inertia of the area shown about the centroidal x and y axes. (Beer, 2010)
Ans. Ixo = 18.13 in4; Iyo = 4.51 in4

5. Two L4×4×½ in. angles are welded to a steel plate as shown. Determine the moments of inetia of
the combined section with respect to cemtroidal axes parallel and perpendicular to the plate. (Beer,
2010)
Properties of S310 × 47.3:
A = 3.75 in2
x 1.18 in
y 1.18 in
Ix = 5.52 in4
Iy = 5.52 in4
 188

Worksheet No. 15 – Moments of Inertia

NAME: _______________________________ DATE: ___________________

1. Determine the polar moment of inertia and the polar radius of gyration of the shaded area shown
with respect to point P.

2. Determine the moment of inertia of the composite area about the centroidal y axis.
 189

3. Locate the centroid of the cross sectional area for the angle shown. Find the moment of inertia
about the centroidal y axis.

4. Determine the moment of inertia of the crosssectional area of the channel with respect to the y axis.