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Methods in
Molecular Biology 1305
James Whelan
Monika W. Murcha Editors
Plant
Mitochondria
Methods and Protocols
METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Series Editor
John M.Walker
School of Life and Medical Sciences
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL10 9AB, UK
Edited by
James Whelan
La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
Monika W. Murcha
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
Editors
James Whelan Monika W. Murcha
La Trobe University The University of Western Australia
Bundoora, VIC, Australia Crawley, WA, Australia
As someone who started their mitochondrial research in the 1970s, it is interesting to see
how far the field has progressed in terms of methodologies and experimental approach and
how our knowledge of the way mitochondrial function affects the entire cell’s metabolism
and gene networks has advanced. Table 1 illustrates the major milestones in this journey.
The late 1950s and 1960s were preoccupied with determining the seat of oxidative
phosphorylation and associated metabolism within cells, and once that was more or less
accepted, the next two decades were devoted to investigating the mitochondrial genome
structure, the composition of the electron transport chain, the basic carbon and nitrogen
metabolism associated with mitochondria, and, mainly in mammalian cells, the mechanism
of ATP synthesis. This was an intensely competitive period in mitochondrial research, and
conferences were often fiery and controversial (and fun, if you liked that sort of thing). The
methods we used were quite indirect, mainly based around oxygen electrodes and spectro-
photometric and fluorimetric assays. Experiments were imaginative and their interpretation
often more so. Without direct proof of concept that is now available with gene knockout
and editing technologies, we peered through the glass darkly and speculated widely. While
the techniques available were indirect, they yielded results very quickly and if experiments
were designed carefully and results analyzed rapidly, enough data for a paper could be gen-
erated in a few weeks of intense activity, spurred on by the knowledge that your competitors
were doing the same. Try doing that today!
The world-wide cohort of plant mitochondrial researchers in this period was quite
small, and the field lived very much in the shadow of photosynthesis—after all, mitochon-
dria are found in all eukaryotes, and it was assumed that their function was much the same,
while chloroplasts are unique to plants. A lot of the research into mitochondria in plants
focused on their interaction with photosynthesis. The elucidation of the role of mitochon-
dria in cellular oxidative stress and programmed cell death resulted in an explosion of mito-
chondrial research in mammals and a renewed interest in plant mitochondria. It also became
apparent that the electron transport chain of plant mitochondria was quite different—and
much more interesting—than their mammalian counterparts, and the scope of mitochon-
drial metabolism far greater in plants. The role of mitochondria in cytoplasmic male sterility
highlighted how much their function could affect the plant, and the application of advanced
transcriptomic and proteomic techniques illustrated the complexity of mitochondrial
metabolism and its integration with other cellular pathways. It is now obvious that mito-
chondria are much more than ATP-synthesizing machines and are central to plant growth
and development in many different ways. They also lie at the heart of the plant cell’s oxida-
tive stress networks, and manipulation of mitochondrial function may lead to enhanced
tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses.
This is a timely book. It is, as far as I know, the only book devoted to mitochondrial
methodology in plants and will be an important reference work for people in this field,
v
vi Foreword
particularly those entering the field. The methodologies described here range from the
biochemical, through molecular biology to bioinformatics. These are the techniques that
have brought us to where we now stand in our understanding of mitochondria in plants
and will be critical in continuing to take the field forward.
Table 1
Highlights in discoveries in plant mitochondrial research
Table 1
(continued)
Table 1
(continued)
Table 1
(continued)
Table 1
(continued)
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Foreword xiii
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xiv Foreword
92. Kruft V, Eubel H, Jansch L, Werhahn W, Kawasaki S, Imamura J (2003) Genetic char-
Braun HP (2001) Proteomic approach to acterization of a pentatricopeptide repeat pro-
identify novel mitochondrial proteins in tein gene, orf687, that restores fertility in the
Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 127:1694–1710 cytoplasmic male-sterile Kosena radish. Plant
93. Millar AH, Sweetlove LJ, Giege P, Leaver CJ J 34:407–415
(2001) Analysis of the Arabidopsis mitochon- 104. Stahl A, Moberg P, Ytterberg J, Panfilov O,
drial proteome. Plant Physiol 127: Brockenhuus Von Lowenhielm H, Nilsson F,
1711–1727 Glaser E (2002) Isolation and identification
94. Dubinin J, Braun HP, Schmitz U, Colditz F of a novel mitochondrial metalloprotease
(2011) The mitochondrial proteome of the (PreP) that degrades targeting presequences
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Biophys Acta 1814:1658–1668 105. Johnson KA, Bhushan S, Stahl A, Hallberg
95. Huang S, Taylor NL, Narsai R, Eubel H, BM, Frohn A, Glaser E, Eneqvist T (2006)
Whelan J, Millar AH (2009) Experimental The closed structure of presequence protease
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its biogenesis, and heterogeneity. Plant chamber for proteolysis. EMBO J 25:
Physiol 149:719–734 1977–1986
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links between antioxidant defense and plant Substoichiometric shifting in the plant mito-
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Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:14144–14149 mitochondrial external NADPH dehydroge-
99. Finkemeier I, Goodman M, Lamkemeyer P, nase by overexpression in transgenic Nicotiana
Kandlbinder A, Sweetlove LJ, Dietz KJ sylvestris. Plant J 37:415–425
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A pentatricopeptide repeat-containing gene lian and fungal components coupled with
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plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 1604:159–169
10887–10892 113. Millar AH, Eubel H, Jansch L, Kruft V,
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T, Kimura Y, Kohno-Murase J, Sakai T, Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and
Foreword xv
The chapters to follow detail research and observations into plant mitochondria spanning
over a century in time. However, this research intensified in the 1970s and has been con-
tinuing to the present day. The findings of mitochondrial research continually surprises the
scientific community, whether it be the presence of cyanide-insensitive respiration to large
genomes whose transcripts undergo specific editing, requiring at least hundreds of nuclear-
encoded gene products to produce just 50 proteins. The ability to uncover these unique
features is underpinned by the methodology that is used to investigate plant mitochondria,
from morphology to detailed molecular mechanisms. With plant mitochondria represent-
ing a small proportion of the cell in terms of volume or protein content, the question of
contamination is at the forefront of many studies into mitochondria. There are still many
questions remaining which are made even more challenging due to the large variety of
plants and tissues/organs that are used in studying plant mitochondria. However, this
diversity is useful for plant mitochondrial research, and whilst plants display many similari-
ties, it should not be forgotten that up to hundreds of millions of years of evolution sepa-
rates plant lineages, and even species that are closely related may display substantial
differences.
The chapters compiled in this collection outline a number of methods that are used to
study mitochondria today, starting from the isolation of mitochondria to detailed analyses
of RNA, protein, and enzymatic activities. The ability to visualize mitochondria in vivo with
fluorescent protein tagging puts these activities in a spacial context, and the development
of fluorescent probes to measure metabolites provides subcellular resolution that cannot be
achieved by other means. The application of various omic techniques provides resolution of
proteins and nucleic acids at orders of magnitude higher, unimaginable one or two decades
ago. But despite the abundance of such data, there is still much to understand about how
the mitochondrial machine works.
This collection of techniques does not cover all techniques; some are absent simply
because they have been well documented elsewhere in recent times. What we have tried to
achieve in these chapters is to have techniques written by researchers who have been actively
involved in the development and continued use of these techniques. This is to ensure that
they are relevant to researchers today and are accessible in that the authors can be contacted
directly. In the philosophy of this series, we have tried to ensure a blow-by-blow account of
these techniques so that they are accessible to beginners in the field as well as being useful
to expert researchers who find themselves being pulled into the field of mitochondrial
research as it links to so many important aspects of plant cell biology.
Most importantly this collection of methods could only be achieved due to the fact that
these authors have taken the time and effort to prepare them. This is much appreciated, and
hopefully writing 1 chapter and getting 19 in return is of some small benefit. Secondly, the
editors would like to thank their colleagues and mentors, who have supported them
xvii
xviii Preface
throughout their careers, allowing them to be in the position to be carrying out research
into plant mitochondria with exceptional colleagues from all over the world. Finally, both
editors would like to acknowledge the Australian Research Council (FT130100112,
DP130102384, CE140100008) for their continual support to carry out plant mitochon-
drial research in their laboratories.
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
xix
xx Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Contributors
xxi
xxii Contributors
PETER SCHERTL • Institute of Plant Genetics, Plant Proteomics, Leibniz Universität Hannover,
Hannover, Germany
MARKUS SCHWARZLÄNDER • Plant Energy Biology Lab, INRES – Chemical Signalling,
University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
YUN SHIN SEW • Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence Plant Energy Biology,
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
JULIA SHEARMAN • Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life
Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
CHEVAUN A. SMITH • School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
KATHLEEN L. SOOLE • School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
ELKE STROEHER • Plant Energy Biology, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence,
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
LEE SWEETLOVE • Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
NICOLAS L. TAYLOR • Plant Energy Biology, Australian Research Council Centre
of Excellence, Centre for Comparative Analysis of Biomolecular Networks (CABiN),
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
PEDRO F. TEIXEIRA • Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Arrhenius Laboratories
for Natural Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
ELODIE UBRIG • Institut de Biologie Moléculaire des Plantes, Université de Strasbourg,
Strasbourg, France
GREG C. VANLERBERGHE • Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto
Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Cell and Systems Biology,
University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
STEPHAN WAGNER • Plant Energy Biology Lab, INRES – Chemical Signalling, University
of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
YAN WANG • Plant Energy Biology, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence,
School of Life Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
JAMES WHELAN • Plant Energy Biology, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence,
School of Life Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
LUKE YOUNG • Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences,
University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
AMR M. EL ZAWILY • Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada; Faculty of Science, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
Chapter 1
Abstract
The study of mitochondrial composition, biogenesis, and metabolism requires the isolation of intact
functional mitochondria, often in relatively large quantities sufficient for downstream biochemical and
proteomic analysis. Here we describe techniques optimized for the isolation of functional mitochondria
from a variety of tissues from the model monocot and dicot species Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and
rice (Oryza sativa).
1 Introduction
James Whelan and Monika W. Murcha (eds.), Plant Mitochondria: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology,
vol. 1305, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2639-8_1, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
1
2 Monika W. Murcha and James Whelan
2 Materials
2 Gradients 4 Gradients
Wash buffer (2×) 17.5 mL 35 mL
Percoll 9.8 mL 19.6 mL
Double-deionized water 7.7 mL 15.4 mL
4 Monika W. Murcha and James Whelan
2 Gradients 4 Gradients
Wash buffer (2×) 17.5 mL 35 mL
Percoll 9.8 mL 19.6 mL
PVP-40 20 % (w/v) 7.7 mL 15.4 mL
3 Methods
3.1 Tissue Growth 1. Water culture pots are prepared with 80 mL liquid MS media
Conditions and Tissue and sterilized by autoclaving.
Preparation 2. Arabidopsis seeds are sterilized using the chlorine gas method:
3.1.1 Arabidopsis Place 100 mg of seed into a 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tube, and
Seedlings Grown in Water place open tube into a desiccator containing 50 mL sodium
Culture Pots hypochlorite in a 100-mL beaker. Quickly add 3 mL of con-
centrated HCl to the bleach and close the lid; leave to sterilize
for 6 h (see Note 8).
3. In a sterile laminar flow hood using sterile techniques, pour
100 mg of seed to each pot. Screw shut the lid and tape over
the junction with medical tape.
4. Place the pots into standard plant growth conditions, shaking
gently at 100 rpm to ensure that seed does not settle. For a
standard mitochondrial isolation yielding 4–5 mg of mito-
chondria, ten pots will be required when mitochondria are iso-
lated from 2-week-old plants.
3.1.3 Arabidopsis 1. Arabidopsis seeds (non-sterile) are sprinkled onto pots con-
Rosettes Grown in Soil taining soil within larger trays. Trays are stratified for 48 h at
4 °C prior to placing under optimal growth conditions. About
10 days after sowing, excess seedlings are removed from each
pot and grown for a further 2 weeks. 100–200 pots are
required for isolating 3–5 mg of mitochondria.
2. Tissue is removed by cutting the rosette from the stalk and
gently rinsing excess soil.
3.1.4 Arabidopsis Cell 1. Subculture cell suspensions every 7 days using sterile tech-
Suspensions niques in a laminar flow hood.
2. Subculture the cells by transferring 20–25 mL of the culture
(depending on density) to an autoclaved flask containing
100 mL media. Minimize disturbance by pipetting gently into
the liquid.
3. Shake the flasks in an orbital shaker at 100 rpm at 24 °C.
6 Monika W. Murcha and James Whelan
3.1.5 Rice Hypocotyl 1. Dehusk 50 mL of rice grain, and rinse to remove the husks.
and Seedlings 2. Sow seeds onto a tray containing vermiculite (5 cm deep) and
cover with 2 cm of vermiculite.
3. Soak tray in a larger tray filled with water to ensure that all
vermiculite is wet.
4. Place into 26 °C growth chambers (with or without lights).
3.1.6 Rice Embryos 1. Dehusk 50 mL of rice grain, and rinse to remove the husks.
2. Sterilize rice grain with 5 % (v/v) sodium hypochloride for
5 min and rinse well with sterile water.
3. Submerge grains in rice growth media in sterile 250-mL flasks
or sterile 500-mL polycarbonate pots and incubate at 30 °C
for up to 48 h.
4. Bubble air or nitrogen continuously with spargers just below
the growth media level.
5. Dissect embryos from the seed using sterile scalpels from 12 h
post-imbibition.
3.2 Mitochondrial This protocol is used for the isolation of intact mitochondria from
Isolation Using Arabidopsis tissues grown in water cultures/pots, agar plates, and
Continuous Gradients soil and for rice shoots and hypocotyls (Fig. 1). This protocol is
adapted from [6]. All procedures following the grinding of the
material are to be carried out at 4 °C.
1. Prepare the heavy and light gradient solutions in two 50-mL
beakers.
2. Rinse the chambers and tubing of gradient pourer with water
and check that all tubes are flowing at an even rate.
3. Place two 50-mL tubes on ice at a slight angle and tape tubing
outlets to the inside of the tubes, so the gradient solution runs
down the side of the tubes (see Note 11).
4. Ensure that the gradient pourer, tubing, and 50-mL tubes are
free from water and that the connection between inner and
outer chambers is closed.
5. Pour the light solution into outer chamber (chamber without
tubing outlet).
6. Pour the heavy gradient solution into inner chamber (chamber
with tubing outlet), place a small stirrer bar in the chamber,
place gradient chambers on stirring block, and stir gently.
7. Set the peristaltic pump at a rate of 300 mL/h and allow the
heavy solution to run until half is dispensed.
8. Slowly open the connection between the chambers (push
black lever up halfway) and allow solution to mix.
9. Continue to run until all of the gradient mix has been dis-
pensed from the chambers.
Isolation of Plant Mitochondria 7
a i ii iii iv
dis-continuous
continuous density gradient density gradient
section 3.2 section 3.3
b i ii iii iv
Fig. 1 Density gradient purification strategies for the isolation of plant mitochondria from (a) Arabidopsis seed-
lings grown by water culture (i), agar plates (ii), Arabidopsis rosettes grown in soil (iii), and Arabidopsis cell
suspensions. (b) Rice hypocotyl (i), seedlings (ii), 1–2-day-old embryo (iii), and 2-week-old coleoptile (iv)
3.3 Mitochondrial This protocol is used for the isolation of intact mitochondria from
Isolation: Arabidopsis cell cultures and adapted from [7]. All procedures are
Discontinuous Density to be carried out at 4 °C.
Gradients 1. Filter 1 L of 7-day-old cell culture through four layers of
Miracloth. This should yield about 100 g of cells.
2. Add 300 mL of grinding solution to the blender, add cells,
and blend five times with 4-s bursts with 10-s intervals.
3. Filter the solution through four layers of Miracloth into a 500-
mL conical flask.
4. Decant the cell extract into 50-mL tubes and centrifuge at
3,500 × g for 5 min.
5. Decant supernatant into new tubes and centrifuge at 18,000 × g
for 15 min.
6. Prepare two Percoll gradients by layering 20 mL of 21 % (v/v)
Percoll gradient solution over 5 mL of 40 % (v/v) Percoll gradi-
ent solution, and layering 10 mL of 16 % (v/v) Percoll gradient
solution on the top; keep the gradients on ice (see Note 15).
Isolation of Plant Mitochondria 9
16%
21%
40%
16%
21%
40%
3.4 Mitochondrial The protocol is adapted from [8]. Embryos can be dissected from
Isolation: Rice imbibed rice grains following 12-h imbibition (Fig. 1). Rice grains
Embryos can be grown under anoxic or aerobic conditions. All procedures
are carried out at 4 °C.
1. Dissect embryos from at least 200 rice grains using scalpel at
room temperature.
2. Grind the embryos in a small precooled mortar and pestle
using 3 mL of grinding buffer and transfer to a chilled micro-
centrifuge tube.
3. Centrifuge at 200 × g for 1 min at 4 °C. Remove the superna-
tant and gently layer onto the layered Percoll step gradients
(1.5 mL per gradient).
4. Centrifuge the gradients at 34,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C with
the brakes off (see Note 16).
5. Mitochondria are visible as opaque bands at the 25–40 % (v/v)
interface (Fig. 2c). The mitochondrial layer is removed using
a flat-bottomed needle and transferred to a new 10-mL ultra-
centrifuge tube.
6. Add 1× wash buffer and centrifuge at 22,000 × g for 15 min
at 4 °C.
7. Aspirate the wash buffer and transfer the mitochondrial pellet
to a 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tube.
8. Add 1 mL 1× wash buffer, centrifuge at 200 × g for 1 min at
4 °C, transfer the supernatant (mitochondria) to a 1.5-mL
microcentrifuge tube, and centrifuge at maximum speed for
15 min at 4 °C.
Isolation of Plant Mitochondria 11
4 Notes
References
1. Douce R, Moore AL, Neuburger M (1977) 5. Taylor NL, Stroher E, Millar AH (2014)
Isolation and oxidative properties of intact mito- Arabidopsis organelle isolation and characteriza-
chondria isolated from spinach leaves. Plant tion. Methods Mol Biol 1062:551–572
Physiol 60:625–628 6. Day DA, Neuburger M, Douce R (1985)
2. Eubel H, Heazlewood JL, Millar AH (2007) Biochemical-characterization of chlorophyll-free
Isolation and subfractionation of plant mito- mitochondria from pea leaves. Aust J Plant
chondria for proteomic analysis. Methods Mol Physiol 12:219–228
Biol 355:49–62 7. Millar AH, Sweetlove LJ, Giege P, Leaver
3. Millar AH, Liddell A, Leaver CJ (2007) Isolation CJ (2001) Analysis of the Arabidopsis mito-
and subfractionation of mitochondria from chondrial proteome. Plant Physiol 127:
plants. Methods Cell Biol 80:65–90 1711–1727
4. Neuburger M, Journet EP, Bligny R, Carde JP, 8. Howell KA, Millar AH, Whelan J (2006)
Douce R (1982) Purification of plant mitochon- Ordered assembly of mitochondria during rice
dria by isopycnic centrifugation in density gradi- germination begins with pro-mitochondrial
ents of Percoll. Arch Biochem Biophys 217: structures rich in components of the protein
312–323 import apparatus. Plant Mol Biol 60:201–223
Chapter 2
Abstract
Mitochondrial gene expression in plants is considerably more complex than in animals or fungi. In plants,
mitochondrial transcripts are generated from transcription initiation at numerous, poorly conserved pro-
moters located throughout the mitochondrial genome. Most genes have more than one transcription start
site. Posttranscriptional RNA 5′ end maturation contributes to the diversity of transcripts produced from
each mitochondrial gene. Understanding transcriptional mechanisms and transcript maturation requires
knowledge on transcription start sites and processing sites. This chapter describes two different, comple-
mentary experimental approaches for determining these sites in mitochondrial genomes through mapping
of transcript 5′ ends. In order to distinguish 5′ ends deriving from transcription initiation, both strategies
exploit the presence of triphosphates at these specific 5′ termini.
Key words Mitochondrial RNA, Transcription initiation, Transcript 5′ end maturation, Primary
RNA, Processed RNA, Differential transcript 5′ end analysis, 5′-RACE, Primer extension
1 Introduction
James Whelan and Monika W. Murcha (eds.), Plant Mitochondria: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology,
vol. 1305, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2639-8_2, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
13
14 Stefan Binder and Kristina Kühn
2 Materials
8. 70 % (v/v) Ethanol.
9. 60 °C Incubator.
10. Refrigerated microcentrifuge.
3 Methods
3.1 RNA Isolation It is important that all steps from tissue harvesting to TRIsure addi-
and DNase Treatment tion are performed rapidly, to avoid RNA degradation by ribonucle-
ases present in the plant tissue. The tissue must remain deep-frozen
between harvesting and TRIsure addition. All centrifugation steps
are to be performed at 4 °C. Handle phenol-containing reagents
and samples under a fume hood, and avoid contaminating gloves and
equipment with traces of phenol (see Note 3). Steps 1–5 will pro-
duce RNA that is sufficiently pure for many applications; however,
for downstream applications described under Subheadings 3.2 and
3.4, we recommend further purification of the RNA as described in
steps 6–15.
1. Harvest and transfer 100 mg of the tissue of interest into a
2-mL microcentrifuge tube containing one stainless steel
bead. Close the tube tightly and rapidly snap-freeze the sam-
ple by transferring the tube into liquid nitrogen (see Note 4).
2. For tissue grinding using the bead mill, place the tube into a
suitable precooled (−80 °C) tube holder and grind at 20 Hz
for 1 min. Verify that the tissue has been thoroughly ground
and a fine powder has been obtained; put the tube back into
liquid nitrogen. If regrinding is required, ensure that the tis-
sue, tube, and tube holder remain deep-frozen.
3. Remove the sample tube from liquid nitrogen and briefly
shake the tube to collect all tissue powder at the bottom of the
tube. Add 1 mL TRIsure reagent to the frozen tissue powder
and mix the contents thoroughly during 30 s, using a vortex
mixer at high speed. Leave the sample at room temperature
for 5 min; then add 200 μL of chloroform. Following chloro-
form addition, keep the tube at room temperature for 2 min.
Centrifuge the sample at 12 000 × g for 15 min.
4. Transfer the upper, RNA-containing aqueous phase into a new
1.5-mL microcentrifuge tube. Add 0.5 volume of isopropa-
nol, mix, and incubate the sample on ice for 15 min in order
to precipitate the RNA. Centrifuge the sample at 12 000 × g
for 15 min to collect the precipitated RNA.
5. Wash the RNA pellet with 70 % (v/v) ethanol, recentrifuge
the sample at 12 000 × g for 5 min, carefully remove all etha-
nol, and air-dry the pellet at room temperature (see Note 5).
Dissolve the RNA in 200 μL of ultrapure water (see Note 6).
6. Add 200 μL of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, pH 5.0,
mix the contents of the tube using a vortex mixer at medium
speed three times for 3 s, and centrifuge the sample at
12,000 × g for 8 min.
Mapping Transcriptional Start Sites in Plant Mitochondria 21
3.2 TAP Treatment 1. In a 1.5-mL reaction tube, mix 5 μg RNA, 10 μL 10× TAP
of RNA and Differential reaction buffer (supplied with the TAP enzyme), 2 μL TAP
5′-RACE (10 U), 1 μL RiboLock RNase inhibitor (40 U), and ultrapure
water to obtain a final volume of 100 μL. In a second tube, set
up a control reaction with the same components but omitting
the TAP enzyme. All subsequent steps will be performed simul-
taneously for both the +TAP and the −TAP sample. Incubate
the reaction at 37 °C for 1 h, and then stop the reaction by
adding 100 μL of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, pH 5.0.
Mix and centrifuge the samples at 12,000 × g for 8 min.
2. Transfer the upper phase into a new 1.5-mL microcentrifuge
tube. To precipitate the RNA, add 3 volumes of ethanol/3 M
sodium acetate, pH 4.8 (30:1) and leave the sample at −20 °C
overnight. Collect the RNA by centrifugation (20,000 × g for
≥30 min). Wash the pellet with 70 % (v/v) ethanol, recentri-
fuge the sample at 12,000 × g for 5 min, carefully remove
all ethanol, and air-dry the pellet at room temperature
(see Note 5). If highly pure RNA was used, the RNA pellet
may not be visible at this step.
3. Resuspend the pellet in 67 μL of ultrapure water. Add to the
RNA 10 μL 10× T4 RNA ligase reaction buffer (supplied with
the T4 RNA ligase enzyme), 10 μL T4 RNA ligase (50 U),
10 μL ATP (10 mM, supplied with the enzyme), 2 μL
RiboLock RNase inhibitor (80 U), and 1 μL oligoribonucleo-
tide adapter (10 pmol/μL) to obtain a final volume of
100 μL. Incubate the reaction at 37 °C for 1 h, and then stop
the reaction by adding 100 μL of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl
alcohol, pH 5.0. Mix and centrifuge the samples at 12,000 × g
for 8 min.
4. Repeat step 2.
5. Resuspend the pellet in 29.5 μL ultrapure water. Transfer the
RNA into a PCR tube and add 1 μL of preprepared RT oligo-
nucleotide mix (see Note 9), containing up to 12 different
gene-specific primers (2 μM each). Denature the RNA and
primers at 65 °C for 5 min, and then immediately place the
tubes on ice for 2 min. Add 2.5 μL of SuperScript® III reverse
transcriptase (600 U), 10 μL 5× reaction buffer (supplied with
the enzyme), 2.5 μL 0.1 M dithiothreitol (DTT, supplied with
the enzyme), 2.5 μL dNTP mix (10 mM each dATP, dGTP,
Mapping Transcriptional Start Sites in Plant Mitochondria 23
3.3 Terminator™ 1. Prepare total cellular RNA from appropriate plant tissues as
5′-Phosphate- described under Subheading 3.1 or with the Spectrum Plant
Dependent Total RNA Kit (Sigma). Generally, any RNA isolation proce-
Exonuclease dure can be used; however, special care should be taken to mini-
Treatment mize degradation of the RNA by contaminating ribonucleases.
(TEX) of RNA 2. For exonucleolytic digestion, add the following components
to a total volume of 20 μL: 10 μg RNA in 16.5 μL ultrapure
water, 2 μL 10× TEX reaction buffer A (supplied with the
enzyme), 0.5 μL RiboLock RNase inhibitor (20 U), and 1 μL
TEX (1 U) (see Note 12).
3. Mix gently and incubate for 30 min at 60 °C.
4. Add 180 μL of ultrapure water to adjust the total volume to
200 μL.
5. Add 200 μL of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol, pH 5.0,
and mix on a vortex mixer.
6. Centrifuge the sample at 16,700 × g for 5 min at room
temperature.
7. Carefully remove the upper aqueous layer (about 190 μL) and
transfer into a new 1.5-mL reaction tube. Add 200 μL of
chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (24:1) and mix the contents of
the tube in order to remove traces of phenol from the sample.
Centrifuge the sample at 16,700 × g for 5 min at room
temperature.
8. Repeat step 7.
9. Finally remove the upper aqueous layer (about 190 μL) and
transfer into a new 1.5-mL reaction tube. To precipitate the
RNA, add 0.1 volume of 3 M sodium acetate, pH 4.8, and 2.5
volumes of 100 % ethanol.
10. Mix gently and incubate for 30 min at −80 °C (or overnight at
−20 °C).
11. Centrifuge the sample at ≥16,700 × g for 30 min at 4 °C.
12. Discard the supernatant and wash the pellet twice with 400 μL
70 % (v/v) ethanol.
13. Dry the pellet at room temperature and resuspend in 16 μL
ultrapure water.
14. The RNA can now be used for the primer extension reaction
(Subheading 3.4).
3.4 Primer Extension 1. For the radioactive labeling of the primer, combine the follow-
Analysis ing components to a total volume of 20 μL: 1 μL 20 μM oli-
gonucleotide, 13 μL ultrapure water, 3 μL [γ-32P] ATP
3.4.1 Oligonucleotide 5′
(10 μCi/μL), 2 μL 10× T4 PNK buffer A (supplied with the
End Labeling
PNK enzyme), and 1 μL PNK (10 U) (see Note 3).
2. Mix gently and incubate for 60 min at 37 °C.
Mapping Transcriptional Start Sites in Plant Mitochondria 25
»Täti Betsy», sanoi Roma, »tiedäthän hyvin, että aikoja sitten olisi
tuotu tohtori tänne, ellet aivan jyrkästi olisi sitä kieltänyt.»
»Älä herran tähden nyt taas toru, vaan lähetä heti hakemaan
tohtoria.
Minä tahdon tohtori Fedin, sillä kaikki käyttävät nykyjään häntä.»
»Etkö kuule, Roma? Tohtori sanoo, että minulle pitää heti hankkia
sairaanhoitaja. Minä tahdon englantilaisen sisaren. Jokaisella on niitä
tätä nykyä. He ovat muukalaisia eivätkä voi puheillaan aikaansaada
hämmennystä.»
Sisar haettiin. Hän oli lempeä ja vieno olento ja hänellä oli yllään
sinivalkoinen puku, mutta hän puhui yhtämittaa »johtajatar-äidistä»,
joka hymyili koko päivän, vaikka oli ollut vuoteen omana viisitoista
vuotta. Tuo kiusasi kreivitärtä. Kun tohtori palasi, oli sairas
huonompi.
»Kuuletko, Roma?»
»Tuo Fedi on hullu», sanoi hän. »En ymmärrä miksi ihmiset häntä
kehuvat. Tahtoisin koettaa Ara Cœlin ihmeitätekevää pyhää lasta. Se
tuotiin erään kardinaalinkin luo. Miksei siis minun luokseni?
Sanotaan, että se on tehnyt ihmeitä. Se on ehkä kallis, mutta jos
kuolen, kadut aina ellet tuottaisi sitä. Ellei sinulla ole rahaa, voit
kirjoittaa kuuden kuukauden vekselin, ja sitä ennen tuo mielipuoli-
raukka on kuollut ja sinä olet paronin vaimo ja…»
»Kaikkiko?»
»'Minä olen sidottu', sanoi paroni, 'mutta teidän pitää katsoa, että
hän odottaa minun. Kaikki riippuu teistä ja jos asia loppuu hyvin…'»
Vanhan vaimon kieli kävi paksuksi ja hänen silmänsä muuttuivat
elottomiksi ja lasimaisiksi.
»Miksi minä annoin hänen kiusata itseäni? Sillä hän tiesi jotain. Se
koski lasta. Etkö tiedä, että minulla oli lapsi? Se syntyi mieheni
poissa ollessa. Hänen piti palata kotiin ja minä olin hädässä.»
»Minä, täti.»
Kun hän nousi taas, oli hän kuin lapsi, joka on itkenyt ja saanut
lohdutusta.
IX.
Muutamia päiviä tämän jälkeen talo oli vallan nurin. Joukko miehiä,
päässä punaiset lakit, joissa seisoi »Casa di Vendita», puuhaili
irroittaen mattoja ja kantaen pois huonekaluja sekä pannen merkit
niihin. Luettelo laadittiin ja ulkopuolelle katu-ovea kiinnitettiin
ilmoituksia, joissa yleisölle annettiin tieto, että myydään »vanhoja ja
uusia taide-esineitä Appartamento Volonnassa». Sitten seurasi
»Grand Esposizione» eräänä sunnuntaina, ja seuraa vana päivänä oli
huutokauppa.
»Astukaa sisään.»
»Ei mitään.»
»Jos tarvitset rahaa, olisit pyytänyt paronilta, tai ellet tahdo tehdä
sitä, olisit kirjoittanut kuuden kuukauden vekselin, kuten sanoin.
Mutta ei! Sinä tahdoit nöyryyttää ja alentaa minua. Siinä kaikki. Se
on onnistunut, ja minä kuolen häpeästä….»
»Pähkinäpuinen kirjoituspöytä! Ajatelkaapa, arvoisat naiset, mitä
salaisuuksia tämä pöytä osaisi kertoa, jos sillä olisi kieli! Kuinka
paljon tarjotaan?» »Kuusikymmentä liiraa.» »Kuusikymmentä.»
»Kuusikymmentä viisi.» »Kuusikymmentä viisi.» »Pähkinäpuinen
kirjoituspöytä, jonka ääressä juuri on kirjoitettu lemmenkirjeitä, ja
ainoastaan kuusikymmentä viisi tarjotaan!…»
Mutta oh, kuinka typerä tämä maailma on! Ihmiset luulivat, että
koska myin sellaiset tavarat, joita en tarvitse, olin kokonaan
mennyttä kalua. Sinä olisit nauranut, jos olisit kuullut heidän
huomautuksiaan. Puhuakseni totta olin niin typerä, että melkein
itkin, mutta juuri pahimmalla hetkellä tuli sinun sähkösanomasi kuin
enkeli taivaasta — ja mitä arvelet minun tehneeni? Vanha Aatami,
tai sanokaamme uusi Eeva, valtasi minut, ja heti kun ihmiset olivat
menneet, vuokrasin ajurin — tavalliset roomalaismalliset
ajurinvaunut, joita repaleisen ajajan hoputtama koni vetää
viimeisillä jalkaraukoillaan — ja sitten läksin ajelemaan Pinciolle!
Tahdoin näyttää tuolle hienolle maailmalle, etten ole ollenkaan
lopussa, ja minä näytinkin! He olivat kaikki siellä, joka-ikinen, kaikki
rakkaat ystäväni ja entiset imartelijani, jotka vuosikausia ovat
ahdistaneet taloani rukoillen sitä tai tätä suosiota ja palkiten ne
mitä imelimmillä hymyillään. Näytti vallan siltä kuin kohtalo olisi
koonnut heidät kaikki sinne minun nähtäväkseni, enkä minä
päästänyt ainoatakaan sielua pakoon.
Roma.
»Ikävä, etten voi mennä Campo Santoon», sanoi hän lisäten jotain
murtuneesta elämänlangasta, mitä Roma ei kuullut.
»Oi äiti, rakkauden lähde, anna meidän tuntea surun voimaa, että
surisimme sinun kanssasi.»
Sillä hetkellä eräs köyhä, huivipää tyttö, joka oli itkien polvistunut
rippituoliin, nousi siitä ylös loistavin silmin. Roma vapisi liikutuksesta.
Vastustamaton halu tunnustaa oli vallannut hänet. Hänen täytyi
tarttua kiinni istuimeen, sillä muuten hän olisi kaatunut. Sitten hän
äkillisen tunnelman valtaamana, jonkinmoisessa huumaustilassa ja
tuskin tietäen mitä teki, heittäytyi samalle paikalle, josta tyttö oli
noussut, ja sanoi sykkivin sydämin ja vapisevalla äänellä pienen
metalliristikon läpi: