Environment and Ecology (BAS 104/BAS 204)

Unit: 1

➢ Definition of Environment

The environment refers to the sum of all external conditions, both living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic), that surround and influence an organism or a community. It encompasses the natural
world (air, water, soil, ecosystems, etc.) as well as the built and social environments created by
human activities. In broader terms, the environment includes the physical, biological, chemical,
and social components that interact to shape life on Earth.

In essence, the environment provides the basic resources necessary for survival, such as air,
water, food, and habitat, while also influencing the way organisms interact with each other and
with their surroundings.

Environment term is evolved from the French word "environ," meaning "surroundings."

➢ Ecology

Ecology can simply be defined as the study of habitat. Ecology is the scientific study of how
organisms interact with each other and their environment. It focuses on understanding the
relationships between living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and their
physical surroundings (such as air, water, and soil), as well as the broader ecological processes
like energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

Father of Ecology: Alexander von Humboldt

‘Ecology’ coined by: Ernst Haeckel

➢ Types of Environments

1. Natural Environment: Includes all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things occurring
naturally, such as air, water, land, and ecosystems. Examples: Forests, oceans, mountains, and
rivers.
2. Human-made (Built) Environment: Refers to environments that have been created or altered
by human activities. Examples: Cities, buildings, roads, and infrastructure.

3. Social Environment: Encompasses the cultural, economic, and political contexts that shape
human interactions. Examples: Communities, institutions, societal norms, and relationships.

➢ Components of the Environment

1. Atmosphere (Air): The gaseous layer surrounding the Earth that is essential for life. Key
Elements: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other gases.

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into five main layers, each with distinct
characteristics:

(i). Troposphere: Altitude: Surface to about 8-15 km depending on latitude. This is the lowest
layer, where all weather occurs and where humans live. Temperature decreases with altitude.
Contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and the majority of water vapour.

(ii). Stratosphere: Altitude: About 15 km to 50 km. Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs
and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation. Temperature increases with altitude due to ozone
absorption of UV radiation.

(iii). Mesosphere: Altitude: About 50 km to 85 km. This is the layer where most meteorites
burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with altitude, making it the
coldest layer.

(iv). Thermosphere: Altitude: About 85 km to 600 km. Temperature increases significantly

with altitude due to absorption of high-energy radiation from the Sun. Contains the ionosphere,
a region important for radio communication because it reflects and modifies radio waves.

(v). Exosphere: Altitude: About 600 km to 10,000 km. The outermost layer, where the
atmosphere thins into space. Contains very few particles, mostly hydrogen and helium.
Gradually transitions into the vacuum of outer space. These layers protect life on Earth by
regulating temperature, filtering harmful radiation, and providing the air we breathe.
Figure. Different layers of atmosphere.

2. Hydrosphere (Water): Includes all forms of water bodies, such as rivers, oceans, lakes, and
groundwater. Key Elements: Water cycle, freshwater, saltwater.

3. Lithosphere (Land): The Earth's solid outer layer, comprising rocks, minerals, and soil.
Key Elements: Mountains, plains, plateaus, minerals, and soils.

4. Biosphere (Life): The global ecosystem, including all living organisms and their interactions
with the abiotic environment. Key Elements: Plants, animals, microorganisms, ecosystems.
 ➢ Segments of the Environment

1. Physical Environment: Relates to the natural features of the world, such as landforms,
climate, and natural resources. Examples: Geology, climate, and soil.

2. Biological Environment: Comprises the living organisms and biological processes that
influence the ecosystem. Examples: Flora, fauna, microorganisms, and food chains.

3. Cultural Environment: Includes human interactions and cultural practices that impact the
environment. Examples: Agriculture, urbanization, industrial activities.

4. Chemical Environment: Focuses on the presence of chemical substances, pollutants, and

their effects on ecosystems and human health. Examples: Air pollution, water quality, chemical
waste.

➢ Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Environmental science is inherently multidisciplinary, as it draws on knowledge, methods, and

insights from a wide range of academic fields to understand and address complex
environmental issues. These issues often span multiple scales (local, regional, global) and
involve the interaction of physical, chemical, biological, social, and economic systems. Here
are some of the key disciplines that contribute to environmental science:

1. Biology and Ecology: Focuses on the study of living organisms and their interactions with
the environment. Ecology looks at ecosystems, biodiversity, and how species interact with each
other and their surroundings. Key concepts: food webs, habitats, biodiversity conservation,
ecosystem services.

2. Geology and Earth Sciences: Examines the Earth’s physical structure and processes,
including soil formation, plate tectonics, and mineral cycles. Helps understand natural hazards,
resource management (like fossil fuels, minerals), and the role of the geosphere in
environmental systems. Key concepts: rock cycles, soil science, earthquakes, volcanoes.

3. Chemistry: Environmental chemistry studies the chemical processes that affect air, water,
and soil quality. It helps in understanding pollution, contamination, and chemical interactions
within ecosystems. Key concepts: atmospheric chemistry, water quality, toxicology, pollution
control.

4. Physics: Helps in understanding energy flows, climate systems, and physical processes in
the atmosphere, oceans, and on land. Contributes to areas like renewable energy technology,
climate modeling, and environmental radiation. Key concepts: thermodynamics, climate
physics, energy transfer, fluid dynamics.

5. Social Sciences (Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science): Investigates the human

dimensions of environmental issues, such as policy, governance, economics, and cultural
aspects. Understanding human behavior, environmental justice, and the role of societies in
shaping environmental outcomes is crucial. Key concepts: environmental policy, sustainability,
resource management, environmental ethics.

6. Economics: Examines how economic activities impact the environment and how
environmental policies can be structured to balance development and conservation. Involves
the study of cost-benefit analysis, market-based solutions like carbon trading, and the
economics of natural resources. Key concepts: environmental economics, resource allocation,
green economy.

7. Law and Policy: Environmental law deals with the regulation and enforcement of policies
related to natural resources, pollution control, and environmental protection. The legal
framework is essential for implementing conservation efforts, climate change mitigation, and
sustainability. Key concepts: environmental regulation, international treaties, environmental
justice.

8. Geography and GIS (Geographic Information Systems): Geography helps in mapping

environmental changes, analyzing spatial data, and understanding human-environment
interactions across different regions. GIS is a powerful tool for tracking deforestation, land use
change, urbanization, and natural disasters. Key concepts: spatial analysis, land use planning,
geographic mapping.

9. Climatology and Meteorology: Focuses on the study of weather patterns, climate systems,
and long-term climate changes. Vital for understanding global warming, climate resilience, and
adaptation strategies. Key concepts: climate change, atmospheric science, weather prediction.

10. Engineering and Technology: Environmental engineering seeks to develop solutions for
environmental problems through technology, such as water purification, waste treatment, and
renewable energy systems. Integrating technological innovations can reduce pollution and
create sustainable infrastructure. Key concepts: renewable energy, sustainable design, waste
management.

11. Ethics and Philosophy: Examines the ethical dimensions of environmental decision-
making, focusing on questions of human responsibility, rights of non-human entities, and
intergenerational justice. It also addresses deep ecological perspectives, such as the intrinsic
value of nature. Key concepts: environmental ethics, biocentrism, anthropocentrism.

12. Public Health: Explores the intersection of environment and human health, examining
how pollution, climate change, and ecosystem degradation affect populations. Studies the
impacts of air and water pollution, diseases linked to environmental degradation, and how to
promote healthier environments. Key concepts: environmental health, epidemiology,
toxicology.

13. Agriculture and Soil Science: Focuses on sustainable farming practices, soil management,
and food systems that minimize environmental impact. Includes research on biochar,
agroforestry, and other innovations to improve food security and resilience. Key concepts:
sustainable agriculture, soil conservation, agroecology.

➢ Scope and Importance of Environment

1. Ecological Balance: The environment provides essential services like water purification,
oxygen production, and soil fertility, which maintain the balance of ecosystems.

2. Sustainability: Understanding environmental processes is critical for developing sustainable

practices that meet human needs without depleting natural resources.
3. Human Health: A healthy environment is fundamental to human well-being. Clean air, water,
and food resources are essential for maintaining physical health.

4. Economic Development: Natural resources such as minerals, timber, and water are vital for
economic growth. However, environmental degradation can hinder long-term economic
progress.

5. Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting the environment ensures the survival of diverse

species and ecosystems, which are crucial for ecological resilience and adaptation.

6. Climate Regulation: The environment plays a significant role in regulating the Earth's
climate, influencing weather patterns, and mitigating the effects of climate change.

Understanding the environment helps in addressing challenges such as climate change,

pollution, habitat destruction, and the sustainable management of resources.

➢ Need for Public Awareness

1. Combatting Environmental Degradation: Public awareness is critical in addressing

environmental challenges like deforestation, air and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity.
When people are informed, they can take actions that reduce negative impacts on the
environment, such as reducing waste, recycling, and supporting sustainable practices.

2. Addressing Climate Change: Climate change poses a significant threat to ecosystems,

weather patterns, and human livelihoods. Public awareness campaigns can help individuals
understand their role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and support policies that mitigate
climate change, like renewable energy adoption and energy conservation.

3. Promoting Sustainable Development: A well-informed public can push for sustainable

development practices that meet current needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet theirs. This includes supporting renewable energy, sustainable agriculture,
and conservation efforts.

4. Conserving Natural Resources: Public awareness fosters responsible consumption and

conservation of resources such as water, forests, and minerals. By understanding the finite
nature of many natural resources, individuals and communities can reduce waste and use
resources more efficiently.
5. Health and Well-being: Environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change have
direct impacts on human health. Raising awareness about the links between the environment
and health can encourage people to adopt environmentally-friendly behaviors, such as reducing
pollution and maintaining green spaces, which can improve public health outcomes.

6. Policy Advocacy and Governance: An environmentally aware public can advocate for better
environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Citizens can push governments to enforce
stricter environmental protections and hold industries accountable for their environmental
impact.

7. Protecting Biodiversity: Public understanding of the importance of biodiversity is vital for

the protection of ecosystems. Awareness encourages support for conservation efforts, such as
wildlife protection and habitat preservation, ensuring ecosystems remain balanced and
resilient.

8. Empowering Communities: Local communities are often the first to feel the effects of
environmental issues. By raising awareness, individuals and communities become empowered
to take action, initiate local conservation efforts, and participate in decision-making that affects
their environment.

9. Preventing Natural Disasters: Educating the public about environmental hazards and
sustainable land use can help mitigate the impacts of natural disasters, such as floods, droughts,
and landslides, by encouraging better preparedness and risk reduction strategies.

➢ Importance of Public Participation

Behavioural Change: Awareness leads to behavioural changes in daily practices, such as

reducing waste, saving water, and using public transport.

Collective Action: Public participation encourages collective efforts in addressing

environmental problems, such as community clean-ups, reforestation projects, and pollution
prevention.

Supporting Innovations: Informed citizens are more likely to support and invest in eco-friendly
technologies and innovations, such as electric vehicles, solar energy, and sustainable
agriculture.
In summary, public awareness is essential for fostering a collective responsibility toward
environmental stewardship, ensuring long-term sustainability, and creating a healthier planet
for future generations.

➢ Ecosystem

The term 'ecosystem' was first proposed by Sir Arthur Tansley in 1935. The ecosystem can be
recognized as a self-regulating and self-sustaining unit of landscape.

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms)

interacting with each other and their non-living environment (air, water, soil) in a specific area.
These interactions involve the flow of energy through the food chain and the cycling of
nutrients. Ecosystems can be as small as a pond or as large as a forest, and they function as a
unit where organisms rely on each other and their surroundings to survive. The balance between
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components is key to an ecosystem's sustainability and
health.

➢ Types of Ecosystems

Ecosystems are classified into different types based on their physical environment and the
dominant forms of life they support. Broadly, ecosystems can be divided into terrestrial,
aquatic, and man-made ecosystems. Here are the main types:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems (Land-based)

Forest Ecosystems: Includes tropical rainforests, temperate forests, and boreal forests (taiga).
Characterized by high biodiversity and a dense canopy of trees. Here are some examples of
different types of forests:

(i) Tropical rainforests are dense, warm, and humid forests located near the equator,
characterized by high rainfall and biodiversity. They are vital carbon sinks and
home to many species but face deforestation threats due to agriculture and logging.
The Amazon, Congo, and Southeast Asia hold some of the largest tropical
rainforests.
(ii) Temperate forests are found in regions with distinct seasons, including cold
winters and warm summers. These forests, which occur in parts of North America,
 Europe, and East Asia, have deciduous trees like oak and maple that shed leaves
seasonally, along with evergreen species.
(iii) Boreal forests, also known as taiga, span the northern hemisphere, mainly in
Canada, Russia, and Scandinavia. These forests consist of coniferous trees such as
spruce and fir, and they endure harsh, cold climates. Boreal forests play a crucial
role in the global carbon cycle.
(iv) Semi-arid regions have sparse vegetation, including grasses and drought-resistant
shrubs, due to low rainfall. Forests in these areas are often mixed with scrubland or
savannas.
(v) Mangrove forests are coastal ecosystems found in tropical and subtropical regions.
They thrive in saline environments and protect shorelines from erosion, serving as
vital habitats for marine life while also sequestering carbon.

Grassland Ecosystems: Dominated by grasses with few trees or shrubs. Found in regions with
moderate rainfall. Includes savannas and prairies. Examples: African Savanna, North American
Prairie.

Desert Ecosystems: Characterized by very low rainfall and extreme temperatures. Plants and
animals in deserts are adapted to conserve water. Examples: Sahara Desert, Gobi Desert, and
Cold Desert in Ladakh.

Tundra Ecosystems: Found in polar regions and high mountains, with cold climates and short
growing seasons. Vegetation is limited to mosses, lichens, and low shrubs. Examples: Arctic
Tundra, Alpine Tundra.
2. Aquatic Ecosystems (Water-based)

Freshwater Ecosystems: Includes rivers, lakes, ponds, and streams. Supports a variety of fish,
amphibians, aquatic plants, and microorganisms. Examples: The Great Lakes, Amazon River.

Marine Ecosystems: Includes oceans, seas, coral reefs, and estuaries. Covers about 70% of
the Earth's surface and contains a large proportion of the planet’s biodiversity. Examples: Coral
Reefs, Pacific Ocean.

Estuarine Ecosystems: Found where freshwater rivers meet the ocean, creating brackish
water. High nutrient content makes these ecosystems very productive. Examples: Chesapeake
Bay, Sundarbans Delta.

3. Man-made Ecosystems (Artificial)

Urban Ecosystems: Human-created environments that include cities, towns, and industrial
areas. These ecosystems involve complex interactions between human activities and natural
elements (e.g., parks, green spaces).

Agricultural Ecosystems: Farms, croplands, orchards, and grazing lands designed for food
production. Often less biodiverse compared to natural ecosystems due to the dominance of a
few species (monocultures).

Aquaculture Ecosystems: Human-managed aquatic environments for the cultivation of fish,

shellfish, and aquatic plants. Examples: Fish farms, shrimp farms.

4. Mountain Ecosystems

Found in high-altitude regions with varying conditions depending on altitude and slope. Hosts
distinct communities of organisms adapted to cold, rugged environments. Examples: The
Himalayas.

Each of these ecosystem types has its unique structure, climate, biodiversity, and energy flow,
all contributing to the broader functioning of the Earth's biosphere.

➢ Structure of Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a complex and dynamic system that includes living organisms (biotic
components) and their physical environment (abiotic components), interacting as a functional
unit. It operates through energy flow and nutrient cycling, with different organisms and
environmental factors playing distinct roles. Here’s a breakdown of the ecosystem structure:

1. Biotic Components (Living Organisms)

Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis
(e.g., plants, algae) or chemosynthesis (certain bacteria). They form the base of the food chain
by converting solar or chemical energy into organic compounds.

Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that consume other organisms for energy.

Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Eat producers (e.g., cows, deer).

Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Eat herbivores (e.g., lions, frogs).

Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Eat secondary consumers (e.g., eagles, sharks).

Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, bears).

Decomposers (Detritivores): Organisms like bacteria, fungi, and some insects that break
down dead plants and animals. They recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem, facilitating
nutrient cycling.

Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organic material, recycling nutrients back
into the ecosystem. They play a vital role in maintaining soil health and supporting plant
growth. Common decomposers include bacteria, fungi, and detritivores like earthworms
and certain insects.
2. Abiotic Components (Non-living Elements)

Climate and Weather: Factors such as sunlight, temperature, and precipitation that influence
living conditions and productivity.

Soil and Minerals: Provides nutrients to plants and is a habitat for many organisms.

Water: Essential for all life processes; its availability and quality determine ecosystem health.

Air: Contains gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are essential for respiration and
photosynthesis.

Nutrients: Elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium required for growth and
reproduction.
 ➢ Function of Ecosystem:

1. Energy Flow

Trophic Levels: Energy flows through different levels, starting from producers to consumers
and decomposers. At each level, energy is lost as heat, which is why energy decreases as you
move up trophic levels. A trophic level refers to the position an organism occupies in a food
chain, representing the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem.

‘Trophic level’ coined by: Raymond Lindeman

Food Chains and Webs: A food chain is a linear sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem.
A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains, showing the multiple feeding
relationships in an ecosystem.

2. Nutrient Cycling

Ecosystems recycle nutrients through biogeochemical cycles, such as:

Carbon Cycle: Involves photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion.

Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen is converted into usable forms by bacteria and returned to the
atmosphere through denitrification.

Water Cycle: Involves evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration.

 ➢ Ecological Niches and Habitats

Niche: The role or function of an organism in its ecosystem (e.g., its diet, how it reproduces,
how it interacts with others). A niche describes the role or function of an organism within its
habitat and how it interacts with other organisms and its environment.

Habitat: The physical environment where an organism lives (e.g., forest, ocean, desert).
Habitat refers to the specific environment where an organism lives. It includes all the physical
and biological factors that make up the surroundings of an organism.

Key Differences between Niche and Habitat

• Focus: Habitat focuses on the physical environment, while niche emphasizes the role
and interactions of an organism within that environment.

• Specificity: A habitat can host multiple species, each occupying a different niche,
whereas a niche is specific to a particular species or group of species.

➢ Food chain and Food Web

Food Chain: A food chain is a linear sequence that shows how energy and nutrients flow from
one organism to another. Each step in the chain is called a trophic level, starting with producers
and moving up through consumers to decomposers.

Example of a Simple Food Chain:

1. Producers (Autotrophs): Grass

2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Grasshopper

3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): Frog

4. Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): Snake

5. Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi): Break down dead organic matter.

Diagram of a Food Chain: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Decomposers

Food Web:

A food web is a more complex network of interconnected food chains. It shows the multiple
feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem. Unlike a food chain, a food web
illustrates that organisms often consume more than one type of prey and may be eaten by
multiple predators.

Example of a Food Web: In a grassland ecosystem, Grass is eaten by both grasshoppers and
rabbits. Grasshoppers are eaten by frogs and birds. Rabbits are eaten by foxes and eagles. Frogs
are eaten by snakes, which are then eaten by eagles.
Difference between the food chain and the food web:

➢ Grazing and detritus food chain:

In ecosystems, energy flows through two primary types of food chains: the grazing food chain
and the detritus food chain. Both are essential for the ecosystem's energy flow, nutrient cycling,
and maintaining ecological balance.

Grazing Food Chain: The grazing food chain starts with living green plants (producers) and
moves through herbivores (primary consumers) and various levels of carnivores (secondary
and tertiary consumers).

Energy Source: The primary source of energy is sunlight, which producers (plants) convert into
food through photosynthesis.

Example of a Grazing Food Chain:

1. Producers (Grass) → 2. Primary Consumers (Grasshopper) → 3. Secondary Consumers

(Frog) → 4. Tertiary Consumers (Snake)
Characteristics: The grazing food chain is directly dependent on the living plants as the primary
energy source. It's common in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, where herbivores graze on
plants, and then carnivores prey on herbivores.

Detritus Food Chain: The detritus food chain begins with dead organic matter (detritus) and
includes organisms that decompose this matter, like bacteria and fungi, and then organisms that
feed on decomposers.

Energy Source: The primary source of energy is the organic matter from dead organisms,
decaying plants, and waste products (detritus).

Example of a Detritus Food Chain:

1. Detritus (Dead leaves and organic material) → 2. Decomposers (Bacteria and fungi) → 3.
Detritivores (Earthworms) → 4. Secondary Consumers (Birds feeding on worms)

Characteristics: The detritus food chain is crucial for recycling nutrients back into the
ecosystem. It is less directly dependent on sunlight, as it processes energy from dead organisms
and waste. It's more significant in forest floors, soils, and aquatic sediments.

Both chains are interconnected, with some organisms participating in both. For instance,
decomposers in the detritus food chain break down dead animals that were part of the grazing
food chain.

➢ Ecological Pyramid

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationships between different

trophic levels in an ecosystem. It illustrates the structure and functioning of an ecosystem by
showing the distribution of energy, biomass, or the number of organisms across each level,
from producers to top consumers. There are three main types of ecological pyramids: pyramid
of energy, pyramid of biomass, and pyramid of numbers.

‘Ecological Pyramid’ coined by: Charles Elton

1. Pyramid of Energy: Shows the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

Structure: It is always upright, as energy decreases with each successive trophic level due to
energy loss (primarily as heat) in metabolic processes.

Energy Transfer: Only about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next
level, with the rest being lost.

Example:

- Producers (plants) → Primary consumers (herbivores) → Secondary consumers

(carnivores) → Tertiary consumers (top predators).

Key Points:

The base (producers) has the highest amount of energy.

Energy decreases as you move up the pyramid.

2. Pyramid of Biomass: Represents the total mass of living matter at each trophic level.

Structure: Usually upright in terrestrial ecosystems (more biomass at lower levels), but can be
inverted in aquatic ecosystems (where producers like phytoplankton have less biomass but
support larger masses of consumers).
Example: In a forest, trees (producers) have a higher biomass than herbivores (deer), which in
turn have more biomass than carnivores (wolves).

Key Points: In aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid may appear inverted due to rapid reproduction
of phytoplankton (producers).

3. Pyramid of Numbers: Illustrates the number of individual organisms at each trophic level.

Structure: Typically, upright, but can be inverted in ecosystems where large producers (like
trees) support numerous herbivores.

Example: A single tree (producer) may support many herbivores (insects), which in turn are
prey for fewer carnivores (birds).

Key Points: The pyramid may be inverted in ecosystems with large producers and many small
consumers (e.g., one large tree supporting many insects).

Figure. Pyramid of numbers.

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:

1. Simplification: They often oversimplify complex ecosystems, ignoring interactions like

competition, predation, and symbiosis.

2. Dynamic Nature: Ecosystems are dynamic and change over time. Pyramids may not reflect
seasonal changes or fluctuations in populations.

3. Trophic Levels: Some species exist at multiple trophic levels, making it difficult to assign
them a single position in the pyramid.

4. Non-Linear Relationships: The relationships between different trophic levels are not always
linear, and the transfer of energy or biomass can vary significantly.

5. Size and Weight: A small number of large organisms (e.g., apex predators) can appear to
dominate biomass, while many smaller organisms contribute significantly to ecosystem
functioning.

6. Exclusion of Microorganisms: Many pyramids focus on larger organisms, potentially

neglecting the role of microorganisms, which are crucial decomposers.

7. Geographical Variation: Pyramids may vary significantly across different ecosystems,

making broad comparisons difficult.

These limitations suggest that while ecological pyramids are helpful tools, they should be used
alongside other ecological models for a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystems.

➢ Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over
time. It involves a series of changes in the species composition and community structure of an
area, following either natural or human-induced disturbances. Succession occurs in stages,
starting with pioneer species and progressing toward a more stable and complex ecosystem
known as a climax community.

Ecological succession can be divided into two main types: Primary succession and secondary
succession

1. Primary Succession: Primary succession occurs in an area where no previous ecosystem

existed, typically in places devoid of soil or organic material, such as Bare rock exposed by a
retreating glacier, Newly formed volcanic islands, Sand dunes, Areas of land where lava has
cooled and solidified.

Process of Primary Succession:

Step 1: Colonization by Pioneer Species

Step 2: Soil Formation

Step 3: Intermediate Species Establishment

Step 4: Climax Community

2. Secondary Succession

Secondary succession occurs in areas where a disturbance has destroyed an existing ecosystem
but left the soil intact. Examples include: Areas after forest fires, Abandoned agricultural fields,
After floods, hurricanes, or human activities like logging.

Process of Secondary Succession:

Step 1: Disturbance:

Step 2: Colonization by Pioneer Species:

Step 3: Intermediate Species Establishment:

Step 4: Climax Community:

➢ Ecosystem Resistance and Resilience

Ecosystem resistance and ecosystem resilience are two important concepts in ecology that
describe how ecosystems respond to disturbances and stressors. They both relate to the stability
of ecosystems but in different ways.

Ecosystem Resistance

Ecosystem resistance refers to the ability of an ecosystem to remain unchanged when

subjected to disturbances or external pressures. It describes how well an ecosystem can resist
the impacts of disturbances, such as natural disasters (fires, floods, droughts) or human
activities (pollution, deforestation, urbanization).
 • High resistance means the ecosystem can absorb or withstand disturbances without
significant changes in structure, function, or species composition.

• Low resistance indicates that even small disturbances may cause major shifts in the
ecosystem.

Ecosystem Resilience

Ecosystem resilience refers to the ability of an ecosystem to recover after a disturbance. It

measures how quickly and effectively an ecosystem can return to its original state, structure,
and function following a disruption.

• High resilience means an ecosystem can bounce back quickly after being disturbed,
restoring its original functions and species composition.

• Low resilience indicates that an ecosystem may take a long time to recover or may
never fully return to its previous state.

➢ Stable Ecosystem

A balanced ecosystem is one in which all components, both biotic (living organisms) and
abiotic (non-living elements), interact in such a way that they maintain a stable and sustainable
environment. In a balanced ecosystem, the populations of different species are regulated
naturally, and the system can sustain itself over time without human intervention.

Key Features of a Balanced Ecosystem:

1. Energy Flow

2. Nutrient Cycling:

3. Stable Populations:

4. Biodiversity

Examples of Balanced Ecosystems:

1. Tropical Rainforest: High biodiversity with complex food webs, stable nutrient cycling, and
energy flow make tropical rainforests some of the most balanced and resilient ecosystems on
Earth.
2. Coral Reefs: Coral reefs, with their symbiotic relationships between corals and algae, and
their high diversity of fish and marine life, exemplify a balanced marine ecosystem.

➢ Environmental Impact Assessment

▪ Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely

environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-
related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and
adverse.

▪ UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the
environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It
aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design,
find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local
environment and present the predictions and options to decision-makers.

▪ Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutorily backed by the Environment

Protection Act, 1986 which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and
process.

▪ On 27 January 1994, the then Union Ministry of Environment and Forests, under the
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, promulgated an EIA notification making
Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for expansion or modernisation of any
activity or for setting up new projects listed in Schedule 1 of the notification.

▪ In 1997 public hearing was made mandatory in the EIA process.

▪ Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has decentralized the

environmental clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two
categories, i.e., Category A (national level appraisal), Category B1 (state level
appraisal), and Category B2 do not require EIA.

▪ Category A projects are appraised at the national level by the Impact

Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC)
and Category B1 projects are apprised at the state level.
 ▪ State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and
State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are constituted to
provide clearance to the Category B1 process.

The EIA Process

EIA involves the steps mentioned below. However, the EIA process is cyclical with interaction
between the various steps.

▪ Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of
development and if the project needs statutory clearance.

▪ Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and
need for monitoring.

▪ Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of study area.

▪ Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary
and permanent impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a good understanding
of the project by the assessment agency.

▪ Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and
steps for preventing, minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of
compensation for probable environmental damage or loss.

▪ Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups
living close to project site may be informed and consulted.

▪ Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the
project-in-charge along with consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA
and EMP (Environment Management Plan).

▪ Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various

phases of implementation of the project are monitored.

▪ Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation Measures and

Environmental Impact Assessment Report: For every project, possible alternatives
should be identified, and environmental attributes compared. Alternatives should cover
both project location and process technologies.
 o Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn up for
the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management
Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements.

▪ Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability and index also form part
of EIA procedures.

B1 B2
Shortcomings of EIA Process:

▪ Applicability: There are several projects with significant environmental impacts that
are exempted from the notification either because they are not listed in schedule I, or
their investments are less than what is provided for in the notification.

▪ Composition of expert committees and standards: It has been found that the team
formed for conducting EIA studies is lacking the expertise in various fields such as
environmentalists, wildlife experts, Anthropologists and Social Scientists.

▪ Public hearing:

o Public comments are not considered at an early stage, which often leads to
conflict at a later stage of project clearance.

o A number of projects with significant environmental and social impacts have

been excluded from the mandatory public hearing process.

o The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous knowledge of local
people.

▪ Quality of EIA: One of the biggest concerns with the environmental clearance process
is related to the quality of EIA report that are being carried out.

▪ Lack of Credibility: There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies where
erroneous data has been used, same facts used for two totally different places etc.

▪ Often, and more so for strategic industries such as nuclear energy projects, the EMPs
are kept confidential for political and administrative reasons.

o Details regarding the effectiveness and implementation of mitigation measures

are often not provided.

o Emergency preparedness plans are not discussed in sufficient details and the
information is not disseminated to the communities.
 ➢ Effects of Human Activities such as Food, Shelter, Housing, Agriculture, Industry,
Mining, Transportation, and Economic and Social Security on the Environment

Human activities such as food production, shelter and housing development, agriculture,
industry, mining, transportation, and the pursuit of economic and social security have
significant effects on the environment. These activities contribute to environmental degradation
in various ways:

1. Food Production and Agriculture

Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture often leads to deforestation, which reduces
biodiversity and contributes to global warming by increasing carbon dioxide levels in the
atmosphere.

Soil Degradation: Overgrazing, monoculture farming, and excessive use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides degrade soil quality and reduce its fertility.

Water Pollution: Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides contaminates rivers, lakes, and
groundwater, harming aquatic ecosystems.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Industrial farming, particularly livestock production, is a major

source of methane and other greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change.

Overuse of Water: Irrigation practices in agriculture can deplete freshwater resources and lead
to the salinization of soil.

2. Shelter and Housing Development

Urban Sprawl: Expanding urban areas consume natural habitats and agricultural land, leading
to habitat loss and biodiversity reduction.

Energy Consumption: Building and maintaining homes require large amounts of energy, often
from fossil fuels, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.

Waste Generation: Construction and household waste create landfills and pollution,
contributing to environmental degradation.

3. Industry

Air and Water Pollution: Industries emit pollutants like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution, acid rain, and climate change.
Industrial wastewater and chemicals also contaminate water bodies.
 Resource Depletion: Many industries rely on the extraction of raw materials, leading to the
depletion of natural resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, and water.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Heavy industries, including manufacturing and construction, are
significant contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions.

4. Mining

Land Degradation: Mining alters landscapes and can cause deforestation, soil erosion, and
loss of biodiversity.

Water Contamination: The process often leads to heavy metal contamination of water bodies,
harming ecosystems and human health.

Air Pollution: Dust and emissions from mining operations contribute to air pollution, affecting
both local and global air quality.

5. Transportation

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels for cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships
releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Air Pollution: Emissions from vehicles contribute to smog, acid rain, and health problems
such as respiratory diseases.

Habitat Fragmentation: Roads, railways, and airports fragment ecosystems, making it harder
for wildlife to migrate and survive.

6. Economic and Social Security Activities

Overconsumption: Economic growth often leads to increased consumption of resources,

contributing to unsustainable use of land, water, and energy.

Waste Generation: The pursuit of material wealth leads to excessive waste production,
contributing to pollution and landfill overuse.

Inequitable Resource Distribution: Disparities in resource use between rich and poor
exacerbate environmental degradation in developing areas, where unsustainable practices may
be necessary for survival.

7. Climate Change
The cumulative effects of these activities contribute significantly to climate change, which in
turn affects ecosystems, weather patterns, sea levels, and biodiversity. Increased temperatures,
changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are all linked to human
activities that impact the environment.

➢ Sustainable development

Sustainable development refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is an approach to development that
balances economic growth, environmental preservation, and social well-being.

The concept of sustainable development was popularized by the Brundtland Commission in

1987 in the report "Our Common Future," which laid out the framework for balancing
environmental sustainability with economic and social progress.

Sustainable development in the context of Stockholm often refers to the principles outlined in
the Stockholm Declaration, which emerged from the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (UNCHE) or Stockholm conference in 1972. This conference was a pivotal
moment in the global environmental movement, emphasizing the need for sustainable
management of natural resources, environmental protection, and the importance of public
participation in decision-making processes.

Key Pillars of Sustainable Development

1. Environmental Sustainability: Focuses on the preservation of natural resources and

ecosystems. Ensures that development does not degrade the environment or deplete resources
faster than they can be regenerated. Involves measures to combat climate change, protect
biodiversity, reduce pollution, and manage resources such as water, soil, and forests
sustainably. Promotes the use of renewable energy sources (e.g., solar, wind, hydro), energy
efficiency, and sustainable land use.

2. Economic Sustainability: Refers to supporting long-term economic growth without

negatively impacting social, environmental, and cultural aspects of the community. Encourages
inclusive economic growth that reduces poverty, creates jobs, and improves living standards
while ensuring that resources are not overexploited. Involves practices like sustainable
agriculture, green technologies, and promoting industries that do not harm the environment.
Involves the efficient use of financial resources to ensure resilience to economic shocks and
market fluctuations.

3. Social Sustainability: Focuses on creating fair, equitable, and just societies where people
have access to basic needs like healthcare, education, and shelter. Ensures that development
leads to social equity, eliminating poverty, and reducing inequalities between different groups
in society. Promotes gender equality, labor rights, social inclusion, cultural preservation, and
the empowerment of marginalized communities. Supports strong institutions that uphold
justice, human rights, and governance structures that are transparent and accountable.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals outline a global agenda to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all by 2030. Key SDGs include:

Principles of Sustainable Development

1. Intergenerational Equity: Development should not deplete resources or damage ecosystems

in a way that deprives future generations of opportunities to thrive.
2. Precautionary Principle: When an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to
the public or environment, the burden of proof falls on those advocating for the action, even if
scientific evidence is not conclusive.

3. Polluter Pays Principle: Those who produce pollution should bear the costs of managing it,
to prevent damage to human health or the environment.

4. Intra-generational Equity: Promotes fairness among different groups within the current
generation, ensuring that wealth and resources are shared more equitably.

5. Integration: Sustainability requires the integration of economic, environmental, and social

aspects into decision-making processes at all levels.

Challenges to Sustainable Development

1. Climate Change

2. Resource Depletion

3. Biodiversity Loss

4. Social Inequalities

5. Economic Disparities

6. Political Instability

Strategies for Promoting Sustainable Development

1. Adopting Green Technologies

2. Sustainable Agriculture

3. Circular Economy

4. Policy and Governance

5. Community Involvement

6. Education and Awareness