Water Resources

MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059) O LEVEL BMI 03336610587
Water Resources
Resources
 Resources are defined as a means of meeting a need particularly an economic or social
need of the people. The term usually refers to natural resources like land, water air.
 Natural resources are largely unchanged materials of the land that are valuable to people
and used in a variety of ways
Types of Natural Resources
Renewable Non-renewable
Continuous so that they can be used It occurs in limited quantity and if their
repeatedly, water, sunlight, wind power use continues they will run out
and tidal power etc.
Fossil fuels
Sustainable, vegetation, soil and landscape Minerals and metallic
Non-metallic
Hydrological Cycle
Precipitation
Water is a natural resource. The water reaches the ground from the atmosphere falls in
various ways such as rain, snow or hail. All these are included in the term
precipitation. The water is utilized by the people, plants etc.
Condensation
Water is returned to the atmosphere as water vapour through evaporation from surface
water and by transpiration from plants. Rising into the atmosphere the water vapour
cools to form water droplets and this system is called condensation.
This cycle is called the Hydrological cycle
River Systems in Pakistan

Two main river systems in Pakistan
 The Indus System
 Rivers of Balochistan
The Indus System (3180 km long)
 The Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum are the main Eastern tributaries of the Indus
 River Swat, Kabul, the Tochi, Kurram and Gomal are its Western tributaries
Rivers of Balochistan
The drainage pattern of the rivers of Balochistan
 Quetta being a high-altitude region has the central position in the drainage pattern of
Balochistan
 Rivers like the Zhob, Khandar and the Kalachi drain into River Indus
 The rivers Loralai, Chakar, Bolan and Mula are absorbed into the Kachhi Sibi Plain
 The rivers Hab, Porali, Hingol and Mashkel drain into the Arabian Sea
Importance of Rivers to Pakistan
1. Add to the scenic beauty of the area. Good picnic resorts
2. Provide water to even those areas where rainfall is extremely low, south-eastern and
southern Sindh
3. Help to generate hydro-electricity in mountainous areas
4. Increases fertility of the land by carrying alluvium and organic matter
5. Fishing is practiced in rivers and lakes
6. Provide water for domestic and industrial purposes
7. Supply water for irrigation by the canals leading out from dams and barrages
Ground Water
 In Pakistan ground water resources are exploited by shallow wells, tubewells and the
Karez system
 The water table has seasonal and regional fluctuations, it falls in the dry season and
higher in the rainy season
 Ground water can be sweet and saline. It is not saline near the sources of recharge like
rivers and major canals
Use of Water
Domestic Use of Water
 Drinking
 Cooking
 Washing
 Sanitation
Industrial use of Water
 Pharmaceutical Industry for injections, syrups and drips
 Tanning Industry for washing and dyeing
 Food Processing Industry, for Juices, squashes, syrups and beverages
 Chemical Industry, for making acids, liquid bleaches and solutions
 Textile Industry for washing, bleaching, blueing, dyeing and printing
 Mineral water Industry, water is the only component that is further processed for
drinking
 Iron and steel industry, to cool down the furnace for making steel
 Thermal Power stations, to produce steam that make the turbines move
 Hydro-electric Power stations
Agricultural use of Water
Irrigation
 Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to the land to encourage plant growth
 It is very important in arid regions but is also used in many humid regions to improve
yields
 In Pakistan about 75% of the cultivated area is under irrigation
 The irrigation system of Pakistan has developed from traditional lift irrigation to the
complex canal system
Need for irrigation
 High variability in distribution of rainfall
 Long dry spells
 Rainfall in heavy showers increases surface run-off
 High variability in timings of rainfall
 Small number of rainy days
 High rate of evapo-transpiration
 Low amount of rainfall

Factors Leading to Development of the Canal Irrigation System in Pakistan
 Soft soil and level land of the Indus Plain makes digging of canals easier than in the
rugged lands of Balochistan
 Southward slope of the rivers makes construction of canal easier because water flows
southwards naturally
 Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting of snow can be stored in
reservoirs during summer season
 Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams and
barrages
 Canal system irrigates a vast area. Even the deserts have been made productive
 Cheap labour and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction
Development of the Irrigation System in Pakistan
The irrigation system in Pakistan has developed from a conventional well system to the present
day perennial canals and tubewells
Conventional Systems
Irrigation System in
Pakistan
Modern Systems
Conventional Systems
Conventional
Systems
Shaduf Persian Tank Inundation

Charsa Karez
Wheel Irrigation Canal
Shaduf
 In this system water is drawn from a well, river or canal by a bucket which is attached
to a pole on one side and weight on the other side.
 A small area can be irrigated by this method
Charsa
 In this method animal power is used to pull water from the well.
Persian Wheel
 It is powered by blindfolded bullock.
 It turns a horizontal wooden wheel geared to a vertical wheel at the distant end of the
shaft. This carries the vertical metal wheel in the left foreground, to which is attached
a chain of earthenware pots
 The pots raise water from the well and spill their contents into the channel that leads to
the field
Karez
 A Karez is a horizontal underground canal in the foothills that brings underground water
to the surface. It can be several km long
 Vertical shafts are also dug down to the canal so that it can be cleared and repaired to
prevent any blockage in the flow of water
 This is an old system practiced only in Balochistan where water id scarce and the
evaporation rate is high
Inundation Canal
 Long canals taken off from large rivers are called inundation canals
 They receive water when the river is high enough and especially when it is in flood
 A diversion channel is a narrow version of an inundation canal. They are common in
highland where they divert water from the rivers in narrow channels
Tank Irrigation
 Tank irrigation is practiced by constructing mud banks across small streams to make a
small reservoir which collect excess water during the rainy season
Effectiveness of Conventional Methods of Irrigation

Advantages Disadvantages
On small scale subsistence farms the charsa Irrigates limited areas of land
or Persian wheel are useful Require manual labour or animals and are
time consuming
Are difficult to build, maintain and use
Inundation canals only flow during rainy
periods
Modern Systems
Modern Systems
Sprinkler or
Perennial
Tubewells Spray Tankers
Canals
Irrigation
Perennial Canals
 They are linked to dams and barrages to provide water throughout the year and irrigate
the vast area
 They can be used to control floods and HEP development
Tubewells
 These are diesel or electrically operated pumps that can raise water from the depth of
92 meters or more to irrigate farms of more than 1000 hectares
 These also help to lower the water-table thereby protecting the land from waterlogging
and salinity
Sprinkler or Spray Irrigation
 Sprinklers are connected to public water supply pipes and are centrally placed in fields
to water the plants
 They are used mainly in orchards and market gardening
 Less water wastage in this method

 It prevents waterlogging and salinity
Tankers
 Tankers collect water from the ponds and lakes and provide it to households and fields
in case of emergency
 This method is v expensive and is rarely used for irrigation
Indus Water Treaty 1960
 It was signed to settle water dispute between India and Pakistan with the help of the
World Bank in September 1960
 Under this treaty Pakistan got exclusive rights to the water of the three western rivers
Indus, Jhelum and Chenab
 India got the water of eastern rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej
 Pakistan would construct two storage dams, five barrages one gated syphon and eight
link canals during transitional period (1960-75)
 The following were constructed,
Dams, Mangla Dam and Tarbela Dam
Barrages, Chashma, Rasul, Marala and Qadirabad
Link Canals, Marala-Ravi, Chashma-Jhelum etc.
Mangla Dam
 It is located on the River Jhelum and one of the longest (3100 metres at the crest) earth
filled dams in the world
 It is a multipurpose project designed to control and conserve the flood-waters of the
Jhelum for irrigation and to generate hydro-electric power
 It is also a tourist resort
Tarbela Dam
 It is built on the Indus at Bara near the village of Tarbela
 It is 143 m high and has reservoir area of 243 sq km
 It is the world’s largest earth-filled dam
Irrigation projects in Pakistan
Project Location
Tarbela Dam River Indus
Mangla Dam River Jhelum
Rawal Dam River Kurrang
Khanpur Dam River Haro
Uses of Small and Large Dams in Pakistan

Small Dams Large Dams
Store water for irrigation Store water for irrigation
Irrigate local areas only Irrigates a vast area
Silting problem is easier to solve Supply water for industrial and domestic use
Maintenance cost is low Major suppliers of HEP

Less important for flood control More important for flood control
Small dams have little impact on rivers, Have extensive impacts on rivers,
watersheds and aquatic ecosystem watersheds and aquatic ecosystem
Siltation in Reservoirs
 When the river leaves the foothills of the Himalayas they carry a large quantity of silt.
 This is deposited in the plains of Punjab and Sindh
 It is a menace that can destroy the purpose of dams and barrages by filling the reservoirs
with silt
Siltation
Causes Effects
Abundance of silt eroded from the Blockage of canals because silt
Karakoram, Hindu Kush and accumulates
Himalayan mountains
Weakens the foundation of dams
Deforestation
Choking of irrigation canals
Rivers from narrow and deep valleys in
mountainous areas Reduced capacity of reservoir and less
flow of water affects the generation of
hydro-electric power
Results in less availability of water for

irrigation
Preventive Measures to control Siltation

1. Large scale afforestation especially on the foothills of the Himalayas
2. Cemented embankment of canals to make cleaning easier
3. Installation of silt trap before the water flows to the dams
4. Regulating the flow of water such as operating the reservoir at lower level during flood
and allowing free flow during low flow season for sluicing sediments from the reservoir
5. Raising height of the dam to increase the capacity of the reservoir
Waterlogging and Salinity

 The rise of the water-table to the surface level is called waterlogging
 The appearance of salty patches is called salinity
 These are outcomes of canal irrigation in Pakistan
Measures to control waterlogging and salinity
 A detailed plan was framed in 1959 to solve the problem of waterlogging and salinity
which divided the Indus Basin into 28 zones of reclamation
 This plan is called SCARP
1. Lining of canals to control seepage of water
2. Canal closure on temporary basis so that water passes through only when needed for
irrigation purposes
3. Installing tubewells to lower the water-table and to provide extra water to flush out salts
from the soil
4. Planning eucalyptus trees because their roots go deep into the ground and absorb water
from the water table
5. Surface drain to divert surface water to nearby river or lake
SCARP
 Salinity Control and Reclamation Project
 WAPDA was given the responsibility to carry out the projects
 Tubewells and surface drains were used to lower the water-table and
flush out salt from the soil
 SCARP has been partly successful in reclaiming some of the land
 However, a large area in Punjab and Sindh is still uncultivable due to
waterlogging and salinity
Climate Change
Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface
temperatures on Earth. An overwhelming scientific consensus maintains that climate
change is due primarily to the human use of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases into the air
Effects of Climate Change on the lives and Economy

1. Shortage of water supply affecting food production, agricultural raw material
and export industries
2. Flooding in low-lying coastal areas due to a rising sea-level may destroy homes
of millions of people
3. Droughts in arid and semi-arid regions leading to starvation, death and
migration of people from the drought-stricken areas
4. Effects on health of millions of people with diseases associated with air
pollution, floods and droughts
5. Increase in internal and external migration due to rise in rural poverty
How to Adapt to Climate Change

1. Conservation of water resources and fair distribution of water among provinces
2. A vigorous campaign to conserve and plant mangrove trees in the coastal areas
to reduce the effects of coastal flooding
3. Development of cottage and small-scale industries to reduce dependence on
agriculture in rural areas. This will generate income for the farmers and check
internal and external migration
4. Introduction of drought-resistant species to reduce dependence on rainfall and
other water sources and the desalination of sea-water
5. A major shift in dependence of the economy from agriculture or agro-based
industries to manufacturing sector to generate reliable income
6. Strict implementation of an environmental protection plan
Study Fig. 4 which shows an irrigation system.
Name the irrigation system shown in Fig. 4.[1]

Karez
Name an area of Pakistan where it is used. [2]
Balochistan
Kech Valley / Turbat /Miri / Sharak
Explain how this system provides water for agriculture in this area. [4]
 rain falls in mountains drains to the foothills

 sinks into ground
 groundwater
 travels in tunnels underground canals reaches surface
Explain how soils are damaged by waterlogging and
salinity. [4]
 Caused by too much irrigation water
 Misuse of water by illiterate farmers

 Seeps from canals
 Water table rises / soil become too wet
 Water rises upwards carrying salts
 Evaporates causing salinity
 Hard crust forms / salt patches
 Salt poisons crops / crops die
 Roots cannot breathe in waterlogged soil
Explain three reasons, other than by waterlogging and salinity, why over half the land
was not cultivated when the survey was made [6]
 Pasture - grazing
 Fallow – to allow soil to rest

 Low rainfall / away from canals / desert –infertile, plants cannot grow, no soil
 Mountains – steep slopes / lack of soil (accept rugged)
 Forest – need for
 Rivers – may flood
 Residential / housing - for large population
 Industry – factories need large space
 Commercial – eg. city centres
 Mineral extraction – plus waste
 Pollution – crops die
 Roads, railways, airports – for communication
 Damage – eg. deforestation, pollution Wasted by landlords
To what extent could government action increase agricultural production in
Pakistan? [6]
Possibilities
 Improve education eg. model farms, travelling advisors, training centres,
colleges
 Loans eg. for machinery, HYV, fertiliser
 Subsidies eg. for imported machinery, fertiliser prices lower
 More fertiliser / pesticides factories or imports
 More machinery factories or imports
 Land reforms eg. consolidation
 Improve water availability eg. reservoirs, canals
 Cure of waterlogging and salinity eg. SCARP
 Weather forecasts
 Media eg. radio, TV
Problems
 Lack of money
 Illiteracy
 High population
 Other calls on government investment / attention

 Fears of unemployment due to mechanisation
 Land reforms may fail due to corruption / power of landlords
Barrages have resulted in changes in both the Upper and Lower Indus Plains.
Name an example of a barrage. [1]

Balloki Kotri
Chashma Sukkur
Guddu Panjnad
Islam Jinnah
What is the main purpose of a barrage and how is this purpose achieved?
[3]
Main purpose:
To provide water for irrigation/arable
farming/crops
How purpose is achieved:
 Gates closed
 The barrage backs up/stores water behind it/holds the water back
 Canals/link canals take water and distribute it into a network of smaller canals
 Link canals take water from western rivers to eastern rivers

Briefly describe the changes that have taken place in the land use of the Lower Indus
plain as a result of building barrages. [3]
 Large areas (previously desert) are cultivated/agriculture
 developed especially Western Bahawalpur district
 Bananas/cotton/dates/mangoes/oilseeds/pulses/rice/sugarcane/ wheat
 Led to an increase in land used for settlement
 Reduction in crop acreage (recently due to water taken out from barrages in
Upper Indus Plain)
 Waterlogged/saline areas (due to poor management of irrigation)
The sketch map, Fig. 4, gives some information about the Warsak Dam.
-
Name the river across which the Warsak dam was built. [1]
Kabul
Using Fig. 4 and your own knowledge, explain why this is a good site for a
dam. [4]
 Narrow and deep gorge/valley
 Reduces amount of materials required for dam/expense
 Increases storage capacity
 Provides high head of water for hydel
 Solid rocks to support weight of dam
 On river with very large water discharge to provide water for storage or to drive
turbines
 Impervious rock to prevent seepage/reduce loss
 High precipitation/rainfall/snowfall
 Low evaporation rates/low temperatures
 Low population
Using Fig. 4 and your own knowledge, explain why it was so expensive to build the
dam and power station and to provide irrigation water. [3]
 Large size of project
 No access to site/new road had to be built
 New bridge had to be built
 So that heavy machinery/etc could be brought in
 Tunnels had to be constructed to distribute irrigation water
 Need for workers
 Cost of trained/professional workers
 Cost of settlement for workers
 Lack of power supply
 Cost of transport/power lines
 Cost of suitable building materials
 Complex planning/difficult scheme

 Cost of machinery/equipment
Name the farming area served by irrigation water from the Warsak reservoir. [1]
 Vale of Peshawar/any part of the Vale
 Kabul Valley
How is electricity produced in power stations such as Warsak and how is it
transmitted to cities like Peshawar? [4]
How produced:
 Water from reservoir/water from dam/head of water rushes down/passes through
dam steep
 Drives (hydro) turbines which turns shaft rapidly inside generator/works
generator within a magnetic field
How transmitted:
 From transformer at hydel/HEP station which controls the voltage/stabilises the
electricity onto national grid/power lines/cables wires which is a network (of
wires)/booster stations
 Overhead and/or underground
 Onto local/city supply grid
Read the following extract from “Dawn – Economic and Business Review”,
Give three reasons for the high cost of power from thermal power stations in
Pakistan. [3]
 Natural gas expensive/price competition with other users
 Oil is expensive/expensive to import oil
 Independent power stations charge higher prices
 Inefficient machinery in power plants/high maintenance costs
 Cost of power lines/transmission
 Cost of technology
 Theft
Suggest one reason why power stations frequently break down. [1]
 Machinery is old/poorly maintained
 Increased strain/high demands
 Silt from reservoir entering HEP turbines
Other than the ‘frequent break downs at the power stations’, why is the supply of
power ‘unsteady’? [2]
 Breakage of wires (on grid)/long transmission lines
 Illegal tapping into supply/theft
 Demand exceeds supply/increasing demand
 Power sharing/shedding practiced
 Less Hydro Electric Power in winter
How factories try to overcome the problem of unreliable electricity supply
from the national grid? Why is it important for them to do so? [4]
How:
 Private power stations
 Have standby generators
 Use of alternative sources e.g. Solar/biogas
Why?
 Interrupted production
 products being made can be spoilt
 causes inefficient use of machinery/labour
 Interrupts supply to market …
 May lose market/sales
 Profits fall/loss in income
 Damages machinery
The water of the Hunza and other rivers from the Northern Areas is used to
irrigate farmland in the Punjab. Explain how the flow of water is controlled. [5]
 Dams/barrages (name them) built to control/hold back flow in spring
 Water allowed out at a controlled rate later in year
 Embankments/Levees
 Gates/sluices to control water into canals/fields
Name two large dams and the river on which each is built. [2]
 Tarbela on river Indus
 Mangla on river Jhelum
 Warsak on river Kabul
Why do the reservoirs of these dams hold very large quantities of water? [3]
 Deep valley/large valley/high dam
 Steep sides
 Large river/permanent flow/water from snowfields/glaciers
 Low evaporation/cool climate,
 High rainfall
Why is HEP (hydel) a cheap source of electricity? [2]
 Free raw material/rain in mountains
 Will never run out/renewable
 Not imported/mined/drilled
 Efficient/high power output
What problems occur when supplying electricity from reservoirs to areas of

high population? [3]
 Long distance to areas of use/high population
 Cost of wires and poles/difficult terrain/Pakistan cannot
afford this/shortage of money
 Loss by damage
 Loss by theft
 Loss of power by resistance/transmission
Study Photograph 0f Persian Well
With reference to the photograph, explain how this machine is used for water
supply. [3]
 Worked by animal or man power
 Using wooden shaft / pole / log
 Turns horizontal wheel / a wheel rotates
 Which is attached to vertical wheel
 With buckets / cups to raise water
 Water goes into trough / pipe / channel
What are the advantages and disadvantages of replacing this Persian
Wheel with a Tube well? [4]
Advantages of tube well
 More efficient / faster / does not need to rest
 For larger area / more water / goes deeper
 Regular supply / can be used at any time of year / continuous
 Less labour required
 Cleaner water
 Reduces waterlogging and salinity

Disadvantages of tube well
 Expensive / cannot be used by poor
 farmers need fuel /electricity
 Reduces groundwater / lowers water table
Why is there not enough water supply from canals to meet the needs of all users?
[4]
 Shortage of rainfall
 High evaporation rate
 Less river water / restrictions by India / more dams on rivers
 Problem of tail-ender / canal system does not reach all those who need it
 Siltation in reservoirs / canals
 Seepage / leakage from canals
 Wastage by users / some use more than they need
Explain why waterlogging and salinity of soils causes problems to farmers. [4]
 Reduces cultivable area / makes land un-usable
 Reduces yield / damages crops
 Expensive to reclaim land
 Water table rises / water collects on the surface
 Fertilisers add to salts in water, Salts left behind / form a hard crust on surface,
Soil becomes infertile / toxic
With reference to examples, explain some of the causes of this pollution, and why it
is a major problem to the people who rely on this water supply [6]
Causes
 Explanation of Human waste e.g. because no sanitation / untreated sewage
 Industrial waste e.g. dumping in rivers
 Litter / plastic/paper e.g. because no organised collection
 Oil spills e.g. from washing of tanks / ship breaking
 Agricultural runoff e.g. because of use of chemicals / fertilisers and
 insecticides
Problems
 Not for drinking / poisonous / contaminates groundwater
 Cost of treatment
 Causes disease risk of cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea, hepatitis, dysentery etc.
 Not for food processing (e.g. fish canning)
What are perennial canals, and why are they better for farming than inundation
canals? [3]
 Canals that supply water throughout the year from dams/barrages.
 Better because Water always available when needed
 Can be better controlled
 Reliable/do not depend on the weather
How may irrigation damage the soil? [3]

 Causes water-logging and salinity
 Groundwater rises/swamps formed
 Salts added to soil by groundwater
 Evaporation leaves salts on surface
 Hard crust formed
 Soil not properly flushed out/shortage of canal water
How may this damage be overcome? [6]
Water-logged/wet soil
 Concrete linings to canals
 Closure of canals when not needed/regulate flow
 Planting trees e.g. Eucalyptus
 Tubewells used to lower water table
 Surface drains
 Lower canal water levels
Study Photograph B (Insert), which shows an area in Hyderabad District damaged by
waterlogging and salinity.
Describe the appearance of the area S in Photograph B. [3]

 Bare / no vegetation
 cracks / cracked mud
 pools of water
 saline water
 salts
 white / mustard colour

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MIAN SHAHID MAHMOOD TEACHER PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059) O LEVEL BMI 03336610587

This cycle is called the Hydrological cycle

River Systems in Pakistan

 Low amount of rainfall

Shaduf Persian Tank Inundation

Effectiveness of Conventional Methods of Irrigation

 Less water wastage in this method

Tarbela Dam River Indus

Mangla Dam River Jhelum

Rawal Dam River Kurrang

Khanpur Dam River Haro

Uses of Small and Large Dams in Pakistan

Maintenance cost is low Major suppliers of HEP

Results in less availability of water for

Preventive Measures to control Siltation

Waterlogging and Salinity

Effects of Climate Change on the lives and Economy

How to Adapt to Climate Change

Name the irrigation system shown in Fig. 4.[1]

 rain falls in mountains drains to the foothills

 Misuse of water by illiterate farmers

 Fallow – to allow soil to rest

 Other calls on government investment / attention

Name an example of a barrage. [1]

 Link canals take water from western rivers to eastern rivers

 Complex planning/difficult scheme

What problems occur when supplying electricity from reservoirs to areas of

 Reduces waterlogging and salinity

How may irrigation damage the soil? [3]

Describe the appearance of the area S in Photograph B. [3]

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