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Handbook of
Turbomachinery
Second Edition
Revised and Expanded
edited by
Earl Logan, Jr.
Ramendra Roy
Arizona State University
Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.
MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL

D E K K E R
Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

The first edition was published as Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl
Logan, Jr. (Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1995).
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ISBN: 0-8247-0995-0
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writing from the publisher.
Current printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Founding Editor
L. L. Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State Umversitv
Columbus, Ohio
1 Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson

2 Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan
3 Lubrication Fundamentals, J George Wills
4 Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman
5 Applied Engineering Mechanics Statics and Dynamics, G Boothroyd and
C Poh
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J Karassik
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L Ryan
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A Matenals and Components, Part
B Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller
9 Turbomachmery Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr
10 Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
11 Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
13 An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H.
Bickford
14 Optimal Engineering Design Pnnciples and Applications, James N Siddall
15 Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
16. Industrial Noise Control Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Lewis H
Bell
17. Gears and Their Vibration A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear Noise,
J Derek Smith
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Matenal Handling- Design and Appli-
cations Handbook, American Chain Association
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A
Schweitzer
20 Gear Dnve Systems Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
21 Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants Systems Design and Cal-
culations, John D. Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S Knox
23 Probabilistic Engineering Design Principles and Applications, James N
Siddall
24. Traction Drives Selection and Application, Frederick W Heilich III and
Eugene E Shube
25. Finite Element Methods An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston and Chris E.
Passerello

26 Mechanical Fastening of Plastics An Engineenng Handbook, Brayton Lincoln,
Kenneth J Gomes, and James F Braden
27 Lubrication in Practice Second Edition, edited by W S Robertson
28 Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L Ryan
29 Practical Seal Design edited by Leonard J Martini
30 Engineenng Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S Knox
31 Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications, Jerome C
Lange
32 Mechanism Analysis Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques, Lyndon
O Barton
33 CAD/CAM Systems Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measurement
Edward J Preston, George W Crawford, and Mark E Coticchia
34 Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V Ganapathy
35 Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A Burgess
36 Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,
Jasbir Smgh
37 Potential Flows Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H Kirchhoff
38 Computer-Aided Graphics and Design Second Edition, Daniel L Ryan
39 Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves Selection and Application
Michael J Tonyan, edited byTobi Goldoftas
40 Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U S Gauge Division, edited by Philip
W Harland
41 Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources Fundamentals and Basic Tech-
nology, R P Donovan
42 Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
43 CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J Preston, George W Crawford and Mark E
Coticchia
44 Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard S Haviland
45 Couplings and Joints Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R Mancuso
46 Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
47 BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers Boilers, Combustion, Fluid
Flow, and Heat Transfer, V Ganapathy
48 Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, Jerome C
Lange
49 Plastics Geanng Selection and Application, Clifford E Adams
50 Clutches and Brakes Design and Selection, William C Orthwem
51 Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L Tnetley
52 Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenom-
ena, edited by Lawrence E Murr, Karl P Staudhammer, and Marc A
Meyers
53 Magnesium Products Design, Robert S Busk
54 How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems Management and Technology, William
D Engelke
55 Cam Design and Manufacture Second Edition, with cam design software
for the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W Jensen
56 Solid-State AC Motor Controls Selection and Application, Sylvester Campbell
57 Fundamentals of Robotics, David D Ardayfio
58 Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D Enckson
59 Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C Stan Wei
60 Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S Knox, with contributions
by Thomas C. Boos, Ross S Culverhouse, and Paul F Muchnicki

61 Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V Dukkipati and
Joseph R Amyot
62 Fiber-Reinforced Composites Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, P K
Mallick
63 Photoelectric Sensors and Controls Selection and Application, Scott M
Juds
64 Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R Champion,
Jr and J Michael Ensmmger
65 Ultrasonics Fundamentals, Technology, Applications Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensmmger
66 Applied Finite Element Modeling Practical Problem Solving for Engineers,
Jeffrey M Steele
67 Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering Principles and Basic
Laboratory Experiments, Francis S Tse and Ivan E Morse
68 Centnfugal Pump Clinic Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Igor J
Karassik
69 Practical Stress Analysis in Engmeenng Design Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded Alexander Blake
70 An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H Bickford
71 High Vacuum Technology A Practical Guide, Marsbed H Hablanian
72 Pressure Sensors Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
73 Zinc Handbook Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter
74 Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski
75 Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors, Preben W
Jensen
76 Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
77 Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by Marc
A Meyers, Lawrence E Murr, and Karl P Staudhammer
78 Industrial Refrigeration Principles, Design and Applications, P C Koelet
79 Applied Combustion, Eugene L Keatmg
80 Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by WilfriedJ Bartz
81 Mechanism Analysis Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lyndon O Barton
82 Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James W
Murdock
83 Fiber-Reinforced Composites Matenals, Manufactunng, and Design, Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, P K Mallick
84 Numencal Methods for Engmeenng Applications, Edward R Champion, Jr
85 Turbomachmery Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr
86 Vibrations of Shells and Plates Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
87 Steam Plant Calculations Manual Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
V Ganapathy
88 Industrial Noise Control Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lewis H Bell and Douglas H Bell
89 Finite Elements Their Design and Performance, Richard H MacNeal
90 Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites Second Edition, Re-
vised and Expanded, Lawrence E Nielsen and Robert F Landel
91 Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G Bayer

92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by David W South
and Jon R. Mancuso
93 Handbook of Turbomachmery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr
94 Engineenng Documentation Control Practices and Procedures, Ray E
Monahan
95 Refractory Linings Thermomechamcal Design and Applications, Charles A.
Schacht
96 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Applications and Techniques for
Use in Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D. Meadows
97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints' Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
98. Shaft Alignment Handbook Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John
Piotrowski
99. Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matnx Composite Structures, edited by
Suong Van Hoa
100 Friction Science and Technology, Peter J. Blau
101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites. Mechanical Properties and Engi-
neenng Applications, Edward Miller
102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W Volk
104 Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E. Stewart
105 Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures, A A. Seireg
and Jorge Rodriguez
106 Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, Vladimir Stejskal and Michael
Valasek
107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
108 Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A Cruse
109 Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A Speck
110 Turbomachmery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah
111. High-Vacuum Technology. A Practical Guide, Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Marsbed H. Hablanian
112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Workbook and Answerbook,
James D. Meadows
113. Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications, edited by G
T Murray
114. Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith and
Reinhard Hanselka
115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements. A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven M
Lepi
116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K. Garg
117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K. Muller and Bernard S. Nau
118. Fnction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg
119. Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A. Melnikov
120. Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems, Stephen A.
McKeown
121. Couplings and Joints Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Jon R. Mancuso
122. Thermodynamics' Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
123. Gear Noise and Vibration, J Derek Smith
124. Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications, John J. Bloomer
125 Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E. Totten
126. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T. Kuppan

127 Designing for Product Sound Quality Richard H Lyon
128 Probability Applications in Mechanical Design, Franklin E Fisher and Joy R
Fisher
129 Nickel Alloys, edited by Ulrich Heubner
130 Rotating Machinery Vibration Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting,
Maurice L Adams Jr
131 Formulas for Dynamic Analysis, Ronald L HustonandC Q Liu
132 Handbook of Machinery Dynamics, Lynn L Faulkner and Earl Logan, Jr
133 Rapid Prototyping Technology Selection and Application, Kenneth G
Cooper
134 Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics Design and Analysis Abdulla S
Rangwala
135 Maintenance Excellence Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions, edi-
ted by John D Campbell and Andrew K S Jardme
136 Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems, Ralph L Vandagnff
137 Lubrication Fundamentals Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, D M
Pirro and A A Wessol
138 Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook Good Environmental Design and Manu-
facturing, edited by Mahendra S Hundal
139 Micromachinmg of Engineering Materials, edited by Joseph McGeough
140 Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems Design and Implementation, John
H Lumkes, Jr
141 Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing, Sunil Pullarcot
142 Nondestructive Evaluation Theory, Techniques, and Applications, edited by
Peter J Shull
143 Diesel Engine Engineering Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design, and
Control, Andrei Makartchouk
144 Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis, loan D Mannescu, Constantin Ispas,
and Dan Boboc
145 Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies, Susan Carlson
Skalak
146 Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics Thermal and Mechanical
Design and Analysis, Ah Jamnia
147 Bearing Design in Machinery Engineering Tnbology and Lubrication,
Avraham Harnoy
148 Mechanical Reliability Improvement Probability and Statistics for Experi-
mental Testing, R E Little
149 Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators Design, Ap-
plications, and Calculations, V Ganapathy
150 The CAD Guidebook A Basic Manual for Understanding and Improving
Computer-Aided Design, Stephen J Schoonmaker
151 Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics, Randall F Barren
152 Mechanical Properties of Engineered Matenals, Wole Soboyejo
153 Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design, Gary S
Wasserman
154 Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids Third Edition, I G Curne
155 Intermediate Heat Transfer, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
156 HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers Fundamentals, Application, and
Operation, Herbert W Stanford III
157 Gear Noise and Vibration Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J
Derek Smith

158. Handbook of Turbomachmery Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Earl Logan, Jr., and Ramendra Roy
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Progressing Cavity Pumps, Downhole Pumps, and Mudmotors, Lev Nelik
Piping and Pipeline Engineering- Design, Construction, Maintenance,

Integnty, and Repair, George A. Antaki
Turbomachmery. Design and Theory, Rama S. Gorta and Aijaz Ahmed

Khan
Mechanical Engineering Software
Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietnch

Mechanical Design Failure Analysis- With Failure Analysis System Software
for the IBM PC, David G. Ullman

Preface to the Second Edition
The original intent of this book—to serve as a reference work in

turbomachinery for practicing engineers and graduate students—remains
unchanged in this new edition.
In this edition the Introduction has been expanded to include new
material on the mechanical and thermal design considerations for gas
turbine engines. Four new chapters, written by experts in their respective
subjects, have been added. The chapter on steam turbines has been
completely rewritten and represents a major improvement to the book. New
material has also been added to the chapter on turbomachines in rocket
propulsion systems.
The original editor, Earl Logan, Jr., was joined by Ramendra Roy in
the editing of this new edition. Both editors would like to express their
sincere appreciation to Ms. Elizabeth Curione, the production editor at
Marcel Dekker, Inc., for her help in the preparation of the manuscript.
Earl Logan, Jr.

Ramendra P. Roy

Preface to the First Edition
This book is intended as a reference work in Turbomachinery for practicing

engineers and graduate students. The goal of the book is to provide rapid
access to information on topics of turbomachinery that is otherwise
scattered in reference texts and technical journals.
The contributors are experts in their respective fields and offer the
inexperienced reader the benefit of their wide experience. The practicing
engineer or student can quickly comprehend the essential principles and
methods of a given area in Turbomachinery by carefully reading the
appropriate chapter.
The material of this handbook comprises equations, graphs, and
illustrative examples of problems that clarify the theory and demonstrate the
use of basic relations in performance calculations and design. Line drawings
and photographs of actual equipment are also presented to aid visual
comprehension of design features.
In each chapter the authors provide an extensive list of references that
have been found to be particularly useful in dealing with Turbomachinery
problems in the category considered.
Earl Logan, Jr.

Contents
Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition
Contributors
1. Introduction
Earl Logan, Jr., Vedanth Kadambi, and Ramendra Roy
2. Fluid Dynamics of Turbomachines

Lysbeth Lieber
3. Turbine Gas-Path Heat Transfer

Charles MacArthur
4. Selection of a Gas Turbine Cooling System

Boris Glezer

5. Unsteady Flow and Aeroelasticity
L He
6. Fundamentals of Compressor Design

Robert O. Bullock
7. Fundamentals of Turbine Design

David M. Mathis
8. Steam Turbines
Thomas H. McCloskey
9. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization for Turbomachinery

John N. Rajadas
10. Rotordynamic Considerations

Harold D. Nelson and Paul B. Talbert
11. Turbomachines in Rocket Propulsion Systems

David Mohr
12. Turbomachinery Performance Testing

Nathan G. Adams
13. Automotive Superchargers and Turbochargers

William D. Siuru, Jr.
14. Tesla Turbomachinery

Warren Rice
15. Hydraulic Turbines

V. Dakshina Murty

Contributors
Nathan G. Adams The Boeing Company, Mesa, Arizona, U.S.A.
Robert O. Bullock* Turbine Engine Division, Allied Signal Company,

Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.
Boris Glezer Consultant, Optimized Turbine Solutions, San Diego,

California, U.S.A.
L He, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. School of Engineering, University of Durham,

Durham, England
Vedanth Kadambi Honeywell Engines and Systems, Phoenix, Arizona,

U.S.A.
Lysbeth Lieber Honeywell Engines and Systems, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.
* Deceased

Earl Logan, Jr., Ph.D.{ Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.
Charles MacArthur U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-

Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, U.S.A.
David M. Mathis Honeywell Aerospace, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.
Thomas H. McCloskey Aptech Engineering Services, Sunnyvale,

California, U.S.A.
David Mohr D&E Propulsion, Inc., Mims, Florida, U.S.A.
V. Dakshina Murty, P.E., Ph.D. Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Portland, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Harold D. Nelson Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.
John N. Rajadas Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

Arizona State University East, Mesa, Arizona, U.S.A.
Warren Rice Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.
Ramendra Roy Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

William D. Siuru, Jr.{ U.S. Air Force, Colorado Springs, Colorado,

U.S.A.
Paul B. Talbert Honeywell Engines, Systems and Services, Phoenix,

Arizona, U.S.A.
{ Deceased
{ Retired

1
Introduction
Earl Logan, Jr.*, and Ramendra Roy

Vedanth Kadambi
Honeywell Engines and Systems, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.
Turbomachines are devices that feature the continuous flow of a fluid

through one or more rotating blade rows. Energy, as work, is extracted from
or transferred to the fluid by the dynamic action of the blade rows. If energy
is extracted from the fluid by expanding it to a lower pressure, the devices
are called turbines (steam, gas, or hydraulic). If energy is transferred to the
fluid, thereby increasing its pressure, the devices are termed pumps,
compressors, or fans. Stationary vanes guide the flow of fluid before and/
or after the rotating blade rows.
Turbomachines can be broadly classified according to the direction of
fluid flow through it. In radial-flow turbomachines the flow is usually toward
the larger radius for pumps, compressors, or fans and radially inward for
turbines. In axial-flow turbomachines the flow is mainly parallel to the axis
of rotation of the machine so that the nominal fluid inlet and outlet radii in
* Deceased

each turbine stage is approximately the same. The Euler turbomachinery
equation, which relates the work transfer between the fluid and the machine
stage to the change in fluid velocity exiting the stage with respect to that
entering, embodies the aforementioned characteristics. For the radial-flow
turbomachines, the work transferred is determined by changes in the
velocity angle as well as by changes in the radius. For the axial machines, the
work transferred is determined mainly by changes in the velocity angle. The
rate of energy (that is, power) transfer is the product of the torque exerted
by the rotating blades on the fluid (or vice versa) and the rotor angular speed
in radians per second.
A turbomachine may be without a stationary shroud (extended
turbomachine such as aircraft and ship propeller, and wind turbine).
Alternatively, it may be enclosed in a stationary casing (enclosed machine
such as aircraft engine, steam and gas turbine for power generation, and
pump).
The present chapter contains an introduction to turbomachines in two
parts, each addressing a different aspect of the subject. Part 1 provides a
historical background of turbomachines. Part 2 introduces the methods
used in the design of gas turbines, specifically dealing with the mechanical
and thermal design considerations. In addition to the introductory chapter
there are 14 chapters covering various aspects of turbomachinery in this
volume. Chapter 2 introduces the reader to the characteristics of the flow in
turbomachinery components and the use of computational fluid dynamics in
the design of compressors and turbines. Chapter 3 describes the progress
made, through theory and experiment, in turbine gas-path heat transfer
during the last 50 years. Chapter 4 focuses on the selection of cooling
systems in gas turbines.
Chapter 5 discusses unsteady flow effects in turbomachinery. Chapter
6 presents design methods that are applied to compressors, while Chapter 7
develops design methods for turbines. The theory and design of steam
turbines are elaborated in Chapter 8, and design optimization methods for
turbomachinery are discussed in Chapter 9. The dynamic behavior of
turbomachine rotors is detailed in Chapter 10, while Chapter 11 presents the
design of turbines and pumps used in rocket propulsion systems. The
methods for testing of turbomachinery components are explained in
Chapter 12. Automative applications are considered in Chapter 13.
In Chapter 14, models used in the analysis and design of Tesla
turbomachines are discussed. Chapter 15 treats modern hydraulic turbines.
Each chapter provides the reader with appropriate references and uses
its own notation. Coordination of related material found in more than one
chapter may be accomplished by the reader’s use of the index.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Earl Logan, Jr.
Knowledge of turbomachines has evolved slowly over centuries without the

benefit of sudden and dramatic breakthroughs. Turbomachines, such as
windmills and waterwheels, are centuries old. Waterwheels, which dip their
vanes into moving water, were employed in ancient Egypt, China, and
Assyria [1]. Waterwheels appeared in Greece in the second century B.C. and
in the Roman Empire during the first century B.C. A seven-ft-diameter
waterwheel at Monte Cassino was used by the Romans to grind corn at the
rate of 150 kg of corn per hour, and waterwheels at Arles ground 320 kg of
corn per hour [2]. The Doomsday Book, based on a survey ordered by
William the Conqueror, indicates the there were 5,624 water mills in
England in 1086. Besides the grinding of grain, waterwheels were used to
drive water pumps and to operate machinery. Agricola (1494–1555) showed
by illustrations how waterwheels were used to pump water from mines and
to crush metallic ores in the 16th century [3]. In 1685 Louis XIV had 221
piston pumps installed at Marly, France, for the purpose of supplying
3,200 m3 of Seine River water per day to the fountains of the Versailles
palace. The pumps were driven by 14 waterwheels, each 12 m in diameter,
that were turned by the currents of the Seine [4]. The undershot waterwheel,
which had an efficiency of only 30%, was used up until the end of the 18th
century. It was replaced in the 19th century by the overshot waterwheel with
an efficiency of 70 to 90%. By 1850, hydraulic turbines began to replace
waterwheels [1]. The first hydroelectric power plant was built in Germany in
1891 and utilized waterwheels and direct-current power generation.
However, the waterwheels were soon replaced with hydraulic turbines (see
Chapter 15) and alternating-current electric power [6].
Although the use of wind power in sailing vessels appeared in
antiquity, the widespread use of wind power for grinding grain and pumping
water was delayed until the 7th century in Persia, the 12th century in
England, and the 15th century in Holland [5]. In the 17th century, Leibniz
proposed using windmills and waterwheels together to pump water from
mines in the Harz Mountains of Germany [4]. Dutch settlers brought Dutch
mills to America in the 18th century. This led to the development of a
multiblade wind turbine that was used to pump water for livestock. Wind
turbines were used in Denmark in 1890 to generate electric power. Early in
the 20th century American farms began to use wind turbines to drive
electricity generators for charging storage batteries. These wind-electric
plants were supplanted later by electricity generated by centrally located
steam-electric power plants, particularly after the Rural Electric Adminis-

tration Act of 1936 [5]. Today, although a small amount of electrical power
is generated by wind turbines, most electrical power is generated by large
steam turbines (see Chapter 8) and gas turbines (see Part 2 of this chapter).
In the second century B.C. Hero of Alexandria invented rotors driven
by steam [4] and by gas [7], but these machines produced insignificant
amounts of power. During the 18th and 19th centuries the reciprocating
steam engine was developed and became the predominant prime mover for
manufacturing and transportation industries. In 1883 the first steam
turbines were constructed by de Laval whose turbines achieved speeds of
26,000 rpm [8]. In 1884 a steam turbine, which ran at 17,000 rpm and
comprised 15 wheels on the same shaft, was designed and built by Charlie
Parsons. These early steam turbines are discussed in Chapter 8.
The gas turbine was conceived by John Barber in 1791, and the first
gas turbine was built and tested in 1900 by Stolze [7]. Sanford Moss built a
gas turbine in 1902 at Cornell University. At Brown Boveri in 1903,
Armenguad and Lemale combined an axial-flow turbine and centrifugal
compressor to produce a thermal efficiency of 3% [7]. In 1905 Holzwarth
designed a gas turbine that utilized constant-volume combustion. This
turbine was manufactured by Boveri and Thyssen until the 1930s. In 1911
the turbocharger was built and installed in diesel engines by Sulzer Brothers,
and in 1918 the turbocharger was utilized to increase the power of military
aircraft engines [7]. In 1939 the first combustion gas turbine was installed by
Brown Boveri in Switzerland. A similar turbine was used in Swiss
locomotives in 1942 [10]. The aircraft gas turbine engine (turbojet) was
developed by Junkers in Germany around 1940.
References
1. R. L. Daugherty, Hydraulic Turbines, McGraw-Hill, New York (1920).
2. J. Gimpel, The Medieval Machine, Penguin, New York (1976).
3. G. Agricola (trans. by H. C. Hoover and L. H. Hoover), De Re Metallica,
Dover, New York (1950).
4. F. Klemm, A History of Western Technology, Scribner, New York (1959).
5. G. L. Johnson, Wind Energy Systems, Prentice-Hall, New York (1945).
6. H. Thirring, Energy for Man: Windmills to Nuclear Power, Indiana University
Press, Bloomington (1958).
7. R. T. Sawyer, The Modern Gas Turbine, Prentice-Hall, New York (1945).
8. A. Stodola, Gas Turbines Vol. 1, McGraw-Hill, New York (1927).
9. G. G. Smith, Gas Turbines and Jet Propulsion for Aircraft, Atmosphere, New
York (1944).
10. C. Seippel, ‘‘Gas Turbines in Our Century,’’ Trans. of the ASME, 75: 121–122
(1953).

MECHANICAL AND THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
FOR GAS TURBINE ENGINES
Vedanth Kadambi
This section deals with the fundamentals of mechanical and thermal design
of gas turbine engines. It lays particular emphasis on the turbine, though
many of the statements are general and apply to compressor design as well.
Starting from a description of thermodynamic and practical cycles used in
gas turbine applications, it deals with the types of engines and their
applications, the approach to design (including aerodynamic, secondary
flow, thermal and stress analysis), material selection for various applica-
tions, and mechanical design considerations (turbine disk and blade design,
the secondary flow circuit, and prediction of fatigue life). Finally, tests for
design validation and some of the near-term developments that will improve
overall performance and life are discussed.
Mechanical and Thermal Design Considerations—An

Overview
The gas turbine industry is often considered as mature since new large-scale
developments are few and the design process is considered to be well
established. In spite of this, the mechanical/thermal design of a gas turbine is
a highly complex endeavor, costing hundreds of millions of dollars and
employing a team of several hundred engineers for several years. During
design, advances are made through increasing levels of sophistication and
detailed analyses. A full discussion of each of the design topics would easily
fill a volume. A brief presentation will be given here to serve merely as an
overview of the considerations involved in the mechanical design of a
turbine. The topics to be discussed are (1) the gas turbine cycle, engine
components, and the areas of applications of gas turbines, and (2)
performance, material selection, durability, and life. The factors involved
in the aerodynamic, mechanical, and thermal designs, secondary flow, stress
and vibration analyses, life evaluation, etc. will be considered as well. Tests
used to evaluate the performance and durability of the engine conclude the
design phase. A discussion of the directions for future work to improve
performance as well as life will be provided at the end. The reader should
leave the chapter with a global sense of what topics the design engineer must
address. For further details, individual topics should be studied in greater
depth from the cited chapters in this book and literature or from
comprehensive texts on specific topics.

The Thermodynamic Cycle
The thermodynamic cycle for the gas turbine engine is the Brayton cycle,
which consists of four theoretical processes. The first process is one of
isentropic compression where the pressure of the air drawn from the
atmosphere is raised to the operating level in a compressor. This constitutes
the work input part of the cycle. The second is the thermal energy input in a
combustor—an isobaric (constant-pressure) process to raise the temperature
of the air to the highest level permitted in the engine. The third and fourth
processes are, respectively, an isentropic expansion (work output) in the
turbine and an isobaric cooling process (energy rejection to the atmosphere),
to complete the cycle. The ideal thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by the
expression [1, 2]
ZB ¼ 1 ½1=Pr ðg1Þ=g ð1Þ

It is seen that the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle is the same as that
of the Carnot cycle with the same isentropic compression ratio. Never-
theless, its thermal efficiency for operation between the same temperature
limits is lower than that of the Carnot cycle. The efficiency increases as the
pressure ratio increases. For this reason, efforts are made to operate the
engine at as high a pressure ratio as possible.
The work output of the theoretical Brayton cycle is a function of the
maximum temperature in the cycle, the temperature of energy rejection, and
the pressure ratio. There exists an optimum pressure ratio at which the work
output becomes a maximum. The pressure ratio for maximum work output
is given by the expression
ðPr Þopt ¼ ðT3 =T1 Þg=½2ðg1Þ ¼ ðPr Þ1=2 ð2Þ

The corresponding maximum work output of the Brayton cycle is
h i2
Wmax ¼ Cp T1 ðT3 =T1 Þ1=2 1 ð3Þ
Engines may be designed to operate close to this condition. The thermal

efficiency of the Brayton cycle operating at the optimum pressure ratio is
ðZB Þopt ¼ 1 ðT1 =T3 Þ1=2 ð4Þ
Components of the Gas Turbine Engine

Figure 1 shows the main components of the gas turbine engine—the
compressor, the combustor, and the turbine. Work input occurs in a

Figure 1 Cross-section showing the main components of a gas turbine engine.
compressor with several axial and/or centrifugal stages. The engine shown in
Fig. 1 has only centrifugal compressors. (Figure 8 shows an engine with
axial and centrifugal stages for compression.) The pressure ratio in
commercial aircraft engine compressors is often in the range of 10–25,
though some experimental engines have pressure ratios in the range 17–35.
The turbine driving the compressor is usually an axial-flow device though in
small engines (auxiliary power units, or APUs), it is often a radial inward
flow device. Energy addition as heat and a slight pressure drop (3–5%) occur
in a combustor where a fine spray of fuel burns in the air from the
compressor. The maximum temperature of the gas is limited by material
considerations, being 2200–2500 8F in most engines. The mixture of burned
fuel and air at a high temperature enters the turbine. Work output is due to
the expansion of the gas while flowing over the rotating turbine blades.
Thermal energy rejection from the engine, as in all practical propulsion
engine cycles, occurs due to the gas that is exhausted from the turbine to the
atmosphere. There is no heat exchanger to reject thermal energy at constant
pressure from the system.
In aircraft engines, the air flowing through a propeller or a fan driven
by the turbine gives rise to the propulsive force on the aircraft. For example,
in propeller-driven engines, the change in momentum of the air flowing
through the propeller causes a reactive force, resulting in a forward thrust
on the engine. In engines with fans, the reactive force is due to the exhaust
jet at the exit of the turbine. Power generation units use the turbine output
to drive a gearbox or a load compressor.
Real Gas Engine Cycle

The real engine cycle differs from the theoretical Brayton cycle in several
respects. First, the processes of compression and expansion are not
isentropic. So the work input needed at the compressor is higher than in

the theoretical cycle and the work output of the turbine is lower than in the
theoretical cycle. (In most gas turbines used for propulsion, the adiabatic
compressor efficiency ranges from 0.83 to 0.88. In turbines the adiabatic
efficiency ranges from 0.85 to 0.92.) In addition, there are pressure losses
associated with flow through the combustor and several other parts of the
machine. These as well as other deviations from ideality reduce the net work
output and the thermal efficiency as compared with that of the theoretical
Brayton cycle. For engines with a pressure ratio in the range of 13–15, the
typical thermal efficiency for operation at 2000 8F is about 35%. A measure
of thermal efficiency is the specific fuel consumption, SFC, which is the rate
of fuel consumed (lbm/hr) per unit of output. For efficient operation, it is
necessary to have as low a fuel consumption and, hence, as low an SFC as
possible. Reduction in SFC may require an increased inlet temperature or
the use of a recuperator (a heat exchanger inserted between the compressor
and the combustor). The recuperator transfers part of the thermal energy of
the exhaust gases to the high-pressure air entering the combustor and
reduces the fuel consumption. The engine cycle that uses a recuperator is
called the regenerative Brayton cycle [2]. The thermal efficiency of the ideal
regenerative cycle fitted with a recuperator where there are no pressure
drops is given by the expression
ZR ¼ 1 ðPr Þðg1Þ=g =Tr ð5Þ

Unlike the ideal Brayton cycle without regeneration, the thermal efficiency
of this cycle diminishes with increasing pressure ratio. However, it increases
with increasing temperature ratio as in the Carnot cycle.
Gas Turbine Engine Applications

The following are the areas of use of gas turbines:
1. Propulsion of aircraft as well as ground-based vehicles. There exist
four types of gas turbine engines: the ‘‘turboprop,’’ the ‘‘turbofan,’’ the
‘‘turbojet,’’ and the ‘‘turboshaft,’’ based on their use in propulsion. The first
three are designed for use where thrust is important. The turboprop uses a
propeller to move large masses of air and has a low specific thrust. It
operates at relatively low Mach numbers, usually on the order of 0.25.
(There are some engines that run at higher Mach numbers, on the order of
0.6.) Figure 2 exhibits a typical turboprop engine manufactured by
Honeywell Engines & Systems. Turboprops usually range in power between
600 and 6000 HP. Turboprops used in both commercial and military
applications are relatively small compared with turbofans, which employ
high-speed fans to move the air.
The turbofan requires large masses of air flow, though only a fraction,

Figure 2 Turboprop engine, TPE 331-10U (Honeywell Engines & Systems).
between 15–35%, flows through the turbine. The rest of the flow passing
through the fan expands in an annular nozzle to provide thrust. It operates
at higher Mach numbers, 0.5–0.8. The turbofans produced by Honeywell
Engines & Systems have thrusts in the range 1,300 lbf to 9,000 lbf, a typical
engine being shown in Fig. 3. Such engines are used in executive jets,
commercial aircraft, and military applications. Pratt & Whitney, General
Electric, and Rolls Royce Plc typically produce engines with thrusts ranging
to 20,000 lbf. The biggest turbofans manufactured have thrusts ranging to
100,000 lbf. For turbofans, SFC is expressed as the rate of fuel consumption
per unit of engine thrust (lbm/lbf.hr). Typical values of thrust SFC range
between 0.35 and 0.6 lbm/lbf.hr depending on the type of engine and its
operating condition. The turbojet has a relatively low mass flow compared
with turbofans. Its thrust is due to the acceleration of the fluid expanding in
a nozzle at the exit of the turbine. Hence, it has a high specific thrust.
Turboshaft engines are employed in applications where it is necessary
to deliver power to a low-speed shaft through a gearbox. They are used for
commercial, military, rotorcraft, industrial, and marine applications and
range in power from 400 to 4,600 HP. For turboshafts, SFC is expressed in
flow rate per HP of output, typical values being in the range of 0.3–0.5 lbm/

Figure 3 Turbofan engine, TFE731-60 (Honeywell Engines & Systems).
HP.hr. The U.S. army’s main battle tank, Abrams M1A1, is propelled by
the AGT1500 turboshaft engine, rated at 1,500 HP. It is fitted with a
recuperator and operates on the regenerative Brayton cycle. Here, the
wheels are directly driven through a speed-reduction gear train to reduce the
rotational speed from about 22,000 rpm (power turbine) to 3,000 rpm at the
wheels. A new recuperated turboshaft engine, LV100, is currently in design
at Honeywell Engines and GE Aeroengines to drive future Abrams and
Crusader battle tanks.
2. Auxiliary power units (APUs), Fig. 4. These are small engines
(100–1,100 HP) used for air conditioning and lighting purposes in regional,
executive, narrow, and wide-body commercial as well as military aircraft.
They are also used to propel ground carts. As opposed to turbofan and
turboprop engines that have axial compressor and axial turbine stages, these
may have only centrifugal compressors and radial inflow turbines.
3. Marine applications. These include Fast Ferry transport engines,
Ocean Patrol, and Hovercraft.
4. Industrial turbo-generators. These may range from small engines
producing only 75 kW to 20 MW or more for power production.

Figure 4 Auxiliary power unit, APU131-9 (Honeywell Engines & Systems).
‘‘Microturbines,’’ which are small industrial turbogenerators used for

lighting and other applications in small buildings, workshops, and shopping
complexes are produced by Honeywell Engines & Systems as well as a few
others. General Electric Co. manufactures gas turbines for large power
production. Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation has built large
engines with outputs in the range of 30–100 MW. In addition, the company
has built some engines as large as 300 MW or more in power output.
Design Goals
Overview. In a broad sense, the design goal is to comply with all of the
customer’s specifications while minimizing cost. The customer specifies the
minimum standards for performance (power output or thrust, fuel
consumption or thermal efficiency), the maximum permissible weight, and
the expected life or durability of the engine. Durability is usually specified in
terms of the number of cycles of operation or the number of flight hours that
the engine will experience during its expected life. Regulatory agencies
impose environmental requirements relating to noise levels in aircraft
applications and the permitted maximum levels of emissions (oxides of
nitrogen, sulfur, etc). The importance of these individual requirements
varies from application to application, as shown in Fig. 5. The regions
indicated with light gray shade in the diagram are of high importance for
each application. For example, in the design of commercial propulsion

Figure 5 Design goals and their dependence on application.
engines, cost, performance, durability (expressed in mission life cycles),

weight, and engine noise levels are important items to be considered. For
military applications, the important items are performance and weight. The
regions with medium-dark shading are of intermediate importance, while
regions with dark shading indicate items of little concern. As seen from the
diagram, cost is of great concern in most applications. In military
applications, cost and long life are sometimes not as important as the
achievement of very high levels of performance.
Since APUs have relatively small outputs and are not in continuous
use, performance may not be a major consideration in their design. In all
other engines, performance plays an important role. The main factors
affecting performance are (1) thermodynamic cycle (maximum operating
pressure, turbine inlet temperature, and ambient conditions), (2) aero-
dynamic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine vanes and blades
(depend on airfoil loads, flow path losses, etc.), (3) losses in the combustor
due to incomplete combustion, (4) losses due to installation effects, tip
clearances, etc., (5) losses due to secondary flow, and (6) thermal energy
losses from the turbine case to the surroundings. Of these, thermal losses are
not highly significant, so that the engine is treated as an adiabatic device in
most calculations.

Durability. The mechanical and thermal design of turbine components
focuses on providing the least expensive unit to satisfy performance
objectives without failure. Under normal operating conditions, the
common failure modes of concern to the designer are low cycle fatigue,
high cycle fatigue, creep, mechanical distortion, oxidation, corrosion, and
erosion. For short-duration emergency conditions, one must also avoid
overtemperature and overstress failures caused by speed and temperature
excursions beyond the normal operating levels. Based on a study of a large
number of engines, the USAF has identified the primary causes of engine
failures, shown in Fig. 6.
Predicting a safe life limit requires an understanding of how the
turbine is being used. The customer specifies the operating conditions and
the number of cycles as well as the type of operation expected of the engine.
As previously seen in Fig. 5, the operating life changes from application to
application and varies with the number of cycles of operation as well as
other factors. It is critical, therefore, to understand the customer’s
requirements before starting the design of the turbine. To illustrate this
point, two types of representative operating cycles are exhibited in Figs. 7(a)
and 7(b). Figure 7 (a) portrays the schematic of an operating cycle that may
apply to commercial aircraft operation. Here, the engine starts at ground
idle conditions and then accelerates to take-off (100% power). Usually, the
speed drops about 15–20% as the aircraft reaches its cruising altitude. From
here onwards, there may be only small changes in speed and turbine-inlet
Figure 6 U.S. Air Force study of causes of engine failure.

Figure 7(a) Schematic operating cycle for long-range commercial flights.
temperature for a long time, after which a quick drop in speed to idle occurs
during landing. The complete operation from start to finish constitutes one
mission cycle. Major variations in speed and output occur only a few times
during the entire operation and only small speed changes occur during the
major part of the flight. The associated temperature changes and thermal
cycling during flight are thus small. Hence, the materials of the engine are
not continuously subjected to cyclic temperature changes that cause thermal
fatigue. Figure 7(b), on the other hand, represents an operating cycle with
cyclic and sudden large variations in speed. Often, the operating conditions
for a military trainer aircraft or a tank engine resemble this cycle. The initial
part of the operation resembles that of Fig. 7(a) until cruising speed is
reached. From here onwards, there are several cycles of rapid speed increase
and decrease, so that the local material temperatures fluctuate considerably
Figure 7(b) Schematic operating cycle with large speed variations.

with time during flight. Such a type of operation may result in failures due to
low cycle fatigue discussed below.
Two of the main causes of failure seen in Fig. 6 are fatigue and
preexisting defects, each accounting for 25% of the total. Fatigue can be of
two types, low cycle fatigue (LCF) and high cycle fatigue (HCF). Low cycle
fatigue occurs with the repeated stressing of a component until cracks
initiate and then propagate to failure. The type of stress depends of course
on the part. For example, a cooled turbine blade experiences centrifugal
stresses from spool rotation, thermal stresses from temperature gradients
within the blade, and stresses due to varying aerodynamic pressure
distribution. An engine that undergoes many cyclic excursions in a flight,
such as the application portrayed in Fig. 7(b) above, should be designed to
resist LCF well. Cracks may occur in a part not only from LCF initiation,
but also from preexisting defects. High cycle fatigue results from vibration
at speeds close to resonance in one of the components, e.g., blades. Such
stresses alternate around a mean value and are purely mechanical. They are
caused by a forcing function driving the component at a frequency matching
a natural frequency of the part. The forcing function could, for example, be
an imbalance, or a pressure pulse. The wakes of a vane causing pressure
fluctuations on the downstream rotating blade are an example of a pressure
pulse. Also, a part can undergo flutter—a vibration phenomenon in which
the displacement of a part due to aerodynamic loading causes a change in
the load, which in turn allows the displacement to relax to its original form
at which point the load starts again. Although the alternating stresses may
be much lower than the background stress, the frequencies are high and a
large number of cycles can be accumulated quickly. A Goodman diagram
(Fig. 16; see section on thermal/stress analysis and life prediction) or one of
its variants is used to assess if the combined alternating and steady-state
stress levels are acceptable.
Preexisting defects are often due to small amounts of foreign material
or imperfections in the disk or any other component. These imperfections
act as areas of stress concentration and cause failures even when the
average stress is well below the yield limit in most areas. Sometimes, small
cracks exist, especially in large castings. These, too, cause local high stresses
that may lead to failure. Life prediction is then a matter of calculating how
rapidly such a flaw will grow until the part fails. To guard against
preexisting defects, X-ray pictures may be taken to determine whether
internal flaws or cracks exist in large specimens. Ultrasound and other
techniques are also used. If judged as serious, parts with flaws are
discarded.
Excessive creep and stress-rupture are the third and fourth major
causes, each accounting for approximately 12.5% of all failures. Creep refers

to the continuous extension of a highly stressed material subjected to
elevated temperatures for long periods of time. Creep is a function of
material properties, the level of stress, the temperature, and its duration.
Depending on the part, the normal design philosophy is to limit the average
stress to a level such that the strain due to creep is below 1% to 2% over the
expected life of the component. Stress-rupture [3] is the ultimate failure of a
part due to creep. Different materials will undergo different amounts of
creep elongation before rupture. Stress-rupture may occur with almost no
noticeable creep or with considerable elongation depending on the material,
the stress, and the temperature. Blades and blade roots or attachments at the
disk are subject to stress-rupture. Improper design procedure and
nonisotropic material properties have often been responsible for these
failures. It is necessary to have a good knowledge of all the expected stresses
(thermal and mechanical) and material properties if such failures are to be
avoided.
Factors that are somewhat difficult to control are (1) corrosion and
erosion resulting in damage to parts along the flow path, especially the
leading edges of vanes and blades, (2) damage due to foreign objects like
birds hitting fan or compressor blades during flight, and (3) control
malfunction. Unfortunately, the effects of corrosion depend strongly on the
pollutants in the atmosphere as well as on the fuel, which may contain sulfur
or compounds of alkaline materials. These are hard to control and may
require surface coatings that prevent contact between the hot gases and the
surface (see discussion at the end of section on thermal/stress analysis and
life prediction). The impact of foreign objects like birds, tire treads, gravel,
and ice or hail on fan blades and the immediately following compressor
stages can be severe. It is necessary to ensure that the engine can withstand
such types of impact without failure. (See discussion related to bird
ingestion or foreign object damage tests near the end of this chapter.) To
reduce the probability of control malfunction, it is necessary to build a
certain amount of redundancy in the system, so that if one of the controls
fails for some reason, there is another control that will perform the required
operation. Experience is the guide in determining the degree of redundancy
necessary to minimize the probability of failure.
Thermal and Mechanical Design Approach

The design of a gas turbine consists of four main phases. In the first, a
marketing study determines the need of the customer for a proposed engine
and a conceptual study is performed to assess the feasibility that an engine
can profitably be designed and developed to satisfy this need. The second is
the preliminary design phase. In preliminary design, projections from

experience and existing similar designs are used to lay out the flow path, the
velocity triangles at the compressor and the turbine stages and to make
initial drawings of the proposed engine. The materials needed for various
components are also picked on a preliminary basis. The choice of materials
is based on experience and expected conditions of operation. These choices
are subject to change based on the detailed analyses (thermal and stress) that
occur later. Finally, first estimates of performance and secondary flow are
obtained. Each company will have different criteria regarding the level of
detail required before one can exit the preliminary design phase and enter
the third phase, detailed design. The detailed design will perform all detailed
analyses and life predictions to exit with completed component drawings.
Each phase will have design reviews to ensure that the design is ready to
proceed to the next level. In the fourth phase, the parts are procured, an
engine is built, and qualification tests are performed. This phase is complete
with certification by the regulatory agencies.
During design it is necessary to optimize the performance, the choice
of materials, and the proposed manufacturing methods to satisfy life
requirements and at the same time to minimize the cost. Thus, design is
based on compromises affecting materials, manufacturing methods (casting
as opposed to forging, welding as opposed to brazing, etc.), the levels of
secondary flow, and operating temperatures. Itemized below are the main
items for consideration in design.
1. Material selection and types of materials used: Different materials

are used for different components of the engine, depending on the
temperatures, stress levels, and expected service lives. Inexpensive and light
materials are used for the front casing around the fan and the first few axial
compressor stages not subjected to high temperatures. More expensive and
structurally strong highly temperature-resistant materials are used in the
rotating parts of the turbine. Table 1 is a partial list of the types of materials
used and Table 2 lists the considerations for material selection. Many parts
Table 1 Typical Materials Used in Propulsion Gas Turbines
Component type Fan Compressor Turbine
Rotating, Titanium Titanium Steel Nickel-based alloys

components Aluminum Aluminum
Static components Titanium Steel Steel Titanium Nickel-based alloys
Aluminum Cobalt-based alloys
Magnesium alloy Steel

Table 2 Materials Selection Criteria
Manufacturing
process or
mode of
Failure modes Cost fabrication Weight Others
Strength at Material cost Casting Density Containment

high (ductility,
temperature strength)
Low-cycle Fabrication Hardness and Strength/ Thermal
fatigue cost ease of weight expansion
strength machining
High-cycle Vendor Forging — Thermal
fatigue availability conductivity
strength
Creep strength — Repairability — Specific heat
Fast fracture, — Availability — —
cyclic crack
growth rate
Corrosion — Consistency, — —
resistance cleanliness of
product
of the turbine are made of alloys of nickel, those used commonly being
Hastalloy, Inconel, and Waspalloy for compressor/turbine casings, shafts,
and other areas. Blades and vanes are routinely made of single-crystal,
directionally solidified, or equi-axed alloys of various compositions.
Waspalloy or Inconel may be used also to make seal plates for turbine
discs. In some experimental engines, turbine discs and some seal plates are
made of sintered alloys of nickel. Some of them are capable of withstanding
extremely high temperatures, running as high as 1,450 8F.
2. Aerodynamic design: This involves the definition of the airfoil
contours, both of the compressor and of the turbine stages. The design starts
with the velocity triangles laid out during preliminary design. The blade
angles should match the inlet and exit angles specified by the velocity
triangles. The contour of the blade is then designed to provide a smooth
flow and to ensure that there is little separation at all points on the blade.
Proper turning of flow over the blade and the contour design ensure that
blade loading is as desired. Usually, HPT blades turn out to be somewhat
thicker at the leading edge than LPT blades. In addition, they do not exhibit
large radial twists. The design of compressor airfoils (refer to Chapter 6) is
different from that of turbine airfoils (refer to Chapter 7). This is due to the

adverse pressure gradient against which the fluid has to move in a
compressor. The adverse pressure gradient tends to cause flow separation
and high levels of aerodynamic losses unless the turning angles of the blades
are quite low. In the turbine blade where the pressure gradient is favorable,
the flow can be turned through large angles (1208–1308), without fear of
separation. Large amounts of work output can be obtained with just one or
two stages in the turbine, while to compress the air through the same
pressure ratio, several axial stages (each with a small pressure ratio) may be
needed. For this reason, it is the common practice in several companies to
use centrifugal stages that permit larger pressure ratios per stage than axial
compressors. In addition, they are more durable than axial stages. It should,
however, be remembered that centrifugal impellers are of large diameter and
permit lower mass flow in relation to their size than axial stages and hence
add considerably to the engine weight.
3. Secondary air-flow design: The search for higher and higher
thermal efficiencies has led to ever-increasing temperatures at the turbine
inlet, on the order of 2,600 8F in modern propulsion engines. In several
military engines and in some experimental engines, this temperature is
higher by several hundred degrees. The gas emerging from the combustor
has both circumferentially and radially varying temperatures, the maximum
of which may be 20–40% higher than the average temperature. The
materials subjected to these temperatures may suffer serious deterioration in
mechanical properties (yield stress, ultimate stress, fatigue limit, etc.). In
addition, operation at high transient temperatures leads to thermal stresses
and fatigue. It is therefore necessary to maintain metal temperatures low
enough so that property deterioration and thermal fatigue do not
significantly affect the life of the component. To this end, relatively cool
air at the required pressure is channeled to the component where cooling is
needed. Most of the cooling air is usually drawn from the plenum around
the combustor (see Fig. 1), referred to as Station 3. Other lower-pressure
sources such as impeller blade exit (Station 2.7) and the entry to the
centrifugal compressor (Station 2.5) are employed in addition to Station 3.
In some engines, for cooling shrouds and areas of low pressures, air may be
drawn from still-lower pressure sources (e.g., the fan exit or an intermediate
axial stage). In modern turbines, the total secondary flow may range from
8% to 22% or more of the total core flow. The cooling requirements of the
HPT nozzle and blade, the HPT disk, and purge air for HPT cavities
constitute a major fraction of the air drawn from the combustor plenum.
Some of it may be used for thrust balancing, and sometimes to cool the LPT
disk and blade as well. Air for LPT cooling and seal buffer often comes from
sources such as the inlet to the impeller or an axial compressor stage.
Secondary flow design therefore initially requires a decision on the

appropriate source for each of the cooling circuits, since the air drawn off
the compressor does not flow over all the turbine blades. There is a greater
deterioration in turbine output due to air drawn from high-pressure stages
as compared with air drawn from low-pressure stages. So, every effort
should be made to draw air at the lowest possible pressure to provide the
required cooling effect. After these decisions are made, it is necessary to
calculate the pressure drops, the clearances at labyrinth and other seals, and
the sizes of orifices needed to meter the flow in each circuit.
Secondary air serves the following main purposes in the turbine.
a. Provide cooling air to critical temperature-limited components.
This is indeed the main purpose of secondary flow design. The provision of
cavity purge flow (to prevent hot gas ingestion) may be included in the same
category, as it ensures that the disk cavities are maintained at sufficiently
low temperatures for long life. Figure 8 depicts a typical turbofan engine of
a low thrust class along with its secondary flow circuit, which draws air from
several sources. At the front of the engine is the fan, which is a compressor
stage of small pressure ratio (not shown in Fig. 8). The fan is followed by
four axial compressor stages and a centrifugal stage. The first turbine stage
(high-pressure turbine, HPT) drives the centrifugal compressor. The low-
pressure stages of the axial compressor (low-pressure compressor, LPC), are
driven by the low-pressure turbine (LPT), which may consist of two or more
stages. The main secondary flow stream is drawn from the combustor
plenum to cool the liner of the combustion chamber, the first HPT nozzle,
Figure 8 Cross-section of a typical turbofan engine indicating secondary flow

streams.

and its attachments. A substantial fraction of the flow passes through the
TOBI (tangential on-board injector). This may be a set of nozzles or an
appropriately drilled set of holes designed to increase the tangential velocity
of the air. The air emerging from the TOBI has a low static temperature and
a tangential velocity that approximates that of the rotating disk. Hence, it
cools the turbine disk and the blade and purges the HP turbine cavities as
well. The second stream drawn from the impeller exit (marked HP in the
diagram) flows down the back face of the impeller. It may be used to cool
the bore of the turbine and for bearing cooling purposes where possible. In
the illustration, it is used partly to cool the first LPT disc. Still another
stream drawn from the impeller inlet flows axially through the impeller bore
to purge the second and the third LPT disk cavities.
b. Provide buffer air to bearing seals. This is the second important
purpose of secondary flow design. It is necessary to provide a sufficient
pressure difference between bearing seal faces so that oil leakage is
minimized. The air used for buffering should be at temperatures not higher
than 400 8F since the oil coming in contact with the air tends to coke and
form hard deposits if its temperature becomes excessive.
c. Maintain bearing thrust loads at low levels/thrust balance. The
thrust on the turbine disk due to aerodynamic and other loads acts on the
shaft bearing. The bearing should be designed to withstand the thrust so
that the shaft is held in place. The larger the bearing load, the bigger and
more expensive the bearing becomes. By using a thrust piston arrangement,
secondary air at the appropriate pressure is made to exert a force on the disk
to reduce the net thrust on the bearing. Thrust load calculation is a detailed
bookkeeping effort to account for all the aerodynamic forces, momentum
changes, and pressure forces acting on the surfaces of a control volume.
Since the calculations involve differences between large numbers of similar
magnitudes, there is a considerable amount of uncertainty in the estimated
net thrust. It may therefore be necessary to design the bearing to withstand a
larger-than-calculated load. In some cases, the calculations may lead to a
very small estimate for the thrust load. Then, secondary flow may be used to
ensure that the load acts in only one direction and does not reverse due to
changing operating conditions. It is a good practice to check the thrust on
the bearing at several operating conditions, say full power, 50% power, and
idle conditions, to ensure that there is no thrust reversal in the operating
range. Secondary flows have also been used to reduce the loads and thus the
stresses acting on nozzles and such other components in some experimental
engines. (For details regarding secondary flow design, see the chapter by
Bruce Johnson.)
d. Cooled and uncooled airfoil design. Airfoils may be cooled or
uncooled depending on the temperature of the gas and the material of the

airfoil. The uncooled airfoil operates at relatively low temperatures, is
simpler to design, and can employ standard materials. It has a low cost,
though its growth potential is limited to simple material substitutions. It is
easier to manufacture and is tolerant to some manufacturing deviations.
While it is possible to obtain lower temperatures with a cooled design and
thus ensure a long life even with high gas temperatures, the design is more
complex and takes longer to complete. The manufacturing processes are
very complicated and are less tolerant to deviations. The cost of the airfoil is
much higher. Nevertheless, the design provides greater flexibility and future
growth potential. In addition, with the current levels of turbine inlet
temperatures, it is impossible to find a material that can satisfy the cyclic life
requirements with no cooling and, hence, it is quite justifiable to incur the
extra cost and effort to design a cooled airfoil.
A significant fraction of the secondary flow is used for turbine airfoil
cooling. The maximum operating temperature for the airfoil depends on the
material used and may be as high as 1,900 8F. The cooling flow enters the
passages in the blade root and passes through narrow channels in the
interior of the airfoil I (see cross section, Fig. 10), designed to suit the airfoil
size and shape. In turbines operating at high temperatures, even with the
best heat-transfer augmentation techniques, internal convection alone
cannot maintain airfoil temperatures below 1,800–1,900 8F. It is then
necessary to provide a film of cool fluid on the outer surface to reduce
contact between the hot gases and the metal. This film is obtained by
ejecting part of the cooling air through film-holes at critical locations where
high metal temperatures are expected. If shower-head film cooling is used, a
fraction of the cooling flow exits through film-holes at the airfoil leading
edge. Some film-holes may also be provided on the pressure and the suction
surfaces. Another fraction exits at the trailing edge and a small amount may
be ejected at the blade tip through nearly radial holes. The film-holes keep
the leading-edge and the near-stagnation regions of the pressure and suction
surfaces cool, while the air ejected along the trailing edge cools the rest of
the these surfaces. Figure 9 shows a cooled blade with showerhead and
pressure surface film-holes used in turbines.
Having defined the airfoil surface (the outer shape of the blade where
it is exposed to gas), the next step is the cooling passage design to maintain
the blade surface at temperatures commensurate with its material properties
and expected life. Due to material property limitations, this temperature
does not exceed 1,800–1,9008F in most designs. The cooling passages are
often serpentine and may have trip-strips or fins in them for heat-transfer
enhancement. Further, where shower head cooling holes are required, the
cooling air is made to impinge on the inner surface of the leading edge

Figure 9 Typical high-pressure turbine blade with shower head and film-cooling
holes.
before emerging at the surface. All these features are indicated in Fig. 10,
which shows a schematic diagram of the airfoil internal passages.
The parameters affecting cooled blade design are (1) blade material
characteristics and cost, (2) airfoil shape, (3) required cooling flow and the
trailing-edge thickness, (4) allowable stress levels, (5) number of blades, and
(6) vibratory environment. Minimizing the cooling air required for the
airfoil is an important consideration in design. Cooling air flow (ejected at
film-holes, trailing edge, etc.) and blade rotation generally affect (1) the
aerodynamics of the blade and the overall efficiency of the system, (2)
impingement heat transfer at the leading edge, and (3) the local heat transfer
behind trip-strips and fins. In addition, blade-tip thickness and streamlines
at the trailing edge are affected by the cooling flow issuing at the trailing
edge. (For new designs, it may be necessary to use experience and
extrapolate beyond the range of available data.) At present, CFD analysis
does not provide accurate predictions of heat transfer and pressure drops in
cooling passages with complicated internal geometry, especially where
rotation is involved. Further, for complicated situations, considerable
expertise and effort are needed to obtain solutions by using CFD. Hence, it
is difficult to use CFD as a design tool. Improvements in CFD techniques

Figure 10 Schematic diagram of the interior of an airfoil with cooling passages.
and a multidisciplinary computational approach (see Chapter 9) to optimize

the geometry and cooling flow requirements may help in this direction. This
computation should include the external and internal surface details as well
as heat transfer as variables. A good analysis therefore needs an accurate
estimate of the convective heat-transfer coefficients in the airfoil passages.
Presently, the local heat-transfer coefficients inside the airfoil may be
determined by using the liquid-crystal technique [4, 5], which provides
reliable results for stationary internal cooling passages. The liquid crystal is
a material which is sensitive to temperature and exhibits fringes of various
colors (red, green, and blue), at different temperatures. A scale model of the
airfoil (8 to 12 times enlarged) is made of a transparent material (plexiglass,
stereo-lithography, etc.). It can be sprayed on the inside of the passage
where thermal data are required. When hot air is passed through the
passage, the internal surfaces become warm and the liquid crystal exhibits
color fringes as a function of time. The fringes can be recorded on a video
camera and the transient data analyzed by using a computer. The computer
processes the data further to determine the heat-transfer coefficients on the
inside of the blade. Unfortunately, the technique is difficult to use in a
rotating environment. Mass transfer technique (sublimation) may be used as
an alternative to liquid-crystal technique for stationary components.
However, the coating of the internal passages with a sublimating material

and the measurement of local heat-transfer coefficients may pose more
difficulties than for the liquid-crystal test.
1. Rotating tip shrouds. Figure 11 portrays schematically an
uncooled LPT blade with a rotating tip shroud. The tip shroud is necessary
due to the large radius and blade span in the low-pressure stages. The same
blade-tip clearance will cause a much larger fraction of leakage at a low-
pressure stage than at a high-pressure stage. The gain in power output and
turbine efficiency due to the tip shroud should be balanced against the cost
and complexity of design. Tip shrouds may have one or more teeth
depending on the permissible leakage and the required aerodynamic
efficiency. All the design parameters for a cooled blade are similar to those
of the cooled blade, except the rotating tip shroud and the number of teeth
on it.
2. Blade-to-disk attachment. There exist two types of attachments
between the blade and the disk. The first is the integral design where the
blade and the disk are made of the same material. These are cast as an
integral unit and cannot be detached. This design is usually used in
compressor and turbine stages in which the disk stresses are so low that the
blade material can stand the temperature and the stresses. Typically in
turbines, a high-strength forging that has a lower tolerance to temperature is
used for the disk, whereas a material casting that can stand higher
temperatures is used for the blades. In HP turbines where the blade needs
cooling, the procedure is to cast the blade as a separate piece that can be
inserted in the rim of the disk at the fir tree. Then the blade can be made of
special alloys of nickel with high strength and tolerance to temperature.
Moreover, the blade can be made with serpentine or other passages through
which cooling air can be passed to maintain the surface at low temperatures
to ensure long life.
3. Turbine disk design. Disk design should ensure that the stresses
due to thermal transients and those induced by rotation do not become
excessive at any location. The main areas of concern are the disk rim, the
web, and the disk bore. At the rim, the blade-disk attachment area (fir-tree)
is subjected to high stresses due to the centrifugal forces on the blades. The
disk rim is heated by conduction at the blade attachment, by convection
near the blade platform, and by the ingested gas in the cavities. It should
therefore be cooled by providing adequate amounts of air at both faces of
the disk. The flow should also be sufficient to keep the disk cavities purged
such that gas ingestion is minimized. The main aspect of the design is to
guard against LCF failure. It is necessary as well to guard against stress-
rupture at specific points (e.g., fir-tree attachment), due to excessive creep,
thermal, and bearing stresses. At the disk bore where the stresses often
exceed yield limits, it is necessary to guard against the possibility of failure

Figure 11 Low-pressure turbine blade with a tip shroud.

due to cyclic operation. In addition, disks have to be designed to operate at
speeds about 20% above the engine operating speed for maximum power.
Referred to as overspeed capability, this design ensures that in the event the
engine needs extra power during an emergency, there is adequate margin
with little risk of failure. It also provides safety against inadvertent
overspeeds.
4. Turbine stage design. The design of turbine stages requires
specification of the shapes of the airfoils, the rotational speeds of the
rotors, the velocity triangles, aerodynamic efficiencies, and the work output.
Figure 12 shows schematics of typical turbine HPT and LPT blades. Since
these two blades run at different speeds, have different velocities of gas flow,
and have different outputs, they are quite different in shape. The primary
element of aerodynamic design is the maximization of blade efficiency. For a
given stage work output, the stage efficiency increases with tip speed to
reach a maximum level at a certain speed. Efforts are made to design the
blade to operate close to this optimal speed. In the HP turbine stage,
because of the high density and high velocity of the gas, the flow area
required and the disk diameter are smaller than those of the LPT. Further,
the airfoils are usually of small span compared with those of the LPT stages
and turn the gas through large angles ranging to 1308. These requirements
(high tip speed for maximum efficiency and small diameter) imply that they
run at much higher rotational speeds than LPT blades. In gas turbines
designed by Honeywell Engines & Systems, there is no attached rotating tip
shroud at the HPT blade tips, since leakage across the blade is not as serious
as in the LPT. (Large engines designed by Rolls-Royce Plc., for example,
often have rotating tip shrouds on HPT blades as well.) As opposed to this,
the LPT stages have large diameters since they are driven by low-pressure,
low-density gas with large specific volumes. They tend to run at lower tip
Figure 12 Schematic diagrams of typical HP turbine and LP turbine blades.

speeds as well since their work output is smaller than that of the HP stage.
The span of the blade has to be sufficiently large (high aspect ratio) to pass
the gas with low density. In addition, as compared with HPT blades, these
blades may have more of a radial twist, to accommodate the changes in
incidence angle with increasing radii. They do not need as much cooling air
as the HPT stages since they deal with cooler gas. Often, LPT blades are
designed with no cooling at all, since modern materials can withstand
reasonably high temperatures and still have enough life to satisfy
specifications. Even so, the disks require air to keep their sides cool and
to purge the cavities to prevent gas ingestion. As the temperatures and
speeds are lower overall, the disks may be made of materials that are
generally less expensive and may still be more durable than the disks of HPT
stages. The blades may be provided with rotating tip shrouds, since the
problem of leakage at the airfoil tip is more serious at the LPT blades.
5. Thermal/stress analysis and life prediction. The next step in design
is the determination of stresses in the disks, blades, and other critical
components of the turbomachine. This starts with a finite-element thermal
analysis of the component including appropriate boundary conditions. In
general, a commercial code is utilized for most types of finite-element
analyses. (For a nearly two-dimensional or axisymmetric geometry, in-house
codes are utilized sometimes, since they facilitate the application of thermal
boundary conditions. The general practice is to carry out all fully three-
dimensional thermal analyses with a commercial code.) The boundary
conditions specify the temperatures of the cooling fluid flowing around the
component, heat-transfer coefficients, permissible surface temperatures,
speed of rotation, etc. The stress analysis following the thermal analysis
needs three material characteristics: the modulus of elasticity, Poisson ratio,
and thermal expansion coefficient. If the material is nonisotropic, the
moduli of elasticity in all three directions as well as a few other properties
need to be specified. The analysis identifies areas of high stress that may
limit the life of the component. Also, in areas of stress concentration,
calculations are performed to determine life under operating conditions and
to ensure that the component has a sufficiently long fatigue (LCF) life.
The rotating parts of turbines are subjected to both centrifugal and
thermal stresses and need particular care in design. For example, turbine
disks experience large temperature differences between the blade attachment
area and the bore in addition to being in a centrifugal force field. In such
cases, a transient thermal analysis must be performed since the highest
thermal stresses often occur in the transient condition rather than at steady
state. A temperature map of the interior of the disk at various time intervals
is thus obtained. This is used subsequently to perform a stress analysis. To
illustrate this point, Fig. 13 is a diagram of two-dimensional analyses in both

the steady and transient conditions for a disk. Schematics of isotherms and
representative temperatures as well as stresses corresponding to steady-state
and transient conditions are shown. Based on the indicated conditions in the
diagrams, the bore thermal stress during the transient is higher than during
steady-state operation at full power. This condition should be used to
estimate life later.
Figure 14 portrays schematically the two-dimensional stresses due to
thermal effects and centrifugal loads caused by blade and disk rotation. The
stresses are expected to be low at the rim and high at the bore. Since this is a
two-dimensional analysis, it will not provide the bearing surface stresses at
the fir tree. A three-dimensional analysis is necessary to determine them.
Blade attachment areas should be checked for excessive stresses at all root
surfaces by using a three-dimensional analysis.
Fatigue Life. Fatigue life prediction at areas of high stress concentration

(e.g., blade roots) may require a three-dimensional analysis. (This is because
two-dimensional calculations cannot predict the variations of stress in the
third direction. The local stresses at some points in that direction may
exceed yield, even though the average stress remains at reasonable levels.)
Tables 3(a) and 3(b) show the steps involved in this analysis. The three-
dimensional analysis starts with the generation of the geometry and the
corresponding solid model, which is meshed with a mesh generator. These
meshes are fine compared with their two-dimensional counterparts. They are
Figure 13 Two-dimensional transient thermal analysis of a disk (schematic).

Figure 14 Two-dimensional stresses in a disk (schematic).
more difficult to create and require large amounts of storage space as well as
time for computation. For these reasons, a three-dimensional analysis is
carried out only in critical areas of expected high stress. After applying the
appropriate boundary conditions, thermal and stress analyses are performed
to determine areas of high stresses. For blades and other rotating
components, the finite-element mesh used for stress analysis may also be
used in vibration analysis to determine the natural frequencies, modal
shapes, and associated stresses. All vibratory modes (bending, stripe,
torsion, etc.) should be included in the analysis. In general, frequencies at
the sixth mode and above are not significant, since aerodynamic damping
will ensure low vibratory amplitudes and stresses at these frequencies. They
do not contribute significantly to HCF. To avoid high stresses due to
vibration, the design should ensure that there exist no sources of excitation
with frequencies close to resonance (1st to 5th modes). This requirement

Table 3(a) Steps in a Three-Dimensional Thermal Analysis
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Obtain CAD Generate 3D mesh Apply appropriate Perform transient

model using transient thermal analysis
appropriate boundary & determine
mesher (Note: conditions (Use worst
The mesh worst BCs temperature
should be fine applicable gradient and
enough to suit during cyclic regions of max.
the operation) temp. for stress
requirements of analysis
stress and
vibration
analyses to
follow.)
may result in changing the airfoil count or the struts in the system so that
excitation is avoided at critical operating speeds. The results of vibration
analysis permit the generation of a Campbell diagram (Fig. 15), which
portrays the natural frequencies of the blade as a function of speed (rpm or
percent of maximum). Centrifugal forces tend to raise the natural
frequencies while increasing temperatures tend to reduce them due to
Table 3(b) Steps in a Three-Dimensional Stress and Vibration Analysis
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Refine mesh used Interpolate from Apply appropriate Generate modal

for thermal results of BCs applicable shapes and
analysis if thermal analysis to stress perform
necessary, to to impose analysis. vibration
suit temperatures at Include body analysis by
requirements all points on forces as using the same
for stress and newly generated necessary and mesh.
vibration mesh. perform stress
analyses. analysis.
Determine
worst stress
location.

Figure 15 Schematic Campbell diagram.
attendant reductions in modulus of elasticity. The diagonal lines represent

different engine excitation orders due to sources like struts, upstream
nozzles, blades, etc. The points of intersections between the lines of natural
frequencies of the blade and the excitations caused by the sources in the
system are those that could cause resonance. Figure 15 applies to turbine
blades and shows the excitation due to diffuser vanes located upstream of
the blades. Steady-state operation close to the speeds (+10%) at which
excitation may occur is to be avoided. As indicated on the diagram, no
excitations to cause resonance should occur within the operating range of
the engine. Engine strain-gage tests may be performed to determine the
strain level (amplitude) of each excitation and determine where high
vibration actually exists.
The schematic Goodman diagram portrayed in Fig. 16 is used to
assess the combined effects of static and vibratory (alternating) stresses on a
material. It plots the permitted alternating stress against the mean or static
stress. A constant HCF lifeline corresponding to minimum properties (3s
values) at the temperature of operation is plotted as the minimum Goodman
line. The line is usually drawn with the 3s value of the endurance limit as
the ordinate intercept and the 3s value of the ultimate tensile strength of
the material as the abscissa intercept. It typically represents 107 cycles of
HCF life. The design should ensure that the alternating and mean stresses in
the material correspond to a point below the Goodman line. For airfoil
design, this ordinate may range between 30% and 50% of the 3s value,
depending on the criteria used in different design groups.

Figure 16 Schematic Goodman diagram.
Creep can cause excessive permanent deflections, unacceptably large

growth of airfoils, reduced tip clearance, and increased probability of a tip
rub. Further, there exists the possibility of untwist of airfoils and bending
Figure 17 Schematic of a Larson–Miller plot.

overload of the blade, causing excessive stresses in critical areas. Hence, the
stress-rupture life of the component must match or exceed the stipulated
contract requirement. Creep and stress rupture lives are predicted by using
the Larson–Miller plot [6], shown in Fig. 17. This is a plot of allowable
average stress in the blade (or other components) against the Larson–Miller
parameter, defined by the expression
P ¼ Tm ðC þ log10 tÞ=1000 ð6Þ
Here, C is the Larson–Miller constant, with values ranging between 15 and
25 for most metals and alloys. Usually, it is assumed to be 20 in calculations.
For a specified maximum creep (1%, 2%, etc.) and a given average
stress at a cross section (determined from the finite-element analysis), the
plot permits one to determine the Larson–Miller parameter, P. Since the
average temperature in the specimen is also known, the parameter permits
the estimation of maximum operating life. Moreover, the magnitudes of
permitted creep and P permit one to calculate a short-term effect of time and
temperature that is equivalent to any long-term requirement. Note that the
Larson–Miller plot depends on the characteristics of the material and is
different for different materials.
Corrosion And Erosion. In addition to those outlined above, the effects of

oxidation, corrosion, and erosion have to be minimized to ensure long life.
This is particularly true of blades and nozzles that are continuously exposed
to the hot gas. The level of corrosion depends strongly on the pollutants in
the atmosphere and on the composition of the fuel, which may contain
sulfur or compounds of alkaline materials. These are transported by hot
gases and attack the materials of the airfoils. Oxides, sulfides, and certain
alkaline compounds are formed at the surfaces of the blades and vanes. To
counter these effects, it is necessary to choose appropriate vane/blade
materials and limit their surface temperatures to low levels. It is also
appropriate to put a layer of ‘‘thermal barrier’’ coat (TBC, thickness,
0.00300 –0.00700 ) over the surface of the vane/blade. The coating consists of
two layers, the first being a bond-coat (platinum aluminide or similar
material) followed by an outer layer of low thermal conductivity compared
with the base metal. This layer may be of ceramic (e.g., yttria-stabilized
zirconia) and maintains the metal surface temperature lower than for a
blade without TBC. In addition, it shields the metal surface from exposure
to the hot corrosive gases flowing through the turbine (e.g., oxygen, oxides
of sulfur, metallic oxides). The composition of the thermal barrier coating,
its thickness, and the method of application are determined by the type of
metal surface, the gas temperature, and the maximum temperature the metal
can withstand. These differ from application to application. Erosion may

occur due to particles of unburned carbon emerging from the combustor or
dust and sand in the air in certain arid regions. The particles transported by
hot gases over blades do not follow the fluid streamlines since they are more
massive and the centrifugal forces tend to throw them toward the blade tips.
Hence, they often damage the blade tip or the suction surface so badly that
the performance is affected and the blade may need replacement. They may
damage the thermal barrier coat (if present) and expose the metal surface to
hot gas. While the presence of unburned carbon is determined by combustor
design, the inflow of sand particles may be minimized by using an
appropriate filtering medium or particle separator at the engine inlet.
However, it is difficult to prevent the erosion of helicopter blades due to
sand.
Corrective measures such as slight changes in geometry, introduction
of an insulating layer at appropriate locations, increase in cooling flow, etc.
may be initiated if the first design leads to a shorter than desired life. With
the completion of stress and vibration analyses and life evaluation, drawings
are prepared and released for the manufacture of the parts.
Validation and Certification Tests

It is usual to perform cold flow, spin-pit, etc. tests for items like blades and
nozzles, while rig tests are performed on individual components such as the
axial compressor, centrifugal compressor, HPT, or LPT. Scaled models may
also be used in some of the tests. The rig tests include complete
instrumentation and are used to validate the calculated performance of
the components. The mass flows of air, pressures, and temperatures as well
as rotational speeds are monitored at all the design points, ranging from idle
to rated maximum power (usually 110% of rated power). For turboshaft
engines, similar tests may be performed to determine the performance
parameters of other components such as recuperators. These tests, if
satisfactory, are followed by a full engine test, with operating conditions
ranging from idle to maximum power conditions. The Federal Aeronautics
Administration (FAA) specifies the operating cycle and the number of cycles
to which the engine must be subjected without deterioration before being
certified as airworthy for commercial or military use. The following is a brief
list of some of the tests.
Component Tests. These are performed on individual components such as

blades, vanes, shrouds, heat exchangers, etc. They may be run in laboratory
rigs to verify the validity of the assumptions used in design. The components
may be tested under simulated conditions close to those expected during
engine operation. These consist of:

1. Thermal tests. These are performed in the laboratory.
Cold flow tests of actual blades, vanes, TOBI (tangential on-board
injector), etc. to validate design.
Liquid-crystal tests to evaluate internal or external heat-transfer
coefficients,
Scaled transparent model (e.g., stereo-lithography, plexiglass) tests,
etc.
2. Vibratory tests. These are performed in the laboratory or in
special spin-pits. They include:
Shaker-table acoustics
Component holography
Component strain gauge
Spin-pit jet impingement
3. Stress tests. These consist of:
Spin-pit cyclic and overspeed tests, usually of blades and disks.
Spring rate deflection
4. Material property determination. These tests are meant to obtain
knowledge of properties of materials under development or to obtain
characteristics at elevated temperatures or high stress levels. Large banks of
material property data exist at most companies (Honeywell, GE, Pratt &
Whitney, Rolls Royce Plc., Siemens-Westinghouse, etc.). These data banks
are used in determining the elastic and thermal properties at the required
design conditions. The tests may be severe enough to cause fracture or other
type of failures in some of the materials.
5. Rig tests. They include
Cold aerodynamic tests
Seal tests
Bearing tests
Combustor tests
6. Engine tests. These tests comprise the following:
Performance diagnostics conducted to determine power output,
specific fuel consumption, and other aspects of overall health of the
engine.
Thermal survey of the whole engine to ensure that the temperatures at
all points in the secondary flow system and other points are at
predetermined levels. These include metal, gas path temperatures and

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What wolde ye have? lightly me saye,—
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Therefore, I pray the, go with me:
For paraventure, thou mayst before God Almighty
My rekenynge helpe to clene and puryfye;
For it is said ever amonge
That money maketh all ryght that is wrong.
Goodes.
Nay, Every-man, I synge an other songe;
I folowe no man in such vyages.
For an I wente with the,
Thou sholdes fare moche the worse for me.
Goodes then exults in having beguiled him, laughs at his situation
and leaves him. Of whom shall he take council? He bethinks him of
Good Dedes.
But alas she is so weke
That she can nother go nor speke.
Yet wyll I venter on her now
My Good Dedes, where be you?
Good Dedes.
Here I lye colde on the grounde,
Thy sinnes hath me sore bounde
That I cannot stere.
Every-man.
I pray you that ye wyll go with me.
Good Dedes.
I wolde full fayne, but I can not stand veryly.
Every-man.
Why, is there any thynge on you fall?
Good Dedes.
Ye, Sir; I may thanke you of all.
If ye had parfytely sheved me,
Your boke of counte full redy had be.
Loke, the bokes of your workes and dedes eke,
A! se how they lye under the fete,
To your soules hevynes.
Every-man.
Our Lorde Jesus helpe me,
For one letter here I cannot se!
Good Dedes.
There is a blynde rekenynge in tyme of dystres!
Every-man.
Good-Dedes, I pray you, helpe me in this nede,
Good Dedes callsOrin Knowledge
elles I am for ever to help inhim
dampned to make his reckoning;
dede.
and Knowledge takes him lovingly to that holy man Confession; and
Confession gives him a precious jewel called Penance, in the form of
a scourge.
When with the scourge of Penance man doth hym bynde,

The oyl of forgyvenes than shall he fynde,—
Now may you make your rekenynge sure.
Every-man.
In the name of the holy Trynyte,
My body sore punyshed shall be.
Take this, Body, for the synne of the flesshe!
Also thou delytest to go gay and fresshe,
And in the way of dampnacyon thou dyd me brynge,
Therefore suffre now strokes of punysshynge.
Now of penaunce I wyll wede the water clere
To save me from Purgatory, that sharpe fyre.
Good Dedes.
I thanke God, now I can walke and go;
And am delyvered of my sykenesse and wo,
Therfore with Every-man I wyll go and not spare;
His good workes I wyll helpe hym to declare.
Knowlege.
Now Every-man, be mery and glad,
Your Good Dedes cometh now, ye may not be sad.
Now is your Good Dedes hole and sounde,
Goynge upryght upon the grounde.
Every-man.
My herte is lyght, and shall be evermore,
Now wyll I smyte faster than I dyde before.
Knowledge then makes him put on the garment of sorrow called
contrition, and makes him call for his friends Discretion, Strength
and Beauty to help him on his pilgrimage, and his Five Wits to
counsel him. They come at his call and promise faithfully to help
him.
Strength.
I Strength wyll by you stande in dystres,
Though thou wolde in batayle fyght on the grownde.
Fyve-Wyttes.
And thought it were thrugh the world rounde,
We wyll not depart for swete ne soure.
Beaute.
No more wyll I unto dethes howre,
Watsoever therof befall.
He makes his testament, and gives half his goods in charity.

Discretion and Knowledge send him to receive the holy sacrament
and extreme unction, and Five-Wits expatiates upon the authority of
the Priesthood, to the Priest he says,
God hath—more power given

Than to ony Aungell that is in Heven,
With five wordes he may consecrate
Goddes body in flesshe and blode to make,
And handeleth his maker bytwene his handes.
The preest byndeth and unbyndeth all bandes
Both in erthe and in heven.—
No remedy we fynde under God
But all-onely preesthode.
—God gave Preest that dygnyte,
And setteth them in his stede among us to be:
Thus they be above Aungelles in degree.
Having received his viaticum Every-man sets out upon this mortal
journey: his comrades renew their protestations of remaining with
him; till when he grows faint on the way, and his limbs fail,—they fail
him also.
Every-man.
—into this cave must I crepe,
And tourne to erth, and there to slepe.
What, says Beauty; into this Grave?
—adewe by saynt Johan,

I take my tappe in my lappe and am gone.
Strength in like manner forsakes him; and Discretion says that

“when Strength goeth before, he follows after ever more.” And Fyve-
Wyttes, whom he took for his best friend, bid him, “farewell and
then an end.”
Every-man.
O Jesu, helpe! all hath forsaken me!
Good Dedes.
Nay, Every-man, I wyll byde with the,
I wyll not forsake the in dede;
Thou shalt fynde me a good frende at nede.
Knowledge also abides him till the last; the song of the Angel who
receives his spirit is heard, and a Doctour concludes the piece with
an application to the audience.
This morall men may have in mynde,
—forsake Pryde for he deceyveth you in the ende,
And remembre Beaute, Fyve-Wyttes, Strength and Dyscrecyon
They all at the last do Every-man forsake,
Save his Good Dedes, these doth he take:
But be ware, an they be small,
Before God he hath no helpe at all!
CHAPTER CCXXVII.
SYSTEM OF PROGRESSION MARRED ONLY BY MAN'S INTERFERENCE.—THE DOCTOR

SPEAKS SERIOUSLY AND HUMANELY AND QUOTES JUVENAL.
MONTENEGRO. How now, are thy arrows feathered?
VELASCO. Well enough for roving.
MONTENEGRO. Shoot home then.

SHIRLEY.
It is only when Man interferes, that the system of progression which

the All Father has established throughout the living and sentient
world, is interrupted, and Man, our Philosopher would sorrowfully
observe, has interrupted it, not only for himself, but for such of the
inferior creatures as are under his controul. He has degraded the
instincts of some, and in others, perhaps it may not be too much to
say that he has corrupted that moral sense of which even the brute
creation partakes in its degree; and has inoculated them with his
own vices. Thus the decoy duck is made a traitor to her own
species, and so are all those smaller birds which the bird-catcher
trains to assist him in ensnaring others. The Rat, who is one of the
bravest of created things, is in like manner rendered a villain.
Upon hunting and hawking the Doctor laid little stress, because both
dogs and falcons in their natural state would have hunted and
fowled on their own account. These sports according to his “poor
way of thinking,” tended to deprave not so much the animals, as the
human beings employed in them; for when they ceased to be
necessary for the support or protection of man, they became
culpable. But to train dogs for war, and flesh them upon living
prisoners, as the Spaniards did, (and as, long since the decease of
my venerable friend, Buonaparte's officers did in St. Domingo),—to
make horses, gentle and harmless as well as noble in their
disposition as they are, take a part in our senseless political
contentions, charge a body of men, and trample over their broken
limbs and palpitating bodies;—to convert the Elephant, whom Pope,
he said, had wronged by only calling him half-reasoning, the mild,
the thoughtful, the magnanimous Elephant, into a wilful and
deliberate and cruel executioner, these he thought were acts of high
treason against humanity, and of impiety against universal nature.
Grievous indeed it is, he said, to know that the whole creation
groaneth and travaileth in pain; but more grievous to consider that
man, who by his original sin was the guilty cause of their general
deprivation, should continue by repeated sins to aggravate it;—to
which he added that the lines of the Roman Satirist, though not
exactly true, were yet humiliating and instructive.
Mundi
Principio indulsit communis conditor illis
Tantum animas, nobis animum quoque, mutuus ut nos
Adfectus petere auxilium et præstare juberet,
Dispersos trahere in populum, migrare vetusto
De nemore, et proavis habitatas linquere silvas;
Ædificare domos, Laribus conjungere nostris
Tectum aliud, tutos vicino limine somnos
Ut conlata daret fiducia; protegere armis
Labsum, aut ingenti nutantem vulnere civem,
Communi dare signa tubâ, defendier îsdem
Turribus, atque unâ portarum clave teneri.
Sed jam serpentum major concordia; parcit
Cognatis maculis similis fera; quando leoni
Fortior eripuit vitam leo? quo nemore unquam
Expiravit aper majoris dentibus apri?
Indica tigris agit rabidâ cum tigride pacem
Perpetuam: sævis inter se convenit ursis.
Ast homini ferrum lethale incude nefandâ
Produxisse parum est; quum rastra et sarcula tantum
Adsueti coquere, et marris ac vomere lassi
Nescierint primi gladios excudere fabri.
Adspicimus populos, quorum non sufficit iræ
Occidisse aliquem: sed pectora, brachia, vultum
Crediderint genus esse cibi. Quid diceret ergo
Vel quo non fugerit, si nunc hæc monstra videret
Pythagoras: cunctis animalibus abstinuit qui
Tanquam homine, et ventri indulsit non omne legumen.1
1 The reader may call to mind the commencement of the Third Canto of Rokeby.
The hunting tribes of air and earth
Respect the brethren of their birth;
Nature, who loves the claim of kind,
Less cruel, chase to each assigned.
The falcon, poised on soaring wing,
Watches the wild-duck by the spring;
The slow-hound wakes the fox's lair;
The greyhound presses on the hare;
The eagle pounces on the lamb;
The wolf devours the fleecy dam:
Even tiger fell and sullen bear
Their likeness and their lineage spare.
Man, only, mars kind Nature's plan
And turns the fierce pursuit on man;
Plying war's desultory trade,
Incursion, flight, and ambuscade,
Since Nimrod, Cush's mighty son
At first the bloody game begun.
CHAPTER CCXXVIII.
RATS.—PLAN OF THE LAUREATE SOUTHEY FOR LESSENING THEIR NUMBER.—THE

DOCTOR'S HUMANITY IN REFUSING TO SELL POISON TO KILL VERMIN, AFTER THE
EXAMPLE OF PETER HOPKINS HIS MASTER.—POLITICAL RATS NOT ALLUDED TO.—
RECIPE FOR KILLING RATS.
I know that nothing can be so innocently writ, or carried, but may be made
obnoxious to construction; marry, whilst I bear mine innocence about me, I fear it
not.
BEN JONSON.
The Laureate Southey proposed some years ago in one of his
numerous and multifarious books, three methods for lessening the
number of rats, one of which was to inoculate some of these
creatures with the small pox or any other infectious disease, and
turn them loose. Experiments, he said, should first be made, lest the
disease should assume in them so new a form, as to be capable of
being returned to us with interest. If it succeeded, man has means
in his hand which would thin the hyenas, wolves, jackals and all
gregarious beasts of prey.
Considering the direction which the March of his Intellect has long
been taking, it would surprise me greatly if the Laureate were now
to recommend or justify any such plan. For setting aside the
contemplated possibility of physical danger, there are moral and
religious considerations which ought to deter us from making use of
any such means, even for an allowable end.
Dr. Dove, like his master and benefactor Peter Hopkins before him,
never would sell poison for destroying vermin. Hopkins came to that
resolution in consequence of having been called as a witness upon a
trial for poisoning at York. The arsenic had not been bought at his
shop; but to prevent the possibility of being innocently instrumental
to the commission of such a crime, he made it from that time a rule
for himself, irrevocable as the laws of the Medes and Persians, that
to no person whatever, on any account, would he supply ingredients
which by carelessness or even by unavoidable accident might be so
fatally applied.
To this rule his pupil and successor, our Doctor, religiously adhered.
And when any one not acquainted with the rule of the shop, came
there on such an errand, he used always, if he was on the spot, to
recommend other methods, adapting his arguments to what he
knew of the person's character, or judged of it from his
physiognomy. To an ill-conditioned and ill-looking applicant he simply
recommended certain ways of entrapping rats as more convenient,
and more likely to prove efficacious: but to those of whom he
entertained a more favourable opinion, he would hint at the cruelty
of using poison, observing that though we exercised a clear natural
right in destroying noxious creatures, we were not without sin if in
so doing we inflicted upon them any suffering more than what must
needs accompany a violent death.
Some good natured reader who is pestered with rats in his house,
his warehouses, or his barns, will perhaps when he comes to this
part of our book wish to be informed in what manner our Zoophilist
would have advised him to rid himself of these vermin.
There are two things to be considered here, first how to catch rats,
and secondly, how to destroy them when caught. And the first of
these questions is a delicate one, when a greater catch has recently
been made than any that was ever heard of before, except in the
famous adventure of the Pied Piper at Hammel. Jack Robinson had
some reputation in his day for his professional talents in this line, but
he was a bungler in comparison with Mr. Peel.
The second belongs to a science which Jeremy the thrice illustrious

Bentham calls Phthisozoics, or the art of destruction applied to
noxious animals, a science which the said Jeremy proposes should
form part of the course of studies in his Chrestomathic school. There
are no other animals in this country who do so much mischief now
as the disciples of Jeremy himself.
But leaving this pestilent set, as one of the plagues with which Great
Britain is afflicted for its sins; and intending no offence to any
particular Bishop, Peer, Baronet, Peer-expectant, or public man
whatever, and protesting against any application of what may here
be said to any person who is, has been, or may be included under
any of the forementioned denominations, I shall satisfy the good-
natured reader's desires, and inform him in what manner our
Philosopher and Zoophilist (philanthropist is a word which would
poorly express the extent of his benevolence) advised those who
consulted him as to the best manner of taking and destroying rats.
Protesting therefore once more, as is needful in these ticklish times
that I am speaking not of the Pro-papist or Anti-Hanoverian rat,
which is a new species of the Parliament rat, but of the old Norway
or Hanoverian one, which in the last century effected the conquest
of our island by extirpating the original British breed, I inform the
humane reader that the Doctor recommended nothing more than
the common rat-catcher's receit, which is to lure them into a cage by
oil of carroways, or of rhodium, and that when entrapped, the
speediest and easiest death which can be inflicted is by sinking the
cage in water.
Here Mr. Slenderwit, critic in ordinary to an established journal,

wherein he is licensed to sink, burn and destroy any book in which
his publisher has not a particular interest, turns down the corners of
his mouth in contemptuous admiration, and calling to mind the
anecdote of Grainger's invocation repeats in a tone of the softest
self-complacence “Now Muse, let's sing of Rats!” And Mr. Slapdash
who holds a similar appointment in a rival periodical slaps his thigh
in exultation upon finding so good an opportunity for a stroke at the
anonymous author. But let the one simper in accompaniment to the
other's snarl. I shall say out my say in disregard of both. Aye
Gentlemen,
For if a Humble Bee should kill a Whale

With the butt end of the Antarctic pole,
Tis nothing to the mark at which we aim.
CHAPTER CCXXIX.
RATS LIKE LEARNED MEN LIABLE TO BE LED BY THE NOSE.—THE ATTENDANT UPON
THE STEPS OF MAN, AND A SORT OF INSEPARABLE ACCIDENT.—SEIGNEUR DE
HUMESESNE AND PANTAGRUEL.
Where my pen hath offended,

I pray you it may be amended
By discrete consideration
Of your wise reformation:
I have not offended, I trust,
If it be sadly discust.
SKELTON.
Marvel not reader that rats, though they are among the most
sagacious of all animals, should be led by the nose. It has been the
fate of many great men, many learned men, most weak ones and
some cunning ones.
When we regard the comparative sagacity of animals, it should

always be remembered that every creature, from the lowest point of
sentient existence upward, till we arrive at man, is endued with
sagacity sufficient to provide for its own well-being, and for the
continuance of its kind. They are gifted with greater endowments as
they ascend in the scale of being, and those who lead a life of
danger, and at the same time of enterprise, have their faculties
improved by practice, take lessons from experience, and draw
rational conclusions upon matters within their sphere of intellect and
of action, more sagaciously than nine tenths of the human race can
do.
Now no other animal is placed in circumstances which tend so

continually to sharpen its wits,—(were I writing to the learned only, I
should perhaps say to acuate its faculties, or to develope its
intellectual powers,) as the rat, nor does any other appear to be of a
more improvable nature. He is of a most intelligent family, being
related to the Beaver. And in civilized countries he is not a wild
creature, for he follows the progress of civilization, and adapts his
own habits of life to it, so as to avail himself of its benefits.
The “pampered Goose” who in Pope's Essay retorts upon man, and
says that man was made for the use of Geese, must have been
forgetful of plucking time, as well as ignorant of the rites that are
celebrated in all old-fashioned families on St. Michael's day. But the
Rat might with more apparent reason support such an assertion: he
is not mistaken in thinking that corn-stacks are as much for his use
as for the farmers; that barns and granaries are his winter
magazines; that the Miller is his acting partner, the Cheesemonger
his purveyor, and the Storekeeper his steward. He places himself in
relation with man, not as his dependent like the dog, nor like the cat
as his ally, nor like the sheep as his property, nor like the ox as his
servant, nor like horse and ass as his slaves, nor like poultry who are
to “come and be killed” when Mrs. Bond invites them; but as his
enemy, a bold borderer, a Johnnie Armstrong or Rob Roy who
acknowledge no right of property in others, and live by spoil.
Wheresoever man goes, Rat follows, or accompanies him. Town or

country are equally agreeable to him. He enters upon your house as
a tenant at will, (his own, not yours,) works out for himself a
covered way in your walls, ascends by it from one story to another,
and leaving you the larger apartments, takes possession of the
space between floor and ceiling, as an entresol for himself. There he
has his parties, and his revels and his gallopades, (merry ones they
are) when you would be asleep, if it were not for the spirit with
which the youth and belles of Rat-land keep up the ball over your
head. And you are more fortunate than most of your neighbours, if
he does not prepare for himself a mausoleum behind your chimney-
piece or under your hearth-stone,1 retire into it when he is about to
die, and very soon afford you full proof that though he may have
lived like a hermit, his relics are not in the odour of sanctity. You
have then the additional comfort of knowing that the spot so
appropriated will thenceforth be used either as a common cemetery,
or a family vault. In this respect, as in many others, nearer
approaches are made to us by inferior creatures than are dreamt of
in our philosophy.
1 Southey alludes here to an incident which occurred in his own house. On taking up
the hearth-stone in the dining-room at Keswick, it was found that the mice had made
underneath it a Campo Santo,—a depository for their dead.
The adventurous merchant ships a cargo for some distant port, Rat
goes with it. Great Britain plants a colony in Botany Bay, Van
Diemen's Land, or at the Swan River, Rat takes the opportunity for
colonizing also. Ships are sent out upon a voyage of discovery. Rat
embarks as a volunteer. He doubled the Stormy Cape with Diaz,
arrived at Malabar in the first European vessel with Gama,
discovered the new world with Columbus and took possession of it
at the same time, and circumnavigated the globe with Magellan and
with Drake and with Cook.
After all, the Seigneur de Humesesne, whatever were the merits of

that great case which he pleaded before Pantagruel at Paris, had
reasonable grounds for his assertion when he said, Monsieur et
Messieurs, si l'iniquité des hommes estoit aussi facilement vuë en
jugement categorique, comme on connoit mousches en lait, le
monde quatre bœufs ne seroit tant mangé de Rats comme il est.
The Doctor thought there was no creature to which you could trace
back so many persons in civilized society by the indications which
they afforded of habits acquired in their prænatal professional
education. In what other vehicle, during its ascent could the Archeus
of the Sailor have acquired the innate courage, the constant
presence of mind, and the inexhaustible resources which
characterise a true seaman? Through this link too, on his progress
towards humanity, the good soldier has past, who is brave, alert and
vigilant, cautious never to give his enemy an opportunity of
advantage, and watchful to lose the occasion that presents itself.
From the Rat our Philosopher traced the engineer, the miner, the
lawyer, the thief, and the thief-taker,—that is, generally speaking:
some of these might have pre-existed in the same state as moles or
ferrets; but those who excelled in their respective professions had
most probably been trained as rats.
The judicious reader will do me the justice to observe that as I am

only faithfully representing the opinions and fancies of my venerable
friend, I add neither M. P., Dean, Bishop nor Peer to the list, nor any
of those public men who are known to hanker after candle-ends and
cheese-parings.
Indeed, it is a strange-disposed time;

But men may construe things after their fashion,
Clean from the purpose of the things themselves.2
1 SHAKSPEARE.
It behoves me to refrain more especially upon this subject from

anything which the malicious might interpret as scandal: for the
word itself σκάνδαλον, the Greek grammarians tell us, and the great
Anglo-Latin Lexicographist tells me, properly signifies that little piece
of wood in a mouse-trap or pit-fall, which bears up the trap, and
being touched, lets it fall.
CHAPTER CCXXX.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN YOUNG ANGELS AND YOUNG YAHOOS.—FAIRIES,

KILLCROPS AND CHANGELINGS.—LUTHER'S OPINIONS ON THE SUBJECT.—HIS
COLLOQUIA MENSALIA.—DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD AND NEW EDITION.
I think it not impertinent sometimes to relate such accidents as may seem no better
than mere trifles; for even by trifles are the qualities of great persons as well
disclosed as by their great actions; because in matters of importance they commonly
strain themselves to the observance of general commended rules; in lesser things
they follow the current of their own natures.
SIR WALTER RALEIGH.
It may easily be inferred from some of the Doctor's peculiar

opinions, or fancies, as he in unaffected humility would call them,
that though a dear lover of children, his love of them was not
indiscriminate. He made a great distinction between young angels
and young yahoos, and thought it might very early be discovered
whether the angel or the brute part predominated.
This is sometimes so strongly marked and so soon developed as to

excite observation even in the most incurious; and hence the well-
known superstition concerning Changelings.
In the heroic ages a divine origin is ascribed to such persons as were

most remarkable for their endowments either of body or of mind;
but this may far more probably be traced to adulation in the poets,
than to contemporary belief at any time prevailing among the
people; whereas the opposite superstition was really believed in the
middle ages, and traces of it are still to be found.
It is remarkable that the Fairies who in the popular belief of this

country are never represented as malignant upon any other
occasion, act an evil part in the supposed case of Changelings. So it
is with the Trolls also of our Scandinavian kinsmen, (though this race
of beings is in worse repute;) the children whom they substitute for
those whom they steal are always a plague to the nurse and to the
parents. In Germany such children were held to be young Devils, but
whether Mac-Incubi, Mac-Succubi, or O'Devils by the whole blood is
not clearly to be collected from Martin Luther, who is the great
authority upon this subject. He is explicit upon the fact that the Nix
or Water Fiend, increases the population by a mixed breed; but
concerning the Killcrops, as his countrymen the Saxons call them,
whom the Devil leaves in exchange, when he steals children for
purposes best known to himself, Luther does not express any
definite opinion, farther than that they are of a devilish nature: how
fathered, how mothered the reader is left to conjecture as he
pleases.
“Eight years since,” said Luther, at “Dessaw I did see and touch a
changed child, which was twelve years of age; he had his eyes and
all members like another child; he did nothing but feed, and would
eat as much as two clowns or threshers were able to eat. When one
touched it, then it cried out. When any evil happened in the house,
then it laughed and was joyful; but when all went well, then it cried,
and was very sad. I told the Prince of Anhalt, that if I were Prince of
that country, so would I venture homicidium thereon, and would
throw it into the river Moldaw. I admonished the people dwelling in
that place devoutly to pray to God to take away the Devil; the same
was done accordingly, and the second year after the Changeling
died.
“In Saxonia, near unto Halberstad, was a man that also had a
Killcrop, who sucked the mother and five other women dry, and
besides devoured very much. This man was advised that he should
in his pilgrimage at Halberstad make a promise of the Killcrop to the
Virgin Mary, and should cause him there to be rocked. This advice
the man followed, and carried the Changeling thither in a basket.
But going over a river, being upon the bridge, another Devil that was
below in the river called, and said, Killcrop! Killcrop! Then the child
in the basket, (which never before spake one word) answered ho,
ho! The Devil in the water asked further, whither art thou going? The
child in the basket said, ‘I am going towards Halberstad to our
Loving Mother, to be rocked.’ The man being much affrighted
thereat, threw the child with the basket over the bridge into the
water. Whereupon the two Devils flew away together, and cried, ho,
ho, ha! tumbling themselves one over another and so vanished.
“Such Changelings and Killcrops,” said Luther, “supponit Satan in

locum verorum filiorum; for the Devil hath this power, that he
changeth children, and instead thereof layeth Devils in the cradles,
which thrive not, only they feed and suck: but such Changelings live
not above eighteen or nineteen years. It oftentimes falleth out that
the children of women in child-bed are thus changed, and Devils laid
in their stead, one of which more fouleth itself than ten other
children do, so that the parents are much therewith disquieted; and
the mothers in such sort are sucked out, that afterwards they are
able to give suck no more. Such Changelings,” said Luther, “are
baptized, in regard that they cannot be known the first year, but are
known only by sucking the mothers dry.”
Mr. Cottle has made this the subject of a lively eclogue; but if that
gentleman had happened upon the modern edition of Luther's
Colloquia Mensalia, or Divine Discourses at his Table, instead of the
old one, this pleasant poem would never have been written, the
account of the Killcrops being one of the passages which the modern
editor thought proper to omit. His omissions are reprehensible,
because no notice is given that any such liberty has been taken; and
indeed a paragraph in the introductory life which is prefixed to the
edition might lead the reader to conclude that it is a faithful reprint;
that paragraph saying there are many things which, for the credit of
Luther, might as well have been left out, and proceeding to say, “but
then it must be considered that such Discourses must not be
brought to the test of our present refined age; that all what a man
of Luther's name and character spoke, particularly at the latter part
of his life, was thought by his friends worth the press, though
himself meant it only for the recreation of the company; that he
altered many opinions in his progress from darkness to light; and
that it is with a work of this kind, as with the publishing of letters
which were never intended for the press; the Author speaks his
sentiments more freely, and you are able to form a true idea of his
character, by looking, as it were, into his heart.” Nevertheless there
are considerable omissions, and as may be supposed of parts which
are curious, and in a certain sense valuable because they are
characteristic. But the reprint was the speculation of a low publisher,
put forth in numbers, and intended only for a certain class of
purchasers, who would read the book for edification. The work itself
deserves farther notice, and that notice is the more properly and
willingly bestowed upon it here, because the original edition is one
of the few volumes belonging to my venerable friend which have
passed into my possession, and his mark occurs frequently in its
margin.
“I will make no long excursion here, but a short apology for one that
deserved well of the reformed Religion. Many of our adversaries
have aspersed Luther, with ill words, but none so violent as our
English fugitives, because he doth confess it that the Devil did
encounter him very frequently, and familiarly, when he first put pen
to paper against the corruptions of the Church of Rome. In whose
behalf I answer: much of that which is objected I cannot find in the
Latin Editions of his works which himself corrected, although it
appears by the quotations some such things were in his first writings
set forth in the Dutch language. 2. I say no more than he confesseth
ingenuously of himself in an epistle to Brentius, his meaning was
good, but his words came from him very unskilfully, and his style
was most rough and unsavoury. St. Paul says of himself, that he was
rudis sermone, rude in speech. But Luther was not so much ἰδιώτης
τῷ λόγῳ the word used in Saint Paul, as ἄγροικος, after his Dutch
Monastical breeding, and his own hot freedom. By nature he had a
boisterous clownish expression; but for the most part very good
jewels of doctrine in the dunghills of his language. 3. If the devil did
employ himself to delude and vex that heroical servant of God, who
took such a task upon him, being a simple Monk, to inveigh against
errors and superstitions which had so long prevailed, why should it
seem strange to any man? Ribadaneira sticks it among the praises of
his founder Ignatius Loiola, that the Devil did declaim and cry out
against him, (believe it every one of you at your leisure,) and why
might not the Devil draw near to vex Luther, as well as roar out a
great way off against Loiola? I have digrest a little with your
patience, to make Luther's case appear to be no outrageous thing,
that weak ones may not be offended when they hear such stuff
objected out of Parsons, or Barclay, or Walsingham, or out of
Bellarmine himself. If Beelzebub was busy with the Master, what will
he be with the Servants? When Christ did begin to lay the first
corner stone of the Gospel, then he walked into the wilderness to be
tempted of the Devil.”1
1 HACKET'S SERMONS.
CHAPTER CCXXXI.
QUESTION AS TO WHETHER BOOKS UNDER THE TERMINATION OF “ANA” HAVE

BEEN SERVICEABLE OR INJURIOUS TO LITERATURE CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION
WITH LUTHER'S TABLE TALK.—HISTORY OF THE EARLY ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF
THAT BOOK, OF ITS WONDERFUL PRESERVATION, AND OF THE MARVELLOUS AND
UNIMPEACHABLE VERACITY OF CAPTAIN HENRY BELL.
Prophecies, predictions, Or where they abide,
Stories and fictions, On this or that side,
Allegories, rhymes, Or under the mid line
And serious pastimes Of the Holland sheets fine,
For all manner men, Or in the tropics fair
Without regard when, Of sunshine and clear air,
Or under the pole
Of chimney and sea coal:
Read they that list; understand they that can;
Verbum satis est to a wise man.
BOOK OF RIDDLES.
Luther's Table Talk is probably the earliest of that class of books,

which, under the termination of ana, became frequent in the two
succeeding centuries, and of which it may be questioned whether
they have been more serviceable or injurious to literature. For
though they have preserved much that is valuable, and that
otherwise might probably have been lost, on the other hand they
have introduced into literary history not a little that is either false, or
of suspicious authority; some of their contents have been obtained
by breach of confidence; many sayings are ascribed in them to
persons by whom they were never uttered, and many things have
been fabricated for them.
The Collection concerning Luther bears this title in the English

translation: “Doctoris Martini Lutheri Colloquia Mensalia: or, Dr.
Martin Luther's Divine Discourses at his Table, &c., which in his
lifetime he held with divers learned men, (such as were Philip
Melancthon, Casparus Cruciger, Justus Jonas, Paulus Eberus, Vitus
Dietericus, Joannes Bugenhagen, Joannes Forsterus, and others:)
containing Questions and Answers touching Religion, and other main
Points of Doctrine; as also many notable Histories, and all sorts of
Learning, Comforts, Advices, Prophecies, Admonitions, Directions
and Instructions. Collected first together by Dr. Antonius Lauterbach,
and afterwards disposed into certain Common-places by John
Aurifaber, Doctor in Divinity. Translated out of the High German into
the English tongue, by Captain Henry Bell.
John vi. 12. Gather up the fragments that nothing be lost.
1 Cor. x. 31. Whether therefore ye eat or drink, or whatsoever

ye do, do all to the Glory of God.
Tertull. Apologet. cap. 39. The primitive Christians ate and drank
to satisfy nature, and discoursed at their Tables of the Holy
Scriptures, or otherwise, as became those that knew God did
hear them, ut non tam cœnam cœnaverint, quam disciplinam.
Ancient Writers, Councils, and our University College Statutes

require sacra ad mensam.
Luther in Gen. 2. Sermones vera sunt condimenta ciborum.
Melchior Adamus in Vita Lutheri. Inter prandendum et

cænandum non rarò conciones aliis dictavit.
London, Printed by William Du Gard, dwelling in Suffolk-lane, near

London-stone, 1652.”
The original Collection was first published three and thirty years after
Luther's death, consequently not till most of those persons from
whose reminiscences it professes to be compiled, had past away.
The book therefore is far from carrying with it any such stamp of
authenticity as Boswell's Life of Johnson, which in that respect, as
well as for its intrinsic worth is the Ana of all Anas. But though it
may have been undertaken upon book-making motives, there seems
no reason to suppose that the task was not performed faithfully by
the Doctors Clearstream and Goldsmith, according to their judgment,
and that much which had lightly or carelessly fallen from such a man
as Luther was likely to be carefully preserved, and come into their
hands. Many parts indeed authenticate themselves, bearing so
strong a likeness that no one can hesitate at filiating them upon the
ipsissimus Luther. The editor of the modern English edition, John
Gottlieb Burckhardt, D.D., who was Minister of the German Lutheran
Congregation in the Savoy, says, “the Book made a great noise at its
first appearance in 1569. Some indeed have called its authenticity in
question; but there is no reason to doubt of the testimony of Dr.
John Aurifaber; and indeed the full character of Luther's free manner
of speaking and thinking is seen almost in every line. The same
manly, open, bold and generous spirit breathes through the whole,
as is felt in reading the compositions which he published himself in
his life time. There is a pleasing variety of matters contained in these
discourses, and many fundamental truths are proposed in a familiar,
careless dress, and in Luther's own witty, acute manner; for which
reason it is as much entertaining to popular capacities as to men of
genius. Many good Christians have found it to be of great benefit for
establishing their souls in the knowledge and practice of truth, and
of the good old way; and since many weeds grow up from time to
time in the Church, this book handed down to posterity, will be a
standing test of sound doctrines, which our forefathers believed, and
of such wise principles on which they acted at, and after the
Reformation.” On the other hand the book afforded as much
gratification to the enemies of Luther, as to his admirers. Bayle after
noticing some of the monstrous calumnies with which the Papists
assailed his memory, proceeds to say, La plûpart de ces medisances
sont fondées sur quelques paroles d'un certain livre publié par les
amis de Luther, ausquelles on donne un sens tres-malin, et fort
éloigné de la pensée de ce Ministre. Ce n'est pas qu'il ne faille
convenir qu'il y eut une très-grande imprudence à publier une telle
compilation. Ce fut l'effet d'un zêle inconsideré, ou plútôt d'une
preoccupation excessive, qui empêchoit de conoître les defauts de ce
grand homme. In like manner Seckendorf, whom Bayle quotes, says
it was compiled with little prudence, and incautiously published, but
upon its authenticity (as far as any such collection can be deemed
authentic) he casts no suspicion.
Something worse than want of prudence may be suspected in those
who set forth the English translation. The translator introduced it by
“a Narrative of the miraculous preserving” of the book, and “how by
God's Providence it was discovered lying under the ground where it
had lain hid fifty-two years:” “I, Capt. Henry Bell,” he says, “do
hereby declare both to the present age and also to posterity, that
being employed beyond the seas in state affairs divers years
together, both by King James, and also by the late King Charles, in
Germany I did hear and understand in all places, great bewailing
and lamentation made, by reason of the destroying or burning of
above fourscore thousand of Martin Luther's books, entituled his last
Divine Discourses. For after such time as God stirred up the spirit of
Martin Luther to detect the corruptions and abuses of Popery, and to
preach Christ, and clearly to set forth the simplicity of the Gospel,
many Kings, Princes and States, Imperial Cities, and Hanse-Towns,
fell from the Popish Religion, and became Protestants as their
posterities still are, and remain to this very day. And for the further
advancement of the great work of Reformation then begun, the
foresaid Princes and the rest did then order, that the said Divine
Discourse of Luther should forthwith be printed, and that every
Parish should have and receive one of the foresaid printed Books
into every Church throughout all their principalities and dominions,
to be chained up, for the common people to read therein. Upon
which the Reformation was wonderfully promoted and increased,
and spread both here in England and other countries beside. But
afterwards it so fell out, that the Pope then living, viz. Gregory XIII.
understanding what great hurt and prejudice he and his popish
religion had already received by reason of the said Luther's Divine
Discourses; and also fearing that the same might bring farther
contempt and mischief upon himself, and upon the popish Church,
he therefore to prevent the same, did fiercely stir up and instigate
the Emperor then in being, viz. Rudolphus II. to make an edict
through the whole empire, that all the foresaid printed books should
be burnt, and also that it should be Death for any person to have or
keep a copy thereof, but also to burn the same: which edict was
speedily put in execution accordingly, in so much that not one of all
the said printed books, not so much as any one copy of the same
could be found out, nor heard of in any place.”
Upon this it is to be observed that in the popish states of Germany

such an edict was not required, and that in the Protestant ones it
could not be enforced. There is therefore as little foundation for the
statement, as for the assertion introduced in it that the Reformation
was promoted in England by the publication of this book in German.
The Book appears not to have been common, for Bayle had never
seen it; but this was because few editions were printed, not because
many copies were destroyed. The reader however will judge by what
follows of the degree of credit which may be given to any statement
of Capt. Henry Bell's.
“Yet it pleased God,” the veracious Captain proceeds, “that anno

1626 a German Gentleman, named Casparus Van Sparr, (with whom,
in the time of my staying in Germany about King James's business, I
became very familiarly known and acquainted,) having occasion to
build upon the old foundation of an house wherein his grandfather
dwelt at that time when the said edict was published in Germany for
the burning of the foresaid Books, and digging deep into the ground
under the said old foundation, one of the said original printed books
was there happily found, lying in a deep obscure hole, being wrapt
in a strong linen cloth, which was waxed all over with bees-wax both
within and without, whereby the book was preserved fair without
any blemish. And at the same time Ferdinandus II. being Emperor in
Germany, who was a severe enemy and persecutor of the Protestant
religion, the foresaid Gentleman and grandchild to him that had
hidden the said Book in that obscure hole, fearing that if the said
Emperor should get knowledge that one of the said Books was yet
forthcoming and in his custody, thereby not only himself might be
brought into trouble, but also the Book in danger to be destroyed, as
all the rest were so long before; and also calling me to mind, and
knowing that I had the High Dutch tongue very perfect, did send the
said original Book over hither into England, unto me; and therewith
did write unto me a letter, wherein he related the passages of the
preserving and finding out of the said Book. And also he earnestly
moved me in his letter, that for the advancement of God's glory, and
of Christ's Church, I would take the pains to translate the said Book,
to the end that that most excellent Divine Work of Luther might be
brought again to light!
“Whereupon I took the said Book before me, and many times began
to translate the same, but always I was hindered therein, being
called upon about other business; insomuch that by no possible
means I could remain by that work. Then about six weeks after I
had received the said Book, it fell out, that I being in bed with my
Wife, one night between twelve and one of the clock, she being
asleep but myself yet awake, there appeared unto me an Antient
Man, standing at my bed-side, arrayed all in white, having a long
and broad white beard, hanging down to his girdle-stead; who,
taking me by my right ear, spake these words following unto me.
Sirrah! Will not you take time to translate that Book which is sent
unto you out of Germany? I will shortly provide for you both place
and time to do it! And then he vanished away out of my sight.
Whereupon being much thereby affrighted, I fell into an extreme
sweat, insomuch that my Wife awaking, and finding me all over wet,
she asked me what I ailed, I told her what I had seen and heard;
but I never did heed nor regard visions, nor dreams. And so the
same fell soon out of my mind.
“Then, about a fortnight after I had seen that Vision, I went to

Whitehall to hear the Sermon; after which ended, I returned to my
lodging, which was then in King Street at Westminster, and sitting
down to dinner with my Wife, two Messengers were sent from the
whole Council-Board, with a warrant to carry me to the Keeper of
the Gate House, Westminster, there to be safely kept, until further
order from the Lords of the Council; which was done without
showing me any cause at all wherefore I was committed. Upon
which said warrant I was kept there ten whole years close prisoner;
where I spent five years thereof about the translating of the said
Book: insomuch as I found the words very true which the old man in
the foresaid Vision did say unto me, ‘I will shortly provide for you
both place and time to translate it.’”
CHAPTER CCXXXII.
THE DOCTOR'S FAMILY FEELING.
It behoves the high

For their own sakes to do things worthily.
BEN JONSON.
No son ever regarded the memory of his father with more

reverential affection than this last of the Doves. There never lived a
man, he said, to whom the lines of Marcus Antonius Flaminius, (the
sweetest of all Latin poets in modern times, or perhaps of any age,)
could more truly be applied.
Vixisti, genitor, bene, ac beate,

Nec pauper, neque dives; eruditus
Satis, et satis eloquens; valente
Semper corpore, mente sanâ; amicis
Jucundus, pietate singulari.
“What if he could not with the Hevenninghams of Suffolk count five

and twenty knights of his family, or tell sixteen knights successively

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MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

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World Wide Web

Copyright # 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Current printing (last digit):

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

1 Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Progressing Cavity Pumps, Downhole Pumps, and Mudmotors, Lev Nelik

Piping and Pipeline Engineering- Design, Construction, Maintenance,

Turbomachmery. Design and Theory, Rama S. Gorta and Aijaz Ahmed

Mechanical Engineering Software

Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietnch

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

The original intent of this book—to serve as a reference work in

Earl Logan, Jr.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

This book is intended as a reference work in Turbomachinery for practicing

Earl Logan, Jr.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Preface to the Second Edition

2. Fluid Dynamics of Turbomachines

3. Turbine Gas-Path Heat Transfer

4. Selection of a Gas Turbine Cooling System

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6. Fundamentals of Compressor Design

7. Fundamentals of Turbine Design

9. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization for Turbomachinery

10. Rotordynamic Considerations

11. Turbomachines in Rocket Propulsion Systems

12. Turbomachinery Performance Testing

13. Automotive Superchargers and Turbochargers

14. Tesla Turbomachinery

15. Hydraulic Turbines

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Nathan G. Adams The Boeing Company, Mesa, Arizona, U.S.A.

Robert O. Bullock* Turbine Engine Division, Allied Signal Company,

Boris Glezer Consultant, Optimized Turbine Solutions, San Diego,

L He, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. School of Engineering, University of Durham,