INTRODUCTION:

A vast number of plant and animal species have existed on the

earth for several thousands of years. The process in living organisms
that ensures this continuity is Reproduction. Reproduction is one of the
characteristic features of living organisms. Life will not exist on earth
if plants and animals do not reproduce to make offspring. By
reproducing, a living organism can be sure that there is another
individual of its kind to take its place when it dies. In this way, a species
of an organism guarantees its survival. There is a large diversity in the
biological world and each organism has evolved its own mechanism to
multiply and produce offspring. The organism's habitat, its internal
physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for
how it reproduces.
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a
complex life cycle in which a gamete (haploid reproductive cells, such
as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes combines
with another gamete to produce a zygote that develops into an
organism composed of cells with two sets of chromosomes (diploid).
Sexual reproduction is the most common life cycle
in multicellular eukaryotes, such as animals, fungi and plants. Humans
are sexually reproducing and viviparous organisms. Their reproductive
events include formation of gametes (gametogenesis). i.e., sperms in
males and ovum in females, transfer of sperms into the female genital
tract (insemination) and fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote. This is followed by
formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the
uterine wall (implantation), embryonic development (gestation) and
delivery of the baby (parturition). You have learnt that these
reproductive events occur after puberty. There are remarkable
differences between the reproductive events in the male and in the
female, for example, sperm formation continues even in old men, but
formation of ovum ceases in women around the age of fifty years.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
Sexual reproduction is the production of off springs by the fusion
of specialised male and female cells called gametes, Gametes are
haploid and fuse to form the fertilized egg or zygote, which eventually
develops into a new organism. In comparison to asexual reproduction,
it is a slow process.
Sexual reproduction has the biological advantage of promoting
genetic variety among the members of a species because the offspring
is the product of genes contributed by both the parents. By making
possible the genetic recombination of inherited traits of two parents,
sexual reproduction gives rise to off springs that may be better able to
survive than parents. Although organisms differ in their external
morphology and internal structure, but all of them have nearly the same
reproductive pattern. In the animals, sex organs are already present in
young embryo.
Most of the animals have a specific period during which they
reproduce sexually. The events of reproduction take place in cycles. In
animals which reproduce more than once, many cycles take place
within a single life time. An animal reaches maturity, then goes through
cycles of making and releasing gametes. There are species of animals
which reproduce only once and then die. In such organisms, only one
stage of the life cycle is reproductive phase. The hormones stimulate
follicle development and ovulation (release of egg). Besides this, the
hormones also prepare the uterus for pregnancy. In primates (Human,
Ape and Old-world monkey) female sexual cycle called menstrual
cycle, occur all around the year with generally one ovulation in a
month. In non-primates such as sheep, cow, rat and dog reproduce
seasonally and are known as seasonal breeders. Cyclic changes in
female reproductive system of non-primates are known as oestrus
cycle. In mammals, the reproductive phase comes to an end as the
organism grows old.
 Events in Sexual Reproduction: The entire sexual process can be
divided into three phases:
A. Pre-fertilization events
B. Syngamy or fertilization
C. Post-fertilization events

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

The male reproductive system is located in the pelvic region. It includes
a pair of testes, along with accessory ducts, glands and the external
genitalia. The primary sex organs are testes in males that besides
producing gametes, also secrete sex hormones. The growth of gonads,
their maintenance and functions are regulated by gonadotropins (FSH,
ICSH) of the anterior lobe of pituitary. The other reproductive organs
which perform important functions in reproduction but neither produce
gametes nor secrete sex hormones, are called secondary sex organs.
These include the prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferens and penis in
males.
The Testes
The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a
pouch called scrotum. The scrotum helps in maintaining the low
temperature of the testes (2-2.5°C lower than the normal internal body
temperature), which is necessary for spermatogenesis and the
development of normal sperm. The testes start their development in the
abdominal cavity. But during the 7th month of the foetal life, they
descend into the scrotal sacs in presence of testosterone hormone.
Hence, the testes of human males are extra-abdominal. If they fail to
descend, this condition is called cryptorchidism that leads to sterility.
Scrotum is connected with the abdomen by the inguinal canal. Blood
vessels, nerves and conducting tubes pass through it. Castration is
removal of testes. It causes failure of development of secondary sex
organs and characters and remove the ability to reproduce due to
deficiency of testosterone. Choir boys were often castrated in medieval
Europe to retain their high-pitch voice for singing. Castration often
changes the aggressive bull into a docile ox. The docile ox can be
conveniently used for ploughing and drawing of bullock carts. In
adults, each testis is oval in shape, with a length of about 4 to 5 cm and
width of about 2 to 3 cm. The testis is covered by a dense covering.
They are enclosed in an outer tough capsule of collagenous connective
tissue, the tunica albuginea. Each testis has about 250 compartments
called testicular lobules; these compartments contain highly coiled
tubules called seminiferous tubules. Each lobule contains one to three
seminiferous tubules in which the sperms are produced. Each
seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called
male germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells. Spermatogonia
lining these tubules give rise to spermatozoa which are released into
the lumen of the tubule. In between spermatogenic cells, Sertoli or
sustentacular or nurse cells are present which provide nourishment to
developing spermatozoa and regulate spermatogenesis by releasing
inhibin to check FSH over-activity. The other functions of Sertoli cells
are:
(i) To absorb the parts being shed by developing spermatozoa.
(ii) To release anti mullerian factor (AMF) to prevent
development of mullerian duct/oviduct in male.
(iii) To release Androgen Binding Protein (ABP),
(iv) To form blood-testis barrier

Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubules

 Groups of polyhedral cells called Interstitial cells of Leydig, are
located in the connective tissue around the seminiferous tubules. They
constitute the endocrine tissue of the testis. Leydig cells synthesise and
secrete testicular hormones called Androgens into the blood.
Seminiferous tubules unite to form several straight tubules called tubuli
recti which open into irregular cavities in the posterior part of the testis
which is a highly anastomosing labyrinth of cuboidal epithelium lined
channels called rete testis. Several tubes called vasa efferentia arise
from it and conduct spermatozoa out of the testis. Tubuli recti, rete
testis and ductuli efferentes form the intra-testicular genital duct
system.

Cross section of a Testis

The extra testicular duct system consists of tubes which conduct
sperms from the testes to the outside. It starts with ducts known as vasa
efferentia. From each testis, 10-12 vasa efferentia merging to form a
folded and coiled tube called epididymis behind each testis. The
epididymis consists of three parts: Caput, Corpus and Cauda. The
epididymis stores the sperms temporarily.
 From cauda epididymis, a partially coiled tube called vas deferens
ascends into the abdomen through inguinal canal, passes over the
urinary bladder, the ductus deferens/vas deferens dilates to form
ampulla, which receives the duct from the seminal vesicle behind the
urinary bladder and forms an ejaculatory duct. The final portion of
ampulla passes through the prostate to open into the urethra shortly
after its origin from the urinary bladder.
Urethra
Male urethra provides a common pathway for the flow of urine and
semen. It is much longer in male than in female, measuring about 20cm.
(i) First part is surrounded by prostate gland and is called
prostatic/glandular part of urethra.
(ii) Membranous urethra is the second part which is situated
behind the lower part of pubic symphysis and is smallest.
(iii) Penile urethra is situated in the penis and is the longest part.
The urethra receives the ducts of the Prostate and Cowper's glands,
passes through the penis and opens to the outside.
Penis
This is the copulatory organ of man. It is a cylindrical, erectile,
pendulous organ suspended from pubic region in front of scrotum. It
remains small and limp (flaccid) but on sexual arousal, it becomes long,
hard and erect, ready for copulation (coitus or intercourse). Erect
human penis is, on an average, about 15 cm long.
The tissue in penis helps in erection to facilitate insemination. The
enlarged end of penis called glans penis is covered by loose fold of skin
called foreskin, At the tip of glans penis is the slit like external urethral
orifice or meatus by which urethra opens out and discharges urine or
semen.
Accessory Glands of male
(i) Seminal vesicles: These are paired, tubular, coiled glands
situated behind the bladder. They secrete viscous fluid which
 constitutes the main part of the ejaculate. Seminal fluid
contains fructose, inositol and prostaglandins.
(ii) Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a chestnut shaped gland
and is a collection of 30-40 tubuloalveolar glands which lie at
the base of the bladder and surrounds the first part of the
urethra. It contributes an alkaline component to the semen.
(Although, the alkalinization of semen is primarily
accomplished through secretion from the seminal vesicles.)
The alkaline secretions of prostate gland help the sperms to
become active and counteract any adverse effects that the urine
may have on the sperms. The prostatic fluid provides a
characteristic odour to the seminal fluid. Prostate gland
secretes calcium, phosphate ions and profibrinolysin.
Inflammation of prostate gland is called Prostatitis.
(iii) Bulbourethral glands or Cowper's glands: The two
bulbourethral glands are pea sized structures lying adjacent to
the urethra at the base of penis. They secrete a viscous mucus
which acts as a lubricant.
The duct system, accessory glands and penis are secondary male sex
organs. Their growth, maintenance and functions are promoted by
testosterone, secreted by Leydig cells. On the other hand, the growth,
maintenance and functions of seminiferous tubules and Leydig cells are
regulated respectively by FSH and ICSH of anterior pituitary.
Semen
Semen is a mixture of sperms and seminal fluid, which is the
liquid portion of semen that consists of secretions of the seminiferous
tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands. The
average volume of semen in an ejaculation is 2.5-5 ml, with a sperm
count (concentration) of 200 to 300 million sperms. Out of these
sperms, for normal fertility, atleast 60 percent sperms must have normal
shape and size and atleast 40 percent of them must show vigorous
motility. When the number of sperms falls below 20 million/ml, the
male is likely to be infertile.
 Semen has a slightly alkaline pH of 7.2-7.7, due to the higher pH
and larger volume of fluid from the seminal vesicles. The prostatic
secretion gives semen a milky appearance whereas the fluids from the
seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands give it a sticky consistency.
Semen provides sperms with transportation medium and
nutrients. It neutralizes the hostile acidic environment of the male
urethra (due to presence of urine) and the female vagina.
Delivery of Sperm: The urethra passes through the penis, an erectile
copulatory organ that deposits the semen in the female reproductive
tract. The penis is the male external genitalia, made up of three
cylinders of special spongy tissue.
Filling of blood in these tissue helps in erection of the penis that
facilitate insemination. Semen is forcefully expelled from the penis by
the contractions of smooth muscles that line the urethra. This process
is ejaculation.

The path of sperm through the male body

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a
duct system consisting of a pair of fallopian tubes, a uterus, cervix and
vagina. A pair of mammary glands are accessory genital glands.
Ovaries
The ovary is the primary female sex organ. It produces ova and
secretes the female sex hormones, oestrogens and progesterone which
are responsible for the development of secondary female sex characters
and for marked cyclic changes in the uterine endometrium. The human
ovaries are small, about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the
pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
1. Location: Ovaries are located near kidneys and attached to
the lower abdominal cavity through mesovarium
2. Structure: ovaries are covered by a germinal epithelium
composed of a single layer of cubical cells. This epithelium
is continuous with the mesothelium lining called
peritoneum. The epithelium encloses the ovarian stroma.
The stroma is divided into two zones-a peripheral cortex
and an inner medulla. Immediately below the germinal
epithelium, the cortex is covered by a connective tissue
called tunica albuginea.

A section of human ovary

 The cortex contains numerous spherical or oval, sac-like masses
of cells known as ovarian follicles. The medulla consists of loose
connective tissue, elastic fibres, numerous blood vessels and some
smooth muscle fibres. The ovarian follicle contains a large, centrally
placed ovum, surrounded by several layers of granular cells (follicular
granulosa.)
Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts)
These are one pair of long (10 to 12 cm), ciliated, tubular structures
which extend from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus.
Each oviduct is suspended by mesosalpinx and is differentiated into
three parts:
(i) Infundibulum: The part of oviduct closer to the ovary is the
funnel shaped infundibulum. The edges of infundibulum
possess finger-like projections called fimbriae. Fimbriae help
in the collection of the ovum after ovulation. Infundibulum
opens into the abdominal cavity by an aperture called ostium.
(ii) Ampulla: The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the oviduct
called ampulla.
(iii) Isthmus: It is the last and narrow part having narrow lumen
that links to the uterus.
The tube is involved in conduction of the ovum or zygote towards
the uterus by peristalsis and ciliary action. It is also the site of
fertilization at the ampulla.
Uterus (Womb)
It is a large hollow, muscular, highly vascular and inverted pear-
shaped structure present in the pelvis between the bladder and
rectum. It is suspended by a mesentery, the mesometrium, it has the
following three parts
(i) Fundus: It is upper, dome-shaped part above the opening of
fallopian tubes.
(ii) Corpus/Body: It is the middle and main part of uterus.
 (iii) Cervix: It is lower, narrow part which opens in body of uterus
by internal os and in vagina below by external os. It is mainly
formed of the most powerful sphincter muscles in the body.
The cavity of the cervix is called Cervical canal which along
with vagina forms the birth canal.
Wall of uterus: The wall of uterus is formed of outer peritoneal
layer, perimetrium; middle muscular myometrium of smooth
muscle fibres, and inner highly vascular and glandular
endometrium. The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes
during menstrual cycle while myometrium exhibits strong
contractions during delivery of the baby. Implantation of
embryo occurs in uterine fundus.
It is the site of foetal growth during pregnancy. It also takes part in
placenta formation and expulsion of the baby during parturition.
Vagina
It is a long (8.5 cm), fibro-muscular tube. It extends backward in
front of rectum and anal canal from cervix to the vestibule. It is a highly
vascular tube lined internally by mucus membrane which is raised into
transverse folds called vaginal rugae. It is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium (non-Keratinised). Vagina is devoid of glands.
Vaginal orifice is covered partially by a membranous diaphragm called
hymen. The hymen is often ruptured during the first coitus
(intercourse). However, it can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt,
insertion of a vaginal tampon, active participation in some sports like
horseback riding, cycling etc.
In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. in fact, the
presence or absence of hymen is not reliable indicator of virginity or
sexual experience. Vagina acts both as copulation canal (as it receives
the sperms from penis during copulation) and as birth canal along with
cervix (during parturition)
Accessory Glands
Vestibular Glands: These are of two types-greater and lesser. Greater
vestibular or Bartholin's glands are a pair of small reddish yellow
glands on each side of vaginal orifice and secrete alkaline secretion for
lubrication and neutralising urinary acidity. Lesser vestibular glands or
paraurethral or skene's glands are small mucus glands present between
urethral and vaginal orifices.
Mammary Glands/Breasts
These are a pair of rounded prominences present over the
pectoralis major muscles on the front wall of the thorax. These remain
in rudimentary form in male. In females, these remain undeveloped till
puberty. At puberty, these starts developing under the influence of
oestrogen and progesterone hormones. On the external side, each breast
has a projection, the 'nipple' surrounded by rounded hyperpigmented
area called areola and appear deep pink or light brown. On the surface
of the areola, numerous sebaceous glands, called areolar glands are
present. Internally, the breast consists of the glandular tissue forming
mammary glands, the fibrous tissue (connective tissue) and the fatty or
adipose tissue. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.

Female’s breast
(a) The glandular tissue comprises about 15-20 lobes in each breast.
Each lobe is made up of a number of lobules. Each lobule is
composed of grapelike clusters of milk secreting glands termed
alveoli.
When milk is produced it passes from the alveoli into the
mammary tubules and then into the mammary ducts. Near the
nipple, mammary ducts expand to form mammary ampullae (=
 lactiferous sinuses) where some milk may be stored before going
to lactiferous ducts. Each lactiferous duct typically carries milk
from one of the lobes to exterior.
Mammary alveoli → Mammary tubule → Mammary duct →
Mammary ampulla → Lactiferous duct.
(b) The fibrous tissue (connective tissue) supports the alveoli and the
ducts.
(c) The fatty or adipose tissue is found between the lobes and covers
the surface of the gland. The amount of the adipose tissue determines
the size of the breasts.
Main functions of the mammary glands are secretion and ejection
(release) of milk. These functions are called lactation. Lactation is
associated with pregnancy and child birth. Milk production is
stimulated largely by the hormone prolactin secreted by anterior lobe
of the pituitary gland. The ejection of milk is stimulated by the hormone
oxytocin, released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Human
milk consists of water and organic and inorganic substances. Its main
constituents are fat (fat droplets), casein (milk protein), lactose (milk
sugar), mineral salts (sodium, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, etc) and
vitamins. Milk is poor in iron content. Vitamin C is present in very
small quantity in milk. The process of milk secretion is regulated by
the nervous system. It is also influenced by the psychic state of the
mother. The process of milk production is also influenced by hormones
of the pituitary gland (already mentioned), the ovaries and other
endocrine glands. A nursing woman secretes 1 to 2 litres of milk per
day.
Spermatogenesis
In testis, the immature male germ cells, spermatogonia produce
sperms by a process spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
Spermatogenesis occurs in four stages:
(i) Spermatocytogenesis,
(ii) Meiosis-l,
(iii) Meiosis-II and
(iv) Spermiogenesis.
(i) Spermatocytogenesis: In spermatocytogenesis, the
spermatogonia present on the inside wall of the seminiferous
tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers.
Each spermatogonia is diploid containing 46 chromosomes.
Some spermatogonia undergo changes they grow, increase in
size by accumulating nourishing materials and are called
primary spermatocytes which periodically undergo meiosis
and others remain as spermatogonia.
(ii) Meiosis-l: A primary spermatocyte is diploid, (2n) with 46
chromosomes. It completes the first meiotic division leading
to the formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary
spermatocytes, which have only 23 chromosomes each i.e., 22
+ X or 22 + Y.
(iii) Meiosis-II: The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second
meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids.
The number of chromosomes in each spermatid is 23.
(iv) Spermiogenesis: Transformation of spermatid into sperm is
termed spermiogenesis. A spermatid is non-motile and heavy.
It has organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, centrioles,
nucleus etc. During spermiogenesis, the development of
locomotory structures occurs. Nucleus becomes compact
forming the major part of head of spermatozoa. Golgi complex
of spermatid gives rise to acrosome. The two centrioles of the
spermatids become arranged one after the other behind the
nucleus. Mitochondria from different parts of spermatid get
arranged in the middle piece. Much of the cytoplasm of a
spermatid is lost. It forms a thin layer around middle piece. A
typical mammalian sperm is flagellated, consisting of four
parts namely head, neck, middle piece and tail.
After spermiogenesis the sperm heads become embedded in
the Sertoli cells, and are finally released from the seminiferous
tubules by the process called spermiation. In spermatogenesis
from one primary spermatocyte four haploid sperms are
formed.
 Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubules
Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System:
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant
increase in the secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
from hypothalamus. The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the
anterior pituitary gland and stimulates secretion of two gonadotropins
- luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of
spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion
of some factors which help in the process of Spermiogenesis Sertoli
cells also secrete another protein, hormones called inhibin, which
suppresses FSH synthesis. So, FSH along with testosterone stimulate
the sperm production in the seminiferous tubules.
Structure of Mature Sperm:
Mature sperm cell consists of a head, a neck, a middle piece and
a tail. A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm. The
sperm head contains a very little cytoplasm, an elongated haploid
nucleus, the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-like structure,
acrosome. The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help in fertilisation
of ovum. These enzymes called sperm lysins that dissolve the
membranes enveloping the ovum and help the sperm cell to enter the
ovum. Acrosome is derived from Golgi apparatus. Its membrane
extends down the outer surface of nucleus. The short neck, contains
two distinct granules - the proximal and distal centrioles. The proximal
centriole plays a crucial role during the first cleavage of the fertilised
ovum.

Structure of sperm
The distal centriole gives rise to the axial filament of the long tail
of the sperm. The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria (25
to 30 arranged spirally) which produce energy for the movement of tail
that facilitates sperm motility essential for fertilisation.
The tail is made up of a central axial filament surrounded by a
small amount of cytoplasm and cell membrane as external sheath.
Sperms released from seminiferous tubules, are transported by the
accessory ducts, secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle
and prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The
functions of the male accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the
testicular hormones (androgens).

Oogenesis
 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called
oogenesis which is markedly different from spermatogenesis.
Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a
couple of million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each
fetal ovary; no more oogonia are formed or added after birth. Scattered
ovarian follicles are embedded in the stroma of cortex. An ovarian
follicle consists of an oocyte, surrounded by one or more layers of
follicular (flat epithelial) cells, the granulosa cells, which are derived
from the germinal epithelium lining the ovary. The oogonial cells start
division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division, and get
temporarily arrested at this stage called primary oocytes. Each primary
oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and then called
primary follicle A large number of these follicles degenerate from birth
to puberty. Degeneration of ovarian follicles is called follicular atresia
and their disposal is done by phagocytes. Therefore, at puberty only
60,000 to 80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary. With the onset
of puberty, a primary follicle begins to mature with each ovarian cycle.
The follicular cells become cuboidal, divide by mitosis to form a
stratified epithelium, the granulosa layer. So, the primary follicles get
surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca, called
secondary follicles. Granulosa cells rest on a basement membrane and
the surrounding stromal cells form theca folliculi. The secondary
follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by
a fluid filled cavity antrum, which appears between the granulosa cells.
Initially, the antrum is crescent shaped, but with time it greatly
enlarges. The fluid of antrum is liquor folliculi. As the follicles grow,
the theca folliculi become organised into inner layer of secretory cells,
the theca interna and an outer layer of connective tissue cells containing
fibroblast-like cells, the theca externa. The maturing oocytes adhere to
the wall of the follicle through a pedicel/stalk, cumulus oophorus,
formed by granulosa cells, and remains suspended in liquor folliculi.
Theca interna is composed of cells having characteristics of steroid
secretion, rich in blood vessels and theca externa gradually merges with
ovarian stroma. The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows
in size and completes its first meiotic division at puberty.
 It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large
haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body. The secondary
oocyte retains the bulk of nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte
The tertiary follicle changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle.
The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called Zona pellucida
surrounding it. This thick coat of zona pellucida is composed of
glycoproteins and synthesised by oocyte. Later, the granulosa cells
lying in close vicinity of the ovum and zona pellucida, become
elongated to form the corona radiata. In the presence of LH hormone,
the Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte
developing (ovum) from the ovary by the process called ovulation.
After ovulation the ruptured follicle left in the ovary is converted to a
structure called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone.
Generally, only one ovum is liberated in each menstrual cycle
(average duration 28 days) by alternate ovaries. Each ovary releases six
ova in one year. Only about 400 to 450 ova are produced by human
female over the entire span of her reproductive life which lasts about
35 to 40 years.
Characteristic of Human Ovum
1. Eggs without yolk
2. Eggs that lack a protective shell.

Diagrammatic section view of ovary

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g., monkeys,
apes and human beings) is called menstrual cycle. In primates, the
menstrual cycle comprises of two separate cycles that operate
simultaneously in two location organs in body. These two cycles are
known as:
(i) Uterine cycle
(ii) Ovarian cycle
The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche. In
human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about
28/29 days, and the cycle of events from one menstruation till next one
is called the menstrual cycle. One ovum is released (ovulation) during
the middle of each menstrual cycle of 28 days. The major events of the
menstrual cycle are shown in the figure.
Phases of menstrual cycle:
(i) Menstrual phase
(ii) Follicular phase
(iii) Ovulation
(iv) Luteal/Secretory phase

(i) Menstrual phase: Menstrual flow occurs in this phase and it lasts
for 3 to 4 days. This low results due to the breakdown of
endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood vessels which forms
a liquid and flow's out through the vagina.
Menstruation usually occurs about 14 days after ovulation,
if the ovum is not fertilised. Lack of menstruation may be
indicative of pregnancy. Certain environmental factors, such
as stress, poor health, poor diet, can also affect the menstrual
cycle and lead to lack of menstruation.
These factors can influence the secretion of gonadotropins
by anterior lobe of pituitary, thus disrupting one or more
phases of cycle. The total amount of blood discharged in one
cycle is 30 to 50 ml. This blood forms clot in the uterus, later
enzymes from the uterus dissolves the clot so the blood in the
menses always remains in liquid state.
(ii) Follicular phase: The menstrual phase is followed by the
follicular phase. During this phase, primary follicles in ovary
grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle and
simultaneously the endometrium of uterus regenerates through
proliferation. These changes in the ovary and the uterus are
induced by changes in the levels of pituitary gonadotropins and
ovarian hormones. Secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH)
increases gradually during the follicular phase, and stimulates
follicular development and secretion of oestrogens by the
growing follicles. FSH hormone stimulates follicular growth. The
follicular cells secrete oestrogen, a sex hormone that also aids in
the growth of the follicle.
Estrogen hormone stimulates mitotic divisions of the cells in the lining
of uterus, and helps to repair the broken tissue and blood vessels. It also
causes the thickening of the endometrium. Both FSH and LH attain a
peak level in the middle of each cycle, on 14th day of 28th day cycle.
During this phase, the estrogen level in the blood continues to rise until
it reaches the peak and the Graafian follicle moves to the surface of
ovary The elevated estrogen levels acts as positive feedback
mechanism by stimulating the anterior lobe of pituitary to secrete
luteinising (LH) hormone, which initiates the next stage of menstrual
cycle. Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the
mid-cycle called as LH surge induces the rupture of Graafian follicle
and thereby the release of ovum. The release of the ovum is called
ovulation and occurs nearly 14 days before the onset of the next
menstrual cycle.
(iii) Ovulation: LH induces ovulation which usually occurs on 14th
day in the 28 days cycle. The Graafian follicle ruptures and
secondary oocyte (ovum) is released.
Day of ovulation= Number of days in M cycle – 14.
(iv) Luteal phase/Secretory phase: Following ovulation, the egg is
swept into the fallopian tube, where it awaits fertilisation as it
travels through the tube towards uterus. The egg has stored
nutrients to survive about 24 hours. The ovulatory phase is
 followed by luteal phase during which the remaining parts of
Graafian follicle transform as corpus luteum in the ovary. After
the extrusion of the ovum, what remains in the Graafian follicle
is called corpus luteum (yellow body). The cytoplasm of the
corpus luteum is filled with a yellow pigment called lutein. The
corpus luteum grows for a few days and if the ovum is fertilized
and pregnancy results, it continues to grow.
But if the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum persists only for
about 14 days and during this period, it secretes progesterone and small
amount of estrogen. At the end of its functional life, the corpus luteum
degenerates and is converted into a mass of fibrous tissue called corpus
albicans (white body). Corpus luteum secretes large amounts of
progesterone which is essential for maintenance of endometrium which
is thickened by estrogen, in luteal phase, the endometrium further
thickens due to estrogen hormone also secreted by corpus luteum. LH
hormone causes the cells of the ruptured follicle to form corpus luteum.
A corpus luteum is a yellowish mass of follicular cells that functions
like an endocrine structure. LH hormone also stimulates the corpus
luteum to secrete estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen and
progesterone inhibit the release of FSH and LH.
This prevents the development of new follicles during the luteal phase.
Luteal phase lasts for 14 days. During this phase, the levels of estrogen
and progesterone will rise, while FSH and LH levels drop. Low level
of LH causes, degeneration of corpus luteum leading to sudden decline
in progesterone level that causes menstruation. Maintenance of
endometrium by progesterone is necessary for implantation of the
fertilised ovum and maintenance of pregnancy. During pregnancy all
the events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation due
to high level of progesterone. Sometimes women wish to postpone the
menstrual bleeding for few days to participate, in some competitive
sports or religious function, she should take progesterone like drugs.
High level of progesterone maintains endometrium. Menopause is a
senile change which occurs in the ovaries around the age of 50 years.
At this time, a woman no longer ovulates and thus moves out of
childbearing phase. All the ovarian follicles have degenerated and there
is deficiency of estrogen and progesterone hormone. FSH and LH are
being produced by anterior lobe of pituitary, but now ovary is not
responding to these hormones. In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus
luteum degenerates; the level of progesterone hormone will fall. This
causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to menstruation,
marking a new cycle. In human beings. menstrual cycles cease around
50 years of age, termed as menopause. Cyclic menstruation is an
indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between menarche
and menopause.
FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION
During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the
vagina of female, called insemination A human sperm can live for
many weeks in male genital duct. Once ejaculated in the semen, it lives
only for 48 to 72 hours outside the body. Prostaglandins of semen help
in the movement of spermatozoa. Once the sperms are released
Capacitation of sperm occurs in the female genital system and involves:
1. Removal of membrane cholesterol present over acrosome,
weakening the membrane cover.
2. Dilution of decapacitation factors
3. Entry of Ca+ into sperms causing rapid whiplash movements of
the tail part. They swim through the vagina, cervix, uterus and
finally reach the junction of the isthmus and ampulla called
ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tubes.
The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampulla
where fertilisation occurs. Ovum is released in the secondary
oocyte stage.
Due to ciliary current produced by fimbriae portion of oviduct,
ovum is drawn in through ostium, it reaches ampulla, the site of
fertilization, by the ciliary action of ciliated columnar epithelial
Iining of oviduct.
Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and the sperms are
transported simultaneously to the ampullary region. This is the
reason why not all copulations lead to fertilisation and pregnancy
The process of fusion of a sperm with the ovum is called fertilisation.
Fusion of gametes/Syngamy:
The various steps involved are:
Acrosomal reaction: A number of sperms adhere to the surface of egg
(Agglutination). The acrosome starts releasing its hydrolytic enzymes
or sperm lysins which include
(i) Hyaluronidase: Dissolves the hyaluronic acid responsible
for cementing of follicle cells or granulosa cells.
(ii) Corona penetrating enzyme (CPE): Dissolves corona
radiata
(iii) Zona lysin/Acrosin: Digests the zona pellucida.
Contact of acrosome stimulates development of an outgrowth by the
oocyte called fertilisation cone or cone of reception.
Cortical and zona reactions: As the sperm head comes in contact with
the fertilization cone, it causes opening of Na* channels to cause
depolarisation of ovum membrane (fast block to check polyspermy)
and Ca²* move into the egg. Sperm and egg membranes dissolve.
Complete sperm enters cytoplasm of egg and the envelope is left out.
Ca2+ influx causes extrusion of cortical granules (cortical reaction) and
zona reactions which make the zona pellucida impervious to second
sperm by destroying sperm receptors. Cortical reaction and zona
reaction constitute slow block to check polyspermy. The entry of sperm
into the ovum induces completion of the meiotic division of the
secondary oocyte. Entry of sperm causes breakdown of metaphase
promoting factor (MPF) and turns on anaphase promoting complex
(APC). This results in completion of meiosis-II. The second meiotic
division is also unequal and results in the formation of a second polar
body and a haploid ovum (ootid). Soon the haploid nucleus of the
sperm and that of ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote. Each
gamete contains 23 chromosomes, the haploid (n) number. Thus, fusion
of a sperm nucleus and an egg nucleus makes a zygote that have 46
chromosomes, thus restoring the diploid (2n) number. Male and female
pronuclei approach each other and finally fusion occurs resulting in the
formation of synkaryon/zygote.
 The genetic material of male and female pronuclei fuse. Their
membranes dissolve, leaving no barriers between the male and female
chromosomes. During this dissolution, a mitotic spindle form between
them. The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in
the egg cytoplasm. Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis (which
includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase), the cell
gathers genetic material from the male and female together. Thus, the
first mitosis after the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of
their chromosomes.
Sex Determination
Sex of the baby is decided during fertilisation. The chromosome
pattern in human female is XX and that in the male is XY. Therefore,
all the haploid gametes produced by the female have the sex
chromosome X, whereas in the male gametes (sperms) the sex
chromosome could be either X or Y, hence 50 percent of sperms carry
X chromosome while the other 50 percent carry the Y. After fusion the
zygote would carry either XX or XY depending on whether the sperm
carrying X or Y has fertilised the ovum. The zygote carrying XX would
develop into a female baby and XY would form a male.
That's why, scientifically it is correct to say that the sex of the
baby is determined by the father and not by the mother.
Embryonic Development
Cleavage: First cleavage is completed after 30 hours of
fertilization. Cleavage furrow passes from animal-vegetal axis as well
as centre of zygote. It divides the zygote completely into two
blastomeres (Holoblastic cleavage). Second cleavage is completed
after 60 hours of fertilization. It is also meridional in first blastomere
but at right angle to the first one.
It is completed earlier in one of the two blastomeres resulting in
a transient 3-celled stage. Hence, the cleavage divisions asynchronous.
Thereafter the rate and patten of cleavage is nonspecific. In mammals,
including humans, cleavage divisions are among the slowest in animal
kingdom. The number of resultant blastomeres increases following
arithmetic progression.
Morula: Cleavage results in a solid ball of cells, Morula having
8-16 cells. Zona pellucida still forms the outer cover. Morula undergoes
compaction. The outer/peripheral cells are smaller/flat with tight
junctions while the inner cell mass consists of slightly large, rounded
cells with gap junctions. Morula descends slowly towards uterus in 4-
6 days and corona radiata detaches during this period.
Blastulation or Blastocyst Formation: Endometrium secretes
nutrient fluids and its mucosal cells become enlarged with stored
nutrients. As the morula enters uterus, it gets a rich supply of nutrients.
Outer peripheral cells enlarge and flatten further. They form
trophoblast. Trophoblast cells secrete a fluid into the interior creating a
cavity called blastocoel. The inner cell mass now comes to lie on one
side as embryonal knob. With the formation of blastocoel, morula is
converted into blastula which is called blastocyst in mammals because
of different nature of surface layer and eccentric inner cell mass. A
blastocyst is a ball of cells with a large, fluid-filled cavity called
blastocoel. The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
layer called trophoblast and inner mass of cells (attached to trophoblast)
called the inner cell mass oblique sign embryoblast. Due to pressure of
growing blastocyst, a slit is produced in zona pellucida through which
it squeezes out. The growing blastocyst comes out of this slit. At times,
it gets broken into two parts which then gives rise to identical twins or
monozygotic twins.

Implantation
It is embedding of the blastocyst into endometrium of uterus.
Blastocyst comes in contact with the endometrium in the region of
embryonal knob or embryonic disc and adheres to it. The surface cells
of trophoblast secrete lytic enzymes which cause corrosion of
endometrial lining.
 They also give rise to finger-like outgrowths called villi. Villi not
only help in fixation but also in absorption of nutrients. Implantation
causes nutrient enrichment, enlargement of cells and formation of
uterine part of placenta called decidua.
Decidua has three regions: (i) Decidua Basalis - Part of decidua
underlying the chorionic villi and overlying the myometrium. (ii)
Decidua Capsularis - Lying between embryo and lumen of uterus and
(iii) Decidua Parietalis the part of decidua that lines the uterus at places
other than the site of attachment of embryo.
Trophoblast covering secretes a hormone called human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG). Detection of hCG in the urine is the basis of
pregnancy/Gravidex test. hCG maintains the corpus luteum beyond its
normal life time when it is called corpus luteum of pregnancy. It
continues to secrete progesterone which prevents menstruation and
maintains the uterine lining in nutrient rich state.
Progesterone induces the cervical glands to secrete viscous mucus
for filling the cervical canal to form a protective plug. Progesterone is
also called pregnancy hormone as it is essential for maintenance of
pregnancy. The hormone is secreted by placenta as well.
Gastrulation:
It is characterised by movements of cells in small masses or sheets so
as to form primary germinal layers There are three primary germinal
layers - endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. The cell movements that
occur during gastrulation are called morphogenetic movements since
they lead to initiation of morphogenesis The product of gastrulation is
called gastrula. A space appears between the ectoderm (below) and the
trophoblast. This is the amniotic cavity, filled by amniotic fluid. The
roof of this cavity is formed by amniogenic cells derived from
trophoblast. Formation of Primary Germinal Layers: Cells of the inner
cell mass or embryonal knob get rearranged to form a flat embryonic
or germinal disc. The latter differentiates into two layers, an outer
epiblast of larger columnar cells and inner hypoblast of smaller
cuboidal cells. Gastrulation begins with the formation of primitive
streak on the surface of the epiblast.
 1. The diagram shows a cross section through the cranial region of
the streak at 15 days showing movement of epiblast cells. The
first cells to move inward displace the hypoblast to create the
definitive endoderm.
2. Once definitive endoderm is established, inwardly moving
epiblast forms mesoderm.
3. Cells remaining in the epiblast then form ectoderm. Thus, the
epiblast is the source of all the germ layers in the embryo.
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the
trophoblast called chorionic villi which are surrounded by the uterine
tissue and maternal blood. The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become
interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural and
functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body
called placenta.
Characteristics of human placenta:
(i) Haemochorial - Placenta with only three barriers, the maternal
part of placenta is completely eroded; e.g., Human, Apes,
Lemurs.
(ii) Deciduous-a portion of uterine tissue called decidua is
detached and passed out at birth, e.g., most of the mammals.
(iii) Meta discoidal-villi are initially distributed uniformly all
over the surface but later on get confined to a disc-like area fitting
into a corresponding depression on the uterine wall i.e., the
placenta is diffuse first but later on becomes discoidal, e.g.,
Human beings and Apes.
Placenta is an organ which connects the foetus with uterine wall.
It constitutes both maternal as well as foetal parts although there is no
mixing of the maternal and foetal blood supplies. The placenta acts as
an ultrafilter through which soluble inorganic and organic materials,
nutrients, hormones, antibodies against diphtheria, small pox, scarlet
fever and measles etc, can pass from the mother to the foetus. Placenta
also acts as an endocrine gland and synthesises large quantities of
proteins and some hormones such as human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG), chorionic thyrotropin, chorionic corticotropin, chorionic
somatomammotropin or human placental lactogen (hPL), oestrogens
and progesterone. The hCG stimulates corpus luteum of pregnancy to
continue to secrete progesterone for a long time after its normal life
time. In addition, it secretes some relaxin that facilitates parturition by
softening the connective tissue of the pubic symphysis. The metabolic
activity of the placenta is almost as great as that of the foetus itself. The
umbilical cord connects the foetus to the placenta. During the first
trimester (First 3 months) of pregnancy, the basic structure of the foetus
is formed. This involves cell division, cell migration and the
differentiation of cells into the many types found in the body. During
this period, the developing baby called foetus is very sensitive to
anything that interferes with the steps involved. Virus infection of the
mother e.g., by Rubella (German measles) virus or exposure to certain
chemicals may cause malformations in the developing embryo.
Such agents inducing malformations are called teratogens
(monster forming agents). By 3 months, all the systems of the foetus
have been formed, at least in a rudimentary way. From then on,
development of the foetus is primarily a matter of growth and minor
structural modifications. The foetus is less susceptible to teratogens
after first trimester. The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. The gestation
period of dog is 60-65 days, elephant is 607-641 days and cat is 52-65
days. In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo's
heart is formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by
listening to the heart sound carefully through the stethoscope. By the
end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and
digits. By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major organ
systems are formed, for example, the limbs and external genital organs
are well-developed. The first movements of the foetus and appearance
of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth month. By the
end of 24 weeks (second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair,
eye-lids separate and eyelashes are formed. By the end of nine months
of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.
Lanugo is the soft hairy covering of the foetus which begins to be shed
before birth.
PARTURITION
The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months or
38 weeks/266 days after fertilisation which is called the gestation
period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy
causes expulsion/ delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of the
foetus (childbirth) is called parturition. Parturition is Induced by a
complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for parturition
originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which induce
mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers the
release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary. Oxytocin acts on the
uterine muscles and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in tum
stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex
between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion continues
resulting in stronger and stronger contractions. This leads to expulsion
of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal. Soon after the
infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.
LACTATION
Although estrogen and progesterone are essential for the physical
development of the breasts during pregnancy, a specific effect of both
these hormones is to inhibit the actual secretion of milk. Conversely,
the hormone prolactin has exactly the opposite effect and promotes
secretion of milk. This hormone is secreted by the mother's anterior
pituitary gland and its concentration in the blood rises steadily from the
fifth week of pregnancy until birth of the foetus (10 to 20 times the
normal nonpregnant levels).
In addition, the placenta secretes large quantities of human
chorionic somatomammotropin which probably also has lactogenic
properties, thus supporting the prolactin from the mother's pituitary
during pregnancy.
The fluid that is secreted first few days after parturition is called
colostrum, slightly yellow in colour, rich in calories and antibodies
(IgA). This antibody provides passive immunity to the child. It contains
essentially the same concentrations of proteins and lactose as milk but
almost no fat.
When the new born suckles on the breasts, sensory impulses are
transmitted through somatic nerves from the nipples to the mother's
spinal cord and then to her hypothalamus, initiating nerve signals that
promote oxytocin secretion. The oxytocin is carried through the blood
to the breasts where it causes myoepithelial cells (that surround the
outer walls of the alveoli) to contract, thereby expelling the milk from
the alveoli into the ducts.
CONCLUTION
Reproduction is important to human beings because it is essential
for the continuation of human civilization and the formation of
families. It is a fundamental biological process that is reinforced by
social pressures and structures, and the inability to reproduce can cause
distress and suffering. All human beings undergo a sexual mode of
reproduction. In this process, two parents are involved in producing a
new individual. Offspring are produced by the fusion of gametes (sex
cells) from each parent. Hence, the newly formed individual will be
different from parents, both genetically and physically. There are two
kinds of sex cells — sperm and eggs. When a sperm meets an egg, it
can fertilize it and create a zygote. This zygote eventually becomes a
foetus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
www.byjus.com
www.vedantu.com
NCERT book class 12
NCERT book class 10
www.wikipedia.com