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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Computer Science CIE 

8. Programming

CONTENTS
8.1 Programming Concepts
Data Types
Variables & Constants
Input & Output
Sequence
Selection
Iteration
Totalling & Counting
String Handling
Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators
Nested Statements
Procedures & Functions
Local & Global Variables
Library Routines
Maintaining Programs
8.2 Arrays
Arrays
Using Arrays
8.3 File Handling
File Handling

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8.2 Arrays YOUR NOTES


Arrays

1D Arrays
A one-dimensional (1D) array is a collection of items of the same data type.
To declare an array in pseudocode, use the syntax:
DECLARE arrayName[n] OF dataType
To declare an array in Python, use the syntax:
array_name = [0] * n
In Java, use the syntax:
dataType[] arrayName = new dataType[n];
In Visual Basic, use the syntax:
Dim arrayName(n) As dataType

To access elements in a 1D array, use the index, which can start at 0 or 1.

2D Arrays
A two-dimensional (2D) array is an array of arrays, creating a grid-like structure.
To declare a 2D array in pseudocode using the syntax:
DECLARE arrayName[n][m] OF dataType
In Python, use the syntax:
array_name = [[0] * m for _ in range(n)]
In Java, use the syntax:
dataType[][] arrayName = new dataType[n][m];
In Visual Basic, use the syntax:
Dim arrayName(n, m) As dataType

To access elements in a 2D array, use two indices: the row index and the column index.
The syntax for accessing elements is similar across languages, using square brackets:
[i] for 1D arrays,
and [i][j] for 2D arrays.

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8.3 File Handling YOUR NOTES


File Handling

Why Use Files?

Files provide a way to ​store data ​permanently, allowing programs to access and
manipulate it later
Files allow for ​organised storage​of data, making it easier to find, access, and update
They enable ​sharing​of data between different programs and users
They support ​data backup, ensuring data is not lost when a program or computer system
shuts down
They allow for ​large amounts of data​to be stored and managed efficiently
Data can be transported from one system to another

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Opening & Closing Files YOUR NOTES

Common file operations include: 
Opening: creates a connection between the file and the program
Reading: retrieves data from a file
Writing​: saves new data to a file, overwriting existing content
Appending: adds new data to the end of a file without overwriting existing content
Closing: ends the connection between the file and the program, releasing system
resources
Single items of data can be numbers, characters, or other simple data types
A line of text typically ends with a newline character or an end-of-line marker
Pseudocode example:
OPEN "file.txt"
filedata = READ data
PRINT filedata
CLOSE file

OPEN "file.txt"
WRITE data
CLOSE file

Python example:
with open("file.txt", "r") as file:
data = file.read()
print(data)

with open("file.txt", "w") as file:

file.write(data)

Java example:
public static void main(String[] args) {
String path = ("file.txt");

try {

FileReader f = new FileReader(path);

BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(f);

String data = reader.readLine();

reader.close();

BufferedWriter out = new BufferedWriter(f);

out.write(data);

out.close();

} catch (Exception e) {

System.err.println("No file found");

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} YOUR NOTES
} 

Visual Basic example:

Dim File As New System.IO.StreamReader("file.txt")

Console.WriteLine(File.ReadLine())

File.Close()

Dim fileWrite As New System.IO.StreamWriter("file.txt")

fileWrite.WriteLine(data)

fileWrite.Close()

 Exam Tip
Remember to close files after using them

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8.2 Arrays YOUR NOTES


Using Arrays

Using Arrays
Arrays are used to store and manage multiple values of the same data type efficiently
They can be used for tasks such as storing student scores, calculating averages, and
managing inventory data
Using variables in arrays
Variables can be used as indexes in arrays to access and modify elements dynamically
This is useful when iterating through the array using loops or performing calculations based
on user input
What is the first index value?
The first index can be either 0 or 1, depending on the programming language and personal
preference
Most programming languages, such as Python, Java, and Visual Basic, use 0 as the first
index

 Exam Tip
In pseudocode, the first index can be either 0 or 1, so it is crucial to read the
question to find out

Pseudocode example:
DECLARE scores[5] OF INTEGER

FOR i FROM 0 TO 4

INPUT scores[i]

ENDFOR

Python example:
scores = [0] * 5

for i in range(5):

scores[i] = int(input())

Java example:
int[] scores = new int[5];
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
scores[i] = scanner.nextInt();
}

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Visual Basic example: YOUR NOTES

Dim scores(5) As Integer 
For i As Integer = 0 To 4

console.Writeline("Enter score: ")

scores(i) = Console.ReadLine())
Next

 Worked Example
Declare an array to store customer names
[1]
CustomerNames[1:30] [1]
Declare the arrays to store each customer's date of birth, telephone number, email
address and balance
[2]
CustomerDOB[1:30]
CustomerTelNo[1:30]
CustomerEmail[1:30] [1]
CustomerBalance[1:30] [1]

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Using Iteration YOUR NOTES

Loops can be used to write values into arrays, iterating through each element and 
assigning a value
Iteration can also be used to read values from arrays, traversing through each element and
performing operations or outputting the value
Nested iteration is useful for working with multi-dimensional arrays, such as 2D arrays,
where you need to iterate through rows and columns
Pseudocode example:
DECLARE scores[3][3] OF INTEGER
FOR i FROM 0 TO 2
FOR j FROM 0 TO 2
INPUT scores[i][j]
ENDFOR
ENDFOR

FOR i FROM 0 TO 2
FOR j FROM 0 TO 2
OUTPUT scores[i][j]
ENDFOR
ENDFOR

Python example:
scores = [[0] * 3 for _ in range(3)]
for i in range(3):
for j in range(3):
scores[i][j] = int(input())

for i in range(3):
for j in range(3):
print(scores[i][j])

Java example:
int[][] scores = new int[3][3];
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
scores[i][j] = scanner.nextInt();
}
}

for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
System.out.print(scores[i][j] + " ");
}
System.out.println();
}

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Visual Basic example: YOUR NOTES

Dim scores(2, 2) As Integer 
For i As Integer = 0 To 2
For j As Integer = 0 To 2

Console.Writeline("Enter score: ")

scores(i, j) = Console.ReadLine())
Next
Next

For i As Integer = 0 To 2
For j As Integer = 0 To 2
Console.Write(scores(i, j) & " ")
Next
Console.WriteLine()
Next

 Exam Tip
Keep track of your loop variables to avoid confusion and errors - it's best to give
these clear names (row and column) rather than i and j

 Worked Example
Write the pseudocode to output the contents of the arrays Balance[ ] and Email [ ]
along with suitable messages
[3]
Count ← 0
REPEAT
[3]
PRINT "Customer: ", Count, " Balance: ", Balance[Count], " Email:
",Email[Count]
Count ← Count + 1
UNTIL Count = 30 [1]
You could also answer with a WHILE or FOR loop

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8.1 Programming Concepts YOUR NOTES


Data Types

Data Types
A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of data they
represent
Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a program
The basic data types include:
Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or negative
Examples: 10, -5, 0
Real: used to represent numbers with a fractional part, either positive or negative
Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit or symbol
Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
String: used to represent a sequence of characters
Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%
Boolean: used to represent true or false values
Examples: True, False
We can declare variables as follows:

Python Java Visual Basic

variable_name = data_type Dim variable_name As

Syntax
value variable_name; data_type

Example x=5 int x Dim x As Integer

It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure accuracy and
efficiency in the program.

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Name and describe the most appropriate programming data type for each of the
examples of data given. Each data type must be different
[6]
Data: 83
Data type name: Integer [1]
Data type description: The number is a whole number [1]

Data: [email protected]
Data type name: String [1]
Data type description: It is a group of characters [1]

Data: True
Data type name: Boolean [1]
Data type description: The value is True (or could be False) [1]

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Variables & Constants YOUR NOTES


Variables & Constants
Variables and constants are used to store data in a program. Variables can be changed during
program execution while constants remain the same.
Declaring Variables and Constants
Variables are declared using a data type, a name and a value (optional)
Constants are declared using the 'const' keyword, a name and a value
In all programming languages, variable names should follow certain rules, such as starting
with a letter and not containing spaces
Examples of data types include integer, float, boolean, and string

Examples in Pseudocode:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
score ← 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

const PI ← 3.14

Examples in Python:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
score = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

PI = 3.14

Examples in Java:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
int score = 10;

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

final double PI = 3.14;

Examples in Visual Basic:

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
Dim score As Integer = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

Const PI As Double = 3.14

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Exam questions will ask you to write pseudocode statements, rather than in a

specific language

 Worked Example
The variables 'name' and 'age' are used to store data in a program:
name stores the user’s name
age stores the user’s age
Write pseudocode statements to declare the variables name and age.
[2]
DECLARE name : STRING [1]
DECLARE age : INTEGER [1]

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Input & Output YOUR NOTES


Output
Output refers to the process of displaying or saving the results of a program to the user.
Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Hello, ", name

Python example:
print("Hello, ", name)

Java example:
System.out.println("Hello, " + name);

Visual Basic example:

Console.WriteLine( "Hello, " & name)

Input
Input refers to the process of providing data or information to a program.
'User Input' is data or information entered by the user during program execution.
Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Enter your name"

INPUT name

Python example:
name = input("Enter your name: ")

Java example:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter your name: ");

String name = input.nextLine();

Visual Basic example:

Console.WriteLine("Enter your name")

name = Console.Readline()

 Exam Tip
Remember to prompt the user for input clearly, and format the output to make it
readable and understandable.

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Sequence YOUR NOTES


Sequence
What is Sequence?
Sequence is a concept that involves executing instructions in a particular order
It is used in programming languages to perform tasks in a step-by-step manner
Sequence is a fundamental concept in computer science and is used in many
programming languages
Pseudocode example:
PRINT "Hello, World!"

x←5

y←10

z← x + y

PRINT z

Python example:
print("Hello, World!")

x=5

y = 10

z=x+y

print(z)

Java example:
System.out.println("Hello, World!");

int x = 5;

int y = 10;

int z = x + y;

System.out.println(z);

Visual Basic example:

Console.WriteLine("Hello, World!")

Dim x As Integer = 5

Dim y As Integer = 10

Dim z As Integer = x + y

Console.WriteLine(z)

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Always remember to write your instructions in the order in which you want them

to be executed

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Selection YOUR NOTES


Selection
What is selection?
Selection is a programming concept that allows you to execute different sets of instructions
based on certain conditions. There are two main types of selection statements: IF statements
and CASE statements.

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If Statements YOUR NOTES

IF statements allow you to execute a set of instructions if a condition is true. They have the 
following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:
x← 5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

Java example:
int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

System.out.println("x is positive");

Visual Basic example:

Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is positive")

End If

IF ELSE Statements
If else statements are used to execute one set of statements if a condition is true and a different
set of statements if the condition is false. They have the following syntax:

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IF condition YOUR NOTES

THEN 

Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:
x←5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ELSE

PRINT “x is negative”

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

else:

print("x is negative")

Java example:
int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

System.out.println("x is positive");

} else {

System.out.println("x is negative");

Visual Basic example:

Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

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Console.WriteLine("x is positive") YOUR NOTES

Else 

Console.WriteLine("x is negative")

End If

IF ELSE IF Statements
If else if statements are used to test multiple conditions and execute different statements for
each condition. They have the following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:
x← 5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ELSE IF x < 0

THEN

PRINT “x is negative”

ELSE

PRINT “x is 0”

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

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print("x is positive") YOUR NOTES

elif x < 0: 

print("x is negative")

else:

print("x is 0")

Java example:
int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

System.out.println("x is positive");

} else if (x < 0) {

System.out.println("x is negative");

} else {

System.out.println("x is 0");

}
Visual Basic example:
Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is positive")

ElseIf x < 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is negative")

Else

Console.WriteLine("x is 0")

End If

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 3 numbers
Outputs the largest of the three numbers
[3]
INPUT a, b, c
IF a > b AND a > c THEN PRINT a [1]
ELSE IF b > c THEN PRINT b [1]
ELSE PRINT c [1]

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Case Statements YOUR NOTES

CASE statements allow you to execute different sets of instructions based on the value of a 
variable. They have the following syntax:
CASE OF variable
value1: instructions
value2: instructions
...
OTHERWISE instructions
END CASE
Pseudocode example:
CASE OF number

1: PRINT "Monday"

2: PRINT "Tuesday"

3: PRINT “Wednesday”

4: PRINT “Thursday”

5: PRINT “Friday”

6: PRINT “Saturday”

7: PRINT “Sunday”

OTHERWISE PRINT "Invalid number"

END CASE

Python example:
match (number)

case 1:

print "Monday";

case 2:

print "Tuesday";

case 3:

print "Wednesday";

case 4:

print "Thursday";

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case 5: YOUR NOTES

print "Friday"; 

case 6:

print "Saturday";

case 7:

print "Sunday";

case _:

print "Invalid number";

Java example:
switch (number) {

case 1:

return "Monday";

case 2:

return "Tuesday";

case 3:

return "Wednesday";

case 4:

return "Thursday";

case 5:

return "Friday";

case 6:

return "Saturday";

case 7:

return "Sunday";

default:

return "Invalid number";

Visual Basic example:

Select Case number

Case 1

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Return "Monday" YOUR NOTES

Case 2 

Return "Tuesday"

Case 3

Return "Wednesday"

Case 4

Return "Thursday"

Case 5

Return "Friday"

Case 6

Return "Saturday"

Case 7

Return "Sunday"

Case Else

Return "Invalid number"

End Select

 Exam Tip
Make sure to include all necessary components in the selection statement: the
condition, the statement(s) to execute when the condition is true, and any
optional statements to execute when the condition is false
Use proper indentation to make the code easier to read and understand
Be careful with the syntax of the programming language being used, as it may
differ slightly between languages
Make sure to test the selection statement with various input values to ensure
that it works as expected

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Iteration YOUR NOTES


Iteration
What is iteration?
Iteration is the process of repeating a set of instructions until a specific condition is met. It is an
important programming concept and is used to automate repetitive tasks.
There are three main types of iteration:
Count-controlled loops
Precondition loops
Postcondition loops

Count-controlled Loops
A count-controlled loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand
It is also known as a definite loop
It uses a counter variable that is incremented or decremented after each iteration
The loop continues until the counter reaches a specific value
Example in Pseudocode:
count ← 1

FOR i <= 10

OUTPUT count

NEXT i
Example in Python:
for count in range(1, 11):

print(count)

Example in Java:
for(int count=1; count<=10; count++){

System.out.println(count);

Example in Visual Basic:

For count = 1 To 10

Console.WriteLine(count)

Next count

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Pre-condition Loops YOUR NOTES

A precondition loop is used when the number of iterations is not known beforehand and is 
dependent on a condition being true
It is also known as an indefinite loop
The loop will continue to execute while the condition is true and will stop once the condition
becomes false
Example in Pseudocode:
INPUT temperature

WHILE temperature > 37 DO

OUTPUT "Patient has a fever"

INPUT temperature

END WHILE

Example in Python:
temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

while temperature > 37:

print("Patient has a fever")

temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

Example in Java:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

float temperature = input.nextFloat();

while (temperature > 37) {

System.out.println("Patient has a fever");

temperature = input.nextFloat();

Example in Visual Basic:

temperature = InputBox("Enter temperature")

Do While temperature > 37

Console.WriteLine( "Patient has a fever")

Console.WriteLine("Enter temperature")

temperature=Console.ReadLine()

Loop

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Postcondition Loops YOUR NOTES

A post-condition loop is used when the loop must execute at least once, even if the 
condition is false from the start
The condition is checked at the end of the loop

Example in Pseudocode:
REPEAT

INPUT guess

UNTIL guess = 42

Example in Python:
Postcondition loops don’t exist in Python and would need to be restructured to a precondition
loop

Example in Java:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

int guess = 0;

do {

System.out.print("Enter guess: ");

guess = input.nextInt();

} while (guess != 42);

Example in Visual Basic:

Do

Console.WriteLine("Enter guess")

guess = Console.ReadLine()

Loop Until guess = 42

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Totalling & Counting YOUR NOTES


Totalling
Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop
A total variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:
Pseudocode example:
total ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num

total ← total + num

next i

output total

Python example:
total = 0

for i in range(1, 11):

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

total += num

print("Total:", total)

Java example:
int total = 0;

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

System.out.print("Enter a number: ");

int num = scanner.nextInt();

total += num;

System.out.println("Total: " + total);

Visual Basic example:

Dim total As Integer = 0

For i As Integer = 1 To 10

Console.Write("Enter a number: ")

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Dim num As Integer = Integer.Parse(Console.ReadLine()) YOUR NOTES

total += num 

Next i

Console.WriteLine("Total: " & total)

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Counting YOUR NOTES

Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event occurs 
A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:
Pseudocode example:
count ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num

if num > 5 then

ount ← count + 1

end if

next i

output count

Python example:
count = 0

for i in range(1, 11):

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if num > 5:

count += 1

print("Count:", count)

Java example:
int count = 0;

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

System.out.print("Enter a number: ");

int num = scanner.nextInt();

if (num > 5) {

count++;

System.out.println("Count: " + count);

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Visual Basic example: YOUR NOTES

Dim count As Integer = 0 
For i As Integer = 1 To 10

Console.Write("Enter a number: ")

Dim num As Integer = Integer.Parse(Console.ReadLine())

If num > 5 Then

count += 1

End If

Next i

Console.WriteLine("Count: " & count)

 Worked Example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 20 numbers
Outputs how many of these numbers are greater than 50
[3]
FOR x ← 1 TO 20 [1]
INPUT Number

IF Number > 50 THEN Total ← Total + 1 [1]

NEXT x

PRINT total [1]

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String Handling YOUR NOTES


String Handling
Strings are a sequence of characters, such as letters, numbers, and symbols
They are used to represent text in a computer program
String handling refers to the various operations that can be performed on strings
Length
The length of a string is the number of characters it contains
In Python, the len() function is used to find the length of a string
In Java, the length() method is used to find the length of a string
In Visual Basic, the Len() function is used to find the length of a string
Substring
A substring is a portion of a string
In Python, the substring can be obtained using the slicing operator [:]
In Java, the substring() method is used to obtain a substring
In Visual Basic, the Mid() function is used to obtain a substring
Upper
The upper() method converts all characters of a string to uppercase
In Python, the upper() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
In Java, the toUpperCase() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
In Visual Basic, the UCase() function is used to convert a string to uppercase
Lower
The lower() method converts all characters of a string to lowercase
In Python, the lower() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
In Java, the toLowerCase() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
In Visual Basic, the LCase() function is used to convert a string to lowercase
Pseudocode example:
string phrase ← "Save my exams"

length ← LENGTH(phrase)

substring ← SUBSTRING(phrase, 5, 2)

upper ← TO_UPPER(phrase)

lower ← TO_LOWER(phrase)

Python example:
phrase = "Save my exams"

length = len(phrase)

substring = phrase[4:6]

upper = phrase.upper()

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lower = phrase.lower() YOUR NOTES

Java example: 
String phrase = "Save my exams";

int length = phrase.length();

String substring = phrase.substring(4, 6);

String upper = phrase.toUpperCase();

String lower = phrase.toLowerCase();

Visual basic example:

Dim phrase As String = "Save my exams"

Dim length As Integer = phrase.Length

Dim substring As String = phrase.Substring(4, 2)

Dim upper As String = phrase.ToUpper()

Dim lower As String = phrase.ToLower()

Position of First Character

The first character of a string can be at position zero or one, depending on the programming
language
In Python and Java, the first character of a string is at position zero
In Visual Basic, the first character of a string is at position one

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The function Length(x) finds the length of a string x. The function substring(x,y,z)
finds a substring of x starting at position y and z characters long. The first character
in x is in position 1.
Write pseudocode statements to:
Store the string “Save my exams” in x
Find the length of the string and output it
Extract the word exams from the string and output it
[6]
X ← "Save my exams" [1] for storing string in X.
[1] for calling the function
OUTPUT Length(X) length. [1] for using the
correct parameter X.
Y ←9

Z ←4

[1] for using the substring

function. [1] for correct
parameters.
OUTPUT SubString(X,Y,Z)
[1] for outputting length and
substring return values.

 Exam Tip
Remember that the length of a string is not the same as the index of the last
character in the string
Be careful when counting positions in a string, as the first character can be at
position zero or one depending on the programming language

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Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators YOUR NOTES


Arithmetic Operators
Addition (+): Adds two values together
Subtraction (-): Subtracts one value from another
Division (/): Divides one value by another
Multiplication (*): Multiplies two values together
Exponentiation (^): Raises a number to a power
Modulo (MOD): Returns the remainder of a division operation
Integer Division (DIV): Returns the whole number of a division operation
Pseudocode example:
a←5

b←3

c←a+b

d←a-b

e←a*b

f←a/b

g ← a MOD b

h←a^b

i ← a DIV b

Python example:
a=5

b=3

c=a+b

d=a-b

e=a*b

f=a/b

g=a%b

h = a ** b

i = a // b

Java example:
int a = 5;

int b = 3;

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int c = a + b; YOUR NOTES

int d = a - b; 

int e = a * b;

double f = (double) a / b;

int g = a % b;

double h = Math.pow(a, b);

int i = a / b;

Visual Basic example:

Dim a As Integer = 5

Dim b As Integer = 3

Dim c As Integer = a + b

Dim d As Integer = a - b

Dim e As Integer = a * b

Dim f As Double = a / b

Dim g As Integer = a Mod b

Dim h As Double = Math.Pow(a, b)

Dim i As Integer = a \ b

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Logical Operators YOUR NOTES

Equal to (=): Returns true if two values are equal 
Less than (<): Returns true if the first value is less than the second value
Less than or equal to (<=): Returns true if the first value is less than or equal to the second
value
Greater than (>): Returns true if the first value is greater than the second value
Greater than or equal to (>=): Returns true if the first value is greater than or equal to the
second value
Not equal to (<>): Returns true if two values are not equal
Pseudocode example:
a←5

b←3

c ← (a = b)

d ← (a < b)

e ← (a <= b)

f ← (a > b)

g ← (a >= b)

h ← (a <> b)

Python example:
a=5

b=3

c = (a == b)

d = (a < b)

e = (a <= b)

f = (a > b)

g = (a >= b)

h = (a != b)

Java example:
int a = 5;

int b = 3;

boolean c = (a == b);

boolean d = (a < b);

boolean e = (a <= b);

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boolean f = (a > b); YOUR NOTES

boolean g = (a >= b); 

boolean h = (a != b);

Visual Basic example:

Dim a As Integer = 5

Dim b As Integer = 3

Dim c As Boolean = (a = b)

Dim d As Boolean = (a < b)

Dim e As Boolean = (a <= b)

Dim f As Boolean = (a > b)

Dim g As Boolean = (a >= b)

Dim h As Boolean = (a <> b)

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Boolean Operators YOUR NOTES

Boolean operators are logical operators that can be used to compare two or more values and 
return a Boolean value (True or False) based on the comparison. There are 3 you need to know:
AND: Returns True if both conditions are True
OR: Returns True if one or both conditions are True
NOT: Returns the opposite of the condition (True if False, False if True)
Boolean Operators in Pseudocode:
IF (condition1 AND condition2) THEN

// code to execute if both conditions are True

END IF

IF (condition1 OR condition2) THEN

// code to execute if one or both conditions are True

END IF

IF NOT(condition) THEN

// code to execute if the condition is False

END IF

Boolean Operators in Python:

if condition1 and condition2:

# code to execute if both conditions are True

if condition1 or condition2:

# code to execute if one or both conditions are True

if not condition:

# code to execute if the condition is False

Boolean Operators in Java:

if (condition1 && condition2) {

// code to execute if both conditions are True

if (condition1 || condition2) {

// code to execute if one or both conditions are True

if (!condition) {

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// code to execute if the condition is False YOUR NOTES

} 

Boolean Operators in Visual Basic:

If condition1 And condition2 Then

' code to execute if both conditions are True

End If

If condition1 Or condition2 Then

' code to execute if one or both conditions are True

End If

If Not condition Then

' code to execute if the condition is False

End If

 Exam Tip
Boolean operators are often used in conditional statements such as if, while,
and for loops
Boolean operators can be combined with comparison operators such as ==
(equal to), != (not equal to), < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal
to), and >= (greater than or equal to)
Be careful when using the NOT operator, as it can sometimes lead to
unexpected results. It is always a good idea to test your code with different
inputs to ensure that it works as expected

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Nested Statements YOUR NOTES


Nested Statements
Nested statements involve including one statement within another statement. This can be
done with both selection (if/else) and iteration (for/while) statements
In programming languages like Python, Java, and Visual Basic, nested statements are often
indicated by indenting the inner statement(s) relative to the outer statement(s)

 Exam Tip
You will not be required to write more than three levels of nested statements

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Nested Selection YOUR NOTES

Nested selection is an if statement inside an if statement 
If the first if statement is true, it will run the if statement which is nested inside
Otherwise, it will skip to the "else if" or "else" which is part of that if statement
Pseudocode example:
if a > b then

if b > c then

output “a is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

else

if a > c then

output “b is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

Python example:
if a > b:

if b > c:

print("a is the largest")

else:

print("c is the largest")

else:

if a > c:

print("b is the largest")

else:

print("c is the largest")

Java example:
if (a > b) {

if (b > c) {

System.out.println("a is the largest");

} else {

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System.out.println("c is the largest"); YOUR NOTES

} 

} else {

if (a > c) {

System.out.println("b is the largest");

} else {

System.out.println("c is the largest");

Visual Basic example:

If a > b Then

If b > c Then

Console.WriteLine("a is the largest")

Else

Console.WriteLine("c is the largest")

End If

Else

If a > c Then

Console.WriteLine("b is the largest")

Else

Console.WriteLine("c is the largest")

End If

End If

 Exam Tip
Indentation is key so make sure it's clear in your answer which if statement line is
part of which. It's more clear when you use end if in the appropriate places, too.

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Nested Iteration YOUR NOTES

Nested iteration refers to a loop inside another loop. 

Pseudocode example:
FOR i ← 1 TO 10

FOR j ← 1 TO 5

OUTPUT "i = ", i, " j = ", j

END FOR

END FOR

Python example:
for i in range(1, 11):

for j in range(1, 6):

print("i = ", i, " j = ", j)

Java example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

for (int j = 1; j <= 5; j++) {

System.out.println("i = " + i + " j = " + j);

Visual Basic example:

For i As Integer = 1 To 10

For j As Integer = 1 To 5

Console.WriteLine("i = " & i & " j = " & j)

Next j

Next i

 Exam Tip
Nested iteration is useful when we need to perform a task for a specific range of
values
It is important to keep track of the number of nested statements
It is important to keep nested statements organized and clear. Use consistent
indentation and avoid going too many levels deep, as this can make the code
difficult to read and understand

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Procedures & Functions YOUR NOTES


Subroutines
Procedures and functions are types of subroutines. They are a sequence of instructions that
perform a specific task or set of tasks
Subroutines are often used to simplify a program by breaking it into smaller, more
manageable parts. They can be used to:
Avoid duplicating code and can be reused throughout a program,
Improve the readability and maintainability of code,
Perform calculations, to retrieve data, or to make decisions based on input.
Parameters are values that are passed into a subroutine. They can:
Be used to customise the behaviour of a subroutine,
Be of different types,
Have default values, which are used if no value is passed in,
Be passed by value or by reference.
When a parameter is passed by value, a copy of the parameter is made and used
within the subroutine
When a parameter is passed by reference, the original parameter is used within
the subroutine, and any changes made to the parameter will be reflected outside
of the subroutine
Subroutines can have multiple parameters
What's the difference between a procedure and function?
Functions return a value whereas a procedure does not.

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Procedures YOUR NOTES

Procedures are defined using the PROCEDURE keyword in pseudocode, def keyword in 
Python, and Sub keyword in Visual Basic and Java
Procedures can be called from other parts of the program using their name
Pseudocode example:
PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width

OUTPUT "The area is " + area

END PROCEDURE

To call the procedure you would use the following pseudocode:

calculate_area(5,3)

Python example:
def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width

print("The area is ", area)

calculate_area(5,3)

Java example:
public static void calculateArea(int length, int width) {

int area = length * width;

System.out.println("The area is " + area);

calculateArea(5, 3);

Visual Basic example:

Sub CalculateArea(length As Integer, width As Integer)

Dim area As Integer = length * width

Console.WriteLine("The area is " & area)

End Sub

CalculateArea(5, 3)

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Functions YOUR NOTES

Functions are defined using the FUNCTION keyword in pseudocode, def keyword in 
Python, and Function keyword in Visual Basic and Java
Functions return a value using the RETURN keyword in pseudocode, return statement in
Python, and function name in Visual Basic and Java
Functions can be called from other parts of the program using their name, and their return
value can be stored in a variable
Pseudocode example:
PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width

RETURN area

END PROCEDURE

To output the value returned from the function you would use the following pseudocode:
OUTPUT(calculate_area(5,3))

Python example:
def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width

return area

print(calculate_area(5,3))

Java example:
public static void calculateArea(int length, int width) {

int area = length * width;

return area;

System.out.println(calculateArea(5, 3));

Visual Basic example:

CalculateArea(5, 3)

Sub CalculateArea(length As Integer, width As Integer)

Dim area As Integer = length * width

Return area

End Sub

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Local & Global Variables YOUR NOTES


Local & Global Variables
A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a subroutine and can only be accessed
from within that subroutine
A global variable is a variable that is declared outside of a subroutine and can be accessed
from anywhere in the program
Global variables can be used to pass data between different subroutine
Overuse of global variables can make a program difficult to understand and debug and is
therefore discouraged as it’s considered bad practice
Pseudocode example:
global total_score

FUNCTION calculate_average(num1: INTEGER, num2: INTEGER)

average ← (num1 + num2) / 2

RETURN average

END FUNCTION

total_score ← 0

PROCEDURE add_score(score: INTEGER)

total_score ← total_score + score

END PROCEDURE

Python example:
def calculate_average(num1, num2):

average = (num1 + num2) / 2

return average

total_score = 0

def add_score(score):

global total_score

total_score = total_score + score

Java example:
static int totalScore = 0;

public static void main(String args[]) {

double average = calculateAverage(5, 7);

System.out.println("Average: " + average);

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addScore(10); YOUR NOTES

System.out.println("Total score: " + totalScore); 

public static double calculateAverage(int num1, int num2) {

double average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0;

return average;

public static void addScore(int score) {

totalScore = totalScore + score;

Visual Basic example:

Dim totalScore As Integer = 0

Dim average As Double = CalculateAverage(5, 7)

Console.WriteLine("Average: " & average)

AddScore(10)

Console.WriteLine("Total score: " & totalScore)

Function CalculateAverage(num1 As Integer, num2 As Integer) As Double

Dim average As Double = (num1 + num2) / 2.0

Return average

End Function

Sub AddScore(score As Integer)

totalScore = totalScore + score

End Sub

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Library Routines YOUR NOTES


Library Routines
Library routines are pre-written code that can be used in programs to perform specific tasks.
Using library routines saves time by not having to write code from scratch
Library routines are also tested and proven to work, so errors are less likely
Some commonly used library routines include:
Input/output routines
Maths routines
Libraries can be included in programs by importing them
The specific syntax for importing a library may vary depending on the programming
language being used
It is important to check the documentation for a library to understand its usage and
available functions
Maths routines
MOD: a function that returns the remainder when one number is divided by another number
Pseudocode example: x MOD y
Python example: x % y
Java example: x % y
Visual Basic example: x Mod y
DIV: a function that returns the quotient when one number is divided by another number
Pseudocode example: x DIV y
Python example: x // y
Java example: x / y
Visual Basic example: x \ y
ROUND: a function that rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
Pseudocode example: ROUND(x, n)
Python example: round(x, n)
Java example: Math.round(x * 10^n) / x;
Visual Basic example: Math.Round(x, n)
RANDOM: a function that generates a random number between x and n
Pseudocode example: RANDOM(x,n)
Python example: random.randint(x,n)
Java example: rand.nextInt(x)
Visual Basic example: rand.next(x,n)

 Exam Tip
Remember to import or include the appropriate library before using the routines
in your code

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Maintaining Programs YOUR NOTES


Maintaining Programs
Why is it important to create a maintainable program?
Improve program quality:
A maintainable program is easier to understand and modify, which leads to fewer bugs
and better program quality
Reduce development time and costs:
A maintainable program requires less time and effort to modify, which reduces
development time and costs
Enables collaboration:
A maintainable program makes it easier for multiple developers to work together on
the same project, as it's easier to understand and modify
Increase program lifespan:
A maintainable program is more likely to be updated and maintained over time, which
increases its lifespan and usefulness
Adapt to changing requirements:
A maintainable program is easier to modify to adapt to changing requirements or new
features
How do you create a well maintained program?
Use meaningful identifiers:
Identifiers are names given to variables, constants, arrays, procedures and functions
Use descriptive and meaningful identifiers to make your code easier to understand
and maintain
Avoid using single letters or abbreviations that may not be clear to others
Use the commenting feature provided by the programming language:
Comments are used to add descriptions to the code that help readers understand
what the code is doing
Use comments to explain the purpose of variables, constants, procedures, functions
and any other parts of the code that may not be immediately clear
Use comments to document any assumptions or limitations of the code
Use procedures and functions:
Procedures and functions are reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks
Using procedures and functions allows you to modularise your code and make it easier
to understand, debug and maintain
Procedures and functions should have descriptive names that clearly indicate what
they do
Relevant and appropriate commenting of syntax:
Commenting of syntax is used to explain the purpose of individual lines or blocks of
code within the program
Use commenting of syntax to describe complex algorithms, or to provide additional
information on the purpose or behaviour of code

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