Chapter 5

Rural Development

Meaning of Rural Development

• Rural development refers to continuous and comprehensive socio-economic

process, attempting to improve all aspects of rural life.
• In India agriculture is a major source of livelihood in the rural sector and more than
2/3 of the population depends on it.
• The term rural development includes not only agriculture development, but it
involves all those aspects, which improve quality of life of people. It aims at
improving the economic and social condition of people living in villages.
• Rural development means an action plan for the social and economic growth of the
rural area.
• The action plan is to focus on the lingering and emerging challenges in the rural
area.
• The principle lingering challenges are
(i)Challenge of rural credit
(ii)Challenge of rural marketing
• Emerging challenges include
(i)Exploring options of sustainable livelihood other than farming
(ii)Challenge of organic farming

Process of rural development

1.Development of human resource
The quality of human resources need to be improved through:
o Proper attention to literacy ( specially female literacy), education and skill
development.
o Better and more affordable health facilities for physical growth and sanitation
facilities at workplace and homes.
2.Development of infrastructure
It involves:
o Improvement in electricity, irrigation, marketing, transportation etc.
o Better facilities for agriculture research and extension and information
dissemination.
3.Land reforms
o Illumination of exploitive land settlement system
o Providing land to the tillers
o Increasing agriculture productivity and production

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4.Alleviation of poverty
Around 22% of total population is still below the poverty line. So there is a serious need to
take various steps for alleviation of poverty and bringing significant improvement in living
condition of weaker section.
5.Development of productive resources
Development of productive resources of each locality to enhance opportunities of
employment particularly other than farming.

Rural credit
In agriculture, farmers are in strong need for credit due to long time gap between crop
sowing and realisation of income. Farmers borrow from various sources to meet initial
investment on seeds, fertilisers, implements and other family expenses of marriage, death,
religious ceremonies etc. So, credit is one of the important factors which contribute to the
agriculture productivity. An efficient and effective rural credit delivery system is crucial for
raising agricultural productivity and income.

Need for rural credit or agricultural finance

Credit need of the farmers can be studied in two different angles:
On the basis of time
(i)Short term credit
❖ Credit taken for a period of less than 15 months
❖ The loan is taken to purchase seeds fertilisers, paying wages to hired workers etc.
❖ Such loans can be repaid out of the current income of farmers.
(ii)Medium term credit
❖ It refers to credit taken for medium period ranging from 15 months to five years.
❖ It can be taken for productive activities like purchasing cattle, agriculture
implements etc and also for unproductive activities like expenditure on marriage,
social or religious functions.
(iii)Long term credit
❖ Credit taken to meet long term needs for a period of more than five years and may
extend to a period of 15 to 20 years.
❖ They are needed for making permanent improvement on land, digging well,
purchase of larger agriculture implements and machineries like tractor, harvester
etc, repayments of debts.
On the basis of purpose
(i)Productive loan

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Productive loans refers to the loans which help the farmers and rising agricultural
production and productivity. For example loan taken for purchasing seeds, fertilisers, farm
implements or for making permanent improvements on land.

(ii)Unproductive loan

Unproductive loan refers to the loan which do not help to raise agriculture production and
productivity. Example, loan taken for religious ceremonies, marriages, supporting family in
times of corp failure, settling old debts etc.

Sources of rural credit

There are two sources from which the farmer can raise loans:
(i)Non institutional source
(ii)Institutional source
(i)Non institutional source or informal source or conventional / traditional source
❖ It includes money lenders, traders, Commission agents, landlords, relatives and
friends.
❖ Since independence the source have been exploiting small and marginal farmers
and landless labourers by lending them on high interest rate and by manipulating
the accounts so as to keep them in the trap.
❖ It accounts for 93% of the total borrowings of the farmers in the beginning of the first
five year plan.
(ii)Institutional source / modern / emerging source
Government established the institutional source with the following objective:
●To provide adequate credit to farmers at a cheaper interest rate.
●To assist small and marginal farmers in rising their agricultural productivity and
maximising their income.
●It is based on multi agency approach. ●India adopted social banking and multi agency
approach in 1969 to adequately made the need of rural credit.
●They are expected to provide adequate credit to farmers are cheaper interest rate an
assist small and marginal farmers in raising their agricultural productivity and maximising
their income.
●It includes government, Cooperatives, commercial banks and regional rural banks etc.
●The account for only 7% of credit need of the farmers in the beginning of the first five year
plan but presently it is about 66% and has increased.
●Some important institutional agencies for rural credit in India are:
Cooperative credit societies
➢ The primary objective of cooperatives is to liberate the Indian peasantry from the
clusters of money lenders and to provide them credit at low rate of interest.

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 ➢ These societies are to ensure:
❖ Timely and rapid flow of capital
❖ Elimination of money lender
❖ Provision of adequate credit in areas covered by special programmes of
development.
Land Development Bank
They provide credit to the farmers against the mortgage of their lands. Loans are provided
for permanent improvement of land, purchasing agriculture implements and for repaying
old debts.
Commercial bank credit
Commercial banks played a marginal role in advancing rural credit. However, after
nationalisation in 1969, they expanded their branches in rural areas and started directly
financing the farmers.
Regional rural bank
They are opened up in those areas where there are no banking facilities.
Their main objective is to provide credit and other facilities, specially to small and marginal
farmers, agricultural labourers, artisans and small entrepreneurs in rural areas.
State Bank of India
SBI was set up in 1955 with focus on rural credit. Banks were directed to offer credit directly
to the farmers.

National Bank for agriculture and rural development

It was set up in 12th July1982 by an act of the parliament as an apex body to coordinate
the activities of all institutionals involved in the rural financing system.
Its object is to promote health and strength of credit institutions namely cooperatives,
commercial banks and regional rural banks.
Besides providing finance to the credit institutions, NABARD also provide financial
assistance to the non farm sectors, to promote integrated rural development and
prosperity of backward rural areas.
Green revolution was a harbinger of major challenge change in the credit system as it led to
the diversification of the portfolio of rural credit towards production oriented lending.
Self Help Group Bank Linkages Programmes for Microfinance
SHG has emerged as a major microfinance programme in the country in recent years
Their focus is largely on their rural poor, who have no substantial access to the formal
banking system.
The target group comprise of small and marginal farmers, agricultural and non agricultural
labourers, artisans,etc.
SHGs promote thrift in small proportion by a minimum contribution from each member.

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From the pooled money, credit is given to the needy member at reasonable interest rate,
which is to be repaid in small instalments.
About ₹10,000 to 15,000 per SHG and another ₹ 2.5 lakhs per SHG as a Community
Investment Support Fund (CISF)are provided as part of renovating fund to take up self-
employment for income generation such credit provisions are generally referred to as micro
credit programmes.
SHGs have also helped in the empowerment of women.However, the borrowings are
mainly confined to the consumption purpose and negligible proportion is borrowed for the
productive purposes.
Critical appraisal of rural banking
Benefits of organised agricultural credit system
(i)Availability of adequate credit to the farmers
(ii)Loans to rural population for productive needs are cheaper rate of interest from the
formal credit source
(iii)Increase in the rural farm and non farm output, income and employment in rural areas
(iv)Buffer stock has been created and food security has been achieved.
Problems faced in rural banking system
(i)Insufficiency
The growth of rural economy depends primarily on infusion of capital .Farmers need funds
due to long gestation period. However, the volume of the rural credit in the country is still
insufficient in comparison to its demand.
(ii)Dependency on informal credit system:
Due to absence of collateral, many small and marginal farmers and other rural people do
not have access to formal banking system. As a result, they are forced to depend on
informal credit system which pushed them into debt traps.
(iii)Inadequate coverage of institutional sources
The institutional credit arrangement continues to be inadequate as they have failed to
cover the entire rural farmers of the country.
(iv)Inadequate amount of sanction:
The amount of loan sanctioned to the farmers is also inadequate. As a result, farmers often
divert such loans for unproductive purposes, which dilute the very purpose of such loan.
(v)Less attention to poor or marginal farmers
Lesser attention has been given on the credit requirement of needy farmers. Due to lack of
collateral such needy farmers are generally rejected credit from bank and other
institutional sources. On the other hand, well to do farmers are getting more attention due
to better creditworthiness.
(vi)Growing overdues

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The basic reason for growing overdues is the poor repaying capacity of the farmers as a
result, credit agencies are becoming cautious to granting loans to the farmers.
Agricultural loan default rate has been chronically high. It is at least that farmers are
deliberately refusing to pay back loan. It is a threat to the smooth functioning of banking
system and need to be controlled.
Suggestions to improve the situation
(i)Banks need to change their approach from just being lenders to building up relationship
banking with the borrowers.
(ii)Farmers should also be encouraged to inculcate the habit of thrift (saving) an efficient
utilisation of financial resources.
Note:
From 28 August 2014 a scheme called “Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana”is available in
which people in India are encouraged to open bank accounts. These bank holders are also
entitled to get ₹1 to 2 lakh accidental insurance coverage and overdraft facility up to ₹
10,000 and get their wages, old age pension and other social security payments of the
government transferred to the bank accounts. There is no need to keep minimum bank
balance. More than 40 crore bank accounts have been open till now and it has indirectly
promoted thrift habit and led to efficient allocation of financial resources particularly in
rural areas. Banks have also mobile funds of more than ₹ 1,40,000 crores through these
accounts.

Tamil Nadu women in Agriculture ( TANWA)

TANWA was a project initiated in the late 1980s in Tamil Nadu to train women in the latest
agriculture techniques and in organic farming.
Encouraged women to actively participate in rising agriculture productivity and family
income.
As a Farm Women’s Group in Thiruchirapalli, run by Anthoniammal, trained woman are
successfully making and selling vermicompost and earning money from this venture.
Many other Farm women's groups are creating savings in their group by functioning like
mini bank through a micro credit system.
With the accumulated saving they promote small scale household activities like
mushroom cultivation, soap manufacturing doll making or other income generating
activities.
Agriculture marketing
It is a process that involves assembly, storage, processing, transportation, packaging,
grading and distribution of different agriculture commodities across the country.
Problems faced by farmers in agricultural marketing
• Faulty weighing and manipulation of accounts

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 • No information on price prevailing in market
• Lack of storage facilities
• In adequate transportation system or facilities.
Benefits of organised agriculture marketing system
• It gives more focus on those rural poor who have no sustainable access to the
formal banking system.
• Orderly and transparent marketing condition facilitate sale of farmers produce.
• Provision of better infrastructural facilities like roads, railways, warehouses,
godowns cold storage and processing unit etc prevent distress sale.
• It protect farmers from the exploitation of the middle men or the intermediaries.
Measures to improve agriculture marketing
1.Regulated markets: to create orderly and transparent marketing condition regulated
market have been organised with a view to protect the farmers from the malpractices of the
seller and brokers. The policy benefit farmers as well as consumers.
2.Infrastructure facilities: the government aimed to provide physical infrastructure facilities
like roads, railways, warehouses , cold storage and processing units.The current
infrastructure facilities are quite inadequate to meet the growing demand and need to be
improved.
3.Cooperative marketing: the aim of cooperative marketing is to realise fair price of farmers
product .Cooperative marketing is a system in which the farmers pull their marketable
surplus of crops and distribute the sale proceeds on the basis of each individual’s share.
Milk operators in Gujarat have been very successful in transforming the social and
economic condition of Gujarat and some other parts of the country.
Benefits of cooperative marketing to the farmers
• It improves bargaining power of farmers as they sell their product together through
one agency.
• Cooperative marketing societies help farmers in satisfying their immediate cash
requirements by providing them credit.
• Cooperative societies of often have storage facility. So farmers are not in a hurry to
sell their produce and they can wait for a better price.
• Facility of bulk transportation of agriculture produce or farmers is often cheaper and
easier.
Set back of cooperative farming
• Inadequate coverage of farmer members
• Lack of appropriate link between the marketing and the processing cooperatives
• In efficient financial management

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4.Different policy instruments :To protect the farmers the government has initiated the
following policies:
Minimum support price: To safeguard the interest of the farmers government fixed the
minimum support price of agricultural products like wheat, rice, maize, cotton sugar cane
,pulses etc. Such a price may be regarded as an offer price at which the government is
willing to buy any amount of grains from the farmers.
Maintenance of buffer stock :The Food Corporation of India purchases wheat and rice at
the procurement prices, to maintain buffer stock.Buffer stock is created in the year of
surplus production and is used during shortage. It helps to ensure regularity in supply and
stability in price.
Public distribution system: The public distribution system in our country operates through a
network of ration shops and fair price shops. Fair price shops offer essential commodities
like wheat, rice, kerosene etc. at a price below the market price, to the weaker sections of
the society.
These instruments aim to protect the income of farmers and to provide food grains at a
subsidised rate to the poor.

Emerging alternatives marketing channels

1.Origin of farmers Market:
Farmers can increase their incomes, if they directly sell their produce to consumers.As a
result, the concept of “ Farmers Market “ was started , to give boost to the small farmers by
providing them direct access to the consumers and eliminating the middlemen.Example:
(i)Apni Mandi in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
(ii)Hadaspar mandi in Pune
(iii)Rythu Bazars in Andhra Pradesh and Telengana
(iv)Uzhavar Sandies in Tamil Nadu
2.Alliance with National and Multinational Companies
Several national and multinational fast food chains are increasingly entering into contracts/
alliance with farmers.
They encourage the farmers to cultivate farm products ( vegetables/ fruits, etc. ) of desired
quality.
They provide them with not only seeds add other imports, but also assure procurement of
the produce at predecided prices.
It is argued that such arrangements will help in reducing the price risk of farmers and
expand the market for farm products.

Diversification of activities
1.Diversification of crop production- Change in cropping pattern

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2. Diversification of Productive activities-Shift of workforce from Agriculture to other allied
activities (livestock, poultry, fisheries etc.) and non agriculture sector.

Agriculture Diversification
Agriculture diversification relates to change in cropping pattern or shift of workforce from
agriculture to other allied activities.
Need for agriculture diversification reduce the risk of depending exclusively on farming.
To provide supplementally gainful employment and in realising higher level of income for
rural people to overcome poverty.
As agriculture is overcrowded, increasing labour force need to find alternative employment
opportunities.
Extension into other sectors provide supplementary gainful employment during the off
season.
(i)Diversification of crop production
• It involves a shift from single cropping system to multi cropping system.
• Diversification involves a shift in cropping pattern from food grains to cash crops.
The main aim is to promote shift from subsistence farming to commercial farming.
• In India agriculture still dominated by subsistence farming and farming give prime
importance to the cereals like wheat, rise, maize, etc in the cropping system
• Multi cropping system reduces the dependence of farmers on one or two crop as
they are engaged in growing a wide variety of crops. There is a need to encourage
farmers to take up cultivation of a wide variety of crops it will also raise their income.
• Diversification would minimise the risk reduce arising due to price fluctuation in the
crops. It would also reduce the risk occurring due to failure of monsoon.
(ii)Diversification of productive activities
• As agriculture is already overcrowded, a major proportion of the increasing labour
force need to find alternative employment opportunities and other non farm
sectors.
• It also provide alternative avenues of sustainable livelihood and would raise the
level of income.
• Non farm activities have several segments. Some segments of non farm activities
possess dynamic linkage that permit healthy growth, while others are in
subsistence, low productivity propositions.
• The dynamic sub sector include agro processing industries, food processing
industries, leather industries, tourism, etc.

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 • Those sectors which have the potential but seriously lack infrastructure and other
support, include traditional household based industries, like pottery, crafts,
handloom etc.

Non farm areas of employment

Animal husbandry
• Animal husbandry or livestock farming is that branch of agriculture which is
concerned with the breeding, rearing and caring of farm animals.
• Livestock is defined as domesticated animals raised generally in the agricultural set
up to produce labour and commodities such as cattle, goat etc.
• Under livestock farming, cattle, goats and fowls (duck, goose, etc.) are the widely
held species.
• India owns one of the largest livestock population in the world.
• Livestock production provides increased stability in income, food security,
transport, fuel and nutrition for the family, without disrupting other food producting
activities. Livestock sector provides alternative livelihood option to over 70 million
small and marginal farmers including landless labourers.
• A significant number of women also find employment in the livestock sector .
• In India, poultry account for the largest share of 61% followed by others (camels,
horses, ponies etc.) India had about 303 million cattle, including 110 million
buffaloes in the year 2019.
• There is a need for improved technology and promotion of good breeds of animals to
enhance productivity.
• Improve veterinary care and credit facilities to small and marginal farmers and
landless labourers would enhance sustainable livelihood option through livestock
production.

Silver revolution
The silver revolution is related to the immense growth of egg production in India by using
advanced methods and technologies to enhance efficient growth in poultry farming.It was
started in 1969 and it lasted for nine years and helped India become the world’s third
largest producer of egg after China and the United states.

Dairying
• Dairying is that branch of Agriculture which involves breeding, raising and utilisation
of dairy animals for the production of milk and the various dairy products processed
from it.

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 • Dairying is the business of producing, storing and distributing milk and its products.
• Due to the successful implementation of ‘Operation Flood’,India ranks first in the
world in milk production.
• Operation flood or white revolution was started by National Dairy Development
Board(NDDB) in 1970 under the expert guidance of then chairman, Dr. Verghese
Kurien.
• The objective of this programme was to create a nationwide milk grid.
• The moment for massive rise in the milk production in India is termed as white
revolution.
• Under the operation flood system, all the farmers pooled their milk produce
according to the different grades and same in processed and marketed to urban
centres through cooperatives. The farmers are assured of a fair price and income.
• Gujarat state is held as a successful story and the efficient implementation of the
milk cooperatives, which has been followed by many states.
• Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan are
major milk producing states.
• Milk, egg ,wool and other by-products are also emerging as important productive
sectors for diversification.

Fisheries
Fisheries refers to the occupation devoted to the catching, processing or selling of fish and
other aquatic animals.
1.“Fishing community regards water body as mother.”
The water bodies (sea, ocean, rivers, lakes, natural aquatic ponds, streams) are considered
as mother or provider as they provide life giving source to the fishing community.
2.Volume of fish production:
Presently, fish production from inland sources contributes about 65% to the total fish
production and the balance 35% comes from the marine sector ( sea and oceans).
3.Share of fishing in GDP: The total fish production accounts for 0.9% of the total GDP. In
India, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are
major fish producing states.
4.Women participation in Fishing :
Even though women are not involved in active fishing, still, 60% of the workforce in export
marketing and 40% in internal marketing are women.There is a need to increase credit
facilities in the form of cooperatives and SHGs for fisherwomen to meet their working
capital requirements for marketing.

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5.Problems faced in fishing:
A large share of fishworker families are poor.Some of the major problems faced by these
communities include:
• Widespread underemployment
• Low per capita earnings
• Absence of mobility of labour to other sectors
• High illiteracy rate and indebtedness
6.Blue revolution:
Blue revolution also called as Neel Kranti Mission , was launched in India in 1985-1990
during the 7th five year plan.The main objective was to develop , manage and promote
fisheries to double the income of farmers. Hiralal Chaudhuri is considered as the pioneer
of blue revolution in the world.
7.Evaluation of fishing
Problems like over-fishing and pollution need to be regulated and controlled.
Welfare programmes for the fishing community have to be reoriented in a manner , which
can provide long term gains and sustenance of livelihood.

Horticulture
Horticulture refers to the science or art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, tuber crops,
flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants, spices and plantation crops.
Horticulture plays a vital role in providing food and nutrition to the rural population.
It also addresses the problem of disguised and seasonal unemployment in the village.
India has adopted horticulture as it is blessed with a variety climate and soil condition.
1.Contribution :
Horticulture sector contributes nearly 1/3 of the value of agriculture output and 6% of the
gross domestic product of India.
2.Share in world’s production:
India has emerged as a world leader in producing a variety of fruits, like mangoes,
bananas, coconut, cashew nuts and a number of spices. Presently, India is the second
largest producer of both fruits and vegetables in the world.
3.Improvement in economic condition:
Horticulture has improved economic condition of many farmers and has become a big
mean of improving livelihood for many underprivileged classes too.
4.Great scope of women employment
Flower harvesting, nursery maintenance, hybrid seed production and tissue culture,
propagation of roots and flowers and food processing are highly remunerative employment
options for women in rural areas.
5.Golden revolution

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Golden revolution refers to the period in which there was a tremendous rise in the
production of horticultural products like fruits, vegetables, etc. The period between 1991 to
2003 is known as the period of golden revolution in India. During the period of golden
revolution, there was rapid growth in the production of horticulture crops such as
fruits,vegetables, flowers, etc.Golden revolution made India a world leader in the
production of mangoes , bananas, coconut and spices.Nirpakh Tutej is considered to be
Father of the golden revolution in India.
Horticulture has emerged as a successful sustainable livelihood option and needs to be
encouraged significantly. Enhancing its role requires investment in infrastructure, like
electricity, cold storage system, marketing linkage, small scale processing units and
technology improvement and dissemination.

Information technology

• Information technology refers to that branch of engineering that deals with the use
of computers and telecommunication to revise and store and transmit information.
• Through appropriate information and software tools, government has been able to
predict areas of food insecurity and vulnerability, to prevent or reduce the livelihood
of an emergency.
• It also has a positive impact on the agriculture sector as it circulates information
regarding emerging technologies and its applications, price, weather and soil
condition for growing different crops etc.
• It act as a tool for releasing the creative potential and knowledge embedded in the
society. It also has potential of employment generation and rural areas.
• The aim for increasing the role of information technology is to make every village
knowledge centre, where it provides a sustainable option of employment and
livelihood.

Sustainable development and organic farming

Conventional agriculture relies heavily on chemical fertilisers and pesticides etc. which
enter the food supply, penetrate the water sources, harm the livestock, deplete the soil and
devastate natural ecosystem. So efforts have been made to evolve technologies, which are
eco friendly and essential for sustainable development. One such eco friendly technology
is organic farming.
Meaning of organic farming
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation,
green manure, composed and biological pest control. This method causes less harm to the

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beneficial insects, avoids the use of synthetic chemical fertilisers and genetically modified
organisms.
Organic farming is the process of producing safe and healthy food, without leaving any
adverse impact on the environment.
In short, organic agriculture is a whole system of farming that restores, maintains an
enhance the ecological balance.
There is an increasing demand for organically grown food, to enhance food safety
throughout the world.

Benefits of organic farming

1.Economical farming
Organic farming offers a means to substitute costlier agriculture inputs (such as HYV
seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides etc.)with locally produced cheaply organic inputs.
2.Generates income through exports
It generates income through international exports as demand for organically grown crops is
on a rise.
3.Provide healthy food
It provides healthy food as organically grown food has more nutritional value than food
grown through chemical farming.
4.Source of employment
Organic farming generates more employment opportunities as it requires more labour
input than conventional farming. Due to this reason, India has comparative advantage in
organic farming because of abundance of labour.
5.Safety of environment
The produce of organic farming is pesticide free an is produced in an environmentally
sustainable way.
6.Sustains soil fertility
Organic farming improve soil fertility through the application of organic matter inputs in the
form of animal manuals, compost and farmyard manure. On the other hand, conventional
farming makes use of chemical fertilisers, which erodes soil fertility.

Challenges before organic farming

1.Less popular
Organic farming needs to be popularised by creating awareness and willingness on the part
of farmers by adoption of new technology. There is a serious need for an appropriate
agriculture policy to promote organic farming.
2.Lack of infrastructure and marketing facility
Organic farming faces problems of inadequate infrastructure and marketing facility.

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3.Low yield.
Organic farming has a lesser yield in the initial years as compared to the modern
agriculture farming. As a result, small and marginal farmers find difficult to adapt to the
large scale production.
4.Shorter food life
Organic produce has a shorter shelf life as compared to the sprayed products.
5.Limited choice of crops
The choice in production of off season crops is quite limited in organic farming.

Evaluation of rural development

The rural sector which continues to remain backward until and unless some spectacular
changes occur. Some of the changes which need to be taken for the development of rural
sector are outlined below:
1.Stress on diversification
There is a need to make rural areas more vibrant through diversification into dairying,
poultry, fisheries ,vegetables and fruits.
2.Rural and urban linkage
Effort should be made to link up the rural production centres with the urban and foreign
markets to realise higher returns on the investment for the products.
3.Better facilities
Proper efforts should be made to develop Infrastructure elements like credit and marketing
State agricultural departments
Farmer friendly agricultural policies
Constant appraisal and dialogue between farmer groups
The aim is to achieve full potential of the rural sector.
4.More emphasis on sustainable development
There is a need to invest or procure alternative sets of eco friendly technologies that lead to
sustainable development in different circumstances.

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