Birth of a Star

Birth of a Star
 What is a nebula?

A nebula is a giant cloud of dust and gas in space. Some nebulae

(more than one nebula) come from the gas and dust thrown out by the
explosion of a dying star, such as a supernova. Other nebulae are regions
where new stars are beginning to form. For this reason, some nebulae are
called "star nurseries.“
How do stars form in a nebula?

Nebulae are made of dust and gases—mostly hydrogen and helium. The dust and gases in a nebula
are very spread out, but gravity can slowly begin to pull together clumps of dust and gas. As these
clumps get bigger and bigger, their gravity gets stronger and stronger.

Eventually, the clump of dust and gas gets so big that it collapses from its own gravity. The collapse
causes the material at the center of the cloud to heat up-and this hot core is the beginning of a star.

This landscape of "mountains" and "valleys"

speckled with glittering stars is actually the
edge of a nearby, young, star-forming
region called NGC 3324 in the Carina
Nebula. Captured in infrared light by
NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, this
image reveals for the first time previously
invisible areas of star birth. Credits: NASA,
ESA, CSA, and STScI
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Nebular Hypothesis: The
Origin of the Solar
System
The Nebular Hypothesis is a theory that explains the formation and
evolution of our solar system. It proposes that the Sun and planets
originated from a massive, rotating cloud of gas and dust known as the
solar nebula. This hypothesis, developed over centuries by various
scientists, provides a comprehensive understanding of how our solar
system came into existence.

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Introduction to the
Nebular Hypothesis
1 Understanding the 2 Exploring the Early
Solar System's Stages
Formation
This theory delves into the initial
The Nebular Hypothesis offers a conditions and processes that led
scientific explanation for the origin to the formation of the solar
and structure of our solar system, system, from the primordial cloud
including the Sun, planets, moons, of gas and dust to the eventual
asteroids, and other celestial differentiation and organization of
bodies. the planets.

3 Implications for Planetary Science

The Nebular Hypothesis has far-reaching implications for our understanding of
planetary formation, the evolution of celestial bodies, and the potential for life in
the universe.
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Historical Context: The
Development of the Hypothesis
1 Early Theories
The idea of the solar system forming from a rotating nebula can be traced back to
the 17th century, with contributions from philosophers and scientists like
Descartes, Kant, and Laplace. Immanuel Kant initially proposed the nebular
hypothesis.

2 Refinement and Validation

Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the Nebular Hypothesis was further developed
and refined by scientists, incorporating new observations, calculations, and
advancements in astrophysics and planetary science.

3 Modern Acceptance
Today, the Nebular Hypothesis is widely accepted as the dominant theory for the
formation of our solar system, with continued research and observations
providing additional support and refinement to the model.

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The Nebula Theory: Key Concepts and
Assumptions
Primordial Cloud Gravitational Collapse Planetary Formation

The Nebular Hypothesis proposes that Over time, this primordial cloud As the cloud continued to collapse, the
the solar system originated from a vast, experienced gravitational collapse, with remaining material organized into a
rotating cloud of gas and dust, known as denser regions accumulating more mass series of smaller, orbiting disks that
the solar nebula, which was primarily and forming the Sun at the center of the eventually formed the planets, moons,
composed of hydrogen and helium. rotating system. asteroids, and other celestial bodies in
the solar system.

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Formation of the Solar Nebula

Interstellar Gas and Dust Molecular Clouds

The solar nebula is believed to have formed from a vast cloud These interstellar clouds, known as molecular clouds, are the
of interstellar gas and dust, which was composed of the birthplaces of stars and solar systems, where gravity and
same basic elements that make up the planets and other other forces trigger the collapse and fragmentation of the
celestial bodies in our solar system. cloud's material.

Stellar Nurseries Primordial Composition

The solar nebula likely originated from one of these stellar The solar nebula was composed primarily of hydrogen and
nurseries, where the gravitational contraction of the cloud helium, with smaller amounts of heavier elements that would
provided the initial conditions for the formation of the Sun eventually form the solid materials of the planets and other
and the planets. celestial bodies.
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Gravitational Collapse and
Spinning Motion
Gravitational Attraction
The solar nebula was held together by the force of gravity, which caused
the cloud to contract and become denser over time.

Spinning Motion
As the cloud contracted, it also began to spin, conserving its angular
momentum and leading to the formation of a central, rotating disk.

Formation of the Sun

At the center of the spinning disk, the increased density and
temperature caused the material to collapse further, eventually forming
the Sun.

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Conservation of Angular
Momentum

Planetary Orbits
The Nebular Hypothesis explains the nearly circular, coplanar orbits of the planets around the Sun,
which are a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum in the rotating solar nebula.

Rotation of the Sun

The Sun's rotation, which is in the same direction as the planets' orbits, is also a result of the
conservation of angular momentum from the original solar nebula.

Satellite Orbits
The orbits of the planets' moons and other satellites are also consistent with the conservation of
angular momentum, as they formed from the same rotating disks that gave rise to the planets.
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Gravitational Collapse and
Spinning Motion
Gravitational Attraction
The solar nebula was held together by the force of gravity, which caused
the cloud to contract and become denser over time.

Spinning Motion
As the cloud contracted, it also began to spin, conserving its angular
momentum and leading to the formation of a central, rotating disk.

Formation of the Sun

At the center of the spinning disk, the increased density and
temperature caused the material to collapse further, eventually forming
the Sun.

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Accretion and the Birth of
the Planets
1 Accretion Process
The remaining material in the rotating disk around the Sun began to collide
and stick together, forming larger and larger particles, eventually leading to
the formation of the planets.

2 Planetary Differentiation
As the planets grew in size, their internal heat and gravity caused them to
differentiate, with heavier elements sinking to the core and lighter elements
forming the mantle and crust.

3 Orbital Arrangement
The planets settled into stable orbits around the Sun, with their respective
sizes, compositions, and distances from the Sun reflecting the conditions and
processes that shaped the solar system.
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This animation from Hubble telescope scientists shows what it might look like to fly through a star-formation region.

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Implications and Predictions of the
Nebular Hypothesis
Explaining Solar System Predicting Exoplanets Insights into Planetary
Structure Evolution
The Nebular Hypothesis has also been
The Nebular Hypothesis provides a used to predict the existence and The theory offers insights into the
comprehensive explanation for the characteristics of exoplanets (planets evolution of planets, including the
organization and structure of the solar orbiting other stars), as the same formation of moons, the development of
system, including the distribution of the formation processes are believed to be atmospheres, and the potential for the
planets, their sizes, compositions, and at work in other stellar systems. emergence of life on habitable worlds.
orbits.

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Evidence Supporting the Nebular Hypothesis

1 Observations of Protoplanetary Disks 2 Isotopic Composition of Planets

Astronomers have observed the formation of stars and the The similar isotopic composition of the planets and other
presence of rotating disks of gas and dust around them, solar system bodies suggests that they formed from the
which closely match the predictions of the Nebular same primordial material, as proposed by the Nebular
Hypothesis. Hypothesis.

3 Conservation of Angular Momentum 4 Advances in Planetary Science

The observed conservation of angular momentum in the Ongoing research and discoveries in planetary science, such
solar system, as seen in the orbits of the planets and the as the study of exoplanets and the formation of planetary
Sun's rotation, provides strong support for the Nebular systems, continue to validate the Nebular Hypothesis as the
Hypothesis. leading theory for the origin of the solar system.

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 Time to Answer!!!
1. Who initially proposed the concept of the nebular hypothesis? 4. What happens to materials within the solar nebula as it
collapses under gravity?
A) Pierre-Simon Laplace
B) Immanuel Kant A) They disperse into space.
C) Albert Einstein B) They form a solid crust.
D) Johannes Kepler C) They accumulate to form a rotating disk.
D) They ignite into stars.

2. What is the primary component of a solar nebula?

5. Which of the following best describes the role of gravity in
the formation of the solar nebula?
A) Oxygen and nitrogen
B) Iron and nickel
A) It causes planets to collide with each other.
C) Hydrogen and helium
B) It prevents any material from escaping into space.
D) Carbon dioxide and methane
C) It initiates the collapse of the nebula, leading to star and
planet formation.
D) It has no significant role in planetary formation.
3. In the context of the nebular hypothesis, what is a planetesimal?
6. What is the primary process by which dust particles in the
A) A large gas giant
solar nebula come together to form larger bodies?
B) A solid body formed from dust particles in a protoplanetary disk
A) Erosion
C) A type of star
B) Accretion
D) A moon orbiting a planet
C) Sublimation preencoded.png

D) Fragmentation
Different theories of Solar System Formation
1. Nebular Hypothesis
Overview:
This theory posits that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a part of
a giant molecular cloud (solar nebula) about 4.6 billion years ago.

Process:
The cloud collapsed under its own gravity, forming a dense core that became the Sun.
The remaining material flattened into a rotating protoplanetary disk from which planets
and other bodies formed.

Criticism:
The nebular hypothesis struggled to explain the angular momentum distribution between
the Sun and planets in the Solar System.
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Different theories of Solar System Formation

2. Planetesimal Hypothesis
Overview:
This theory suggests that planets formed from small solid particles (planetesimals) that
collided and stuck together.

Process:
The planetesimals gradually coalesced to form larger bodies, ultimately resulting in
planets.

Criticism:
This hypothesis does not adequately address how these planetesimals could have formed
in sufficient quantities or how they would have maintained their orbits
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Different theories of Solar System Formation

3. Capture Theory
Overview:
This theory suggests that planets were formed elsewhere in space and were later captured
by the Sun's gravitational field.

Process:
Objects wandering through space could be drawn into orbit around the Sun due to
gravitational interactions.

Criticism:
This theory is less favored due to its inability to explain how such captures would occur
frequently enough to account for all known planets.
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Different theories of Solar System Formation

4. Tidal Theory
Overview:
This theory posits that a close encounter with another star could have caused material to
be pulled from the Sun, forming planets.

Process:
During close encounters, tidal forces could strip material from stars, leading to planet
formation from this ejected material.

Criticism:
Similar to the capture theory, it implies rare events and does not sufficiently explain all
planetary characteristics observed today
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Different theories of Solar System Formation

5. Modern Nebular Theory

Overview:
An evolution of the original nebular hypothesis, this modern interpretation incorporates
new astrophysical findings.

Process:
It emphasizes the role of a dense disk formed from gas and dust around a newly ignited
Sun, where planets formed through accretion within this disk.
Observations of protoplanetary disks around young stars support this model.

Strengths:
This theory effectively explains many observed features of our Solar System, including
the current arrangement and types of planets. preencoded.png
 Formation of Solar System in a nutshell
o The Sun and the planets formed together, 4.6 billion years ago, from a cloud of gas and
dust called the solar nebula.

o A shock wave from a nearby supernova explosion probably initiated the collapse of the
solar nebula.

o The Sun formed in the center, and the planets formed in a thin disk orbiting around it.

o In a similar manner, moons formed orbiting the gas giant planets.

o Comets condensed in the outer solar system, and many of them were thrown out to great
distances by close gravitational encounters with the giant planets.

o After the Sun ignited, a strong solar wind cleared the system of gas and dust.

o The asteroids represent the rocky debris that remained.

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Formation of Solar System in a nutshell

The slowly rotating solar nebula collapsed under its

own gravity to form a rapidly rotating disk, with the
Sun at the center.

Collisions of gas and dust within the disk

concentrated the material into a thin plane.

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Formation of Solar System in a nutshell

The inner region of the solar nebula was hot, allowing

only rocky material to condense.

The rocky terrestrial planets formed there.

Gases and ice could condense in the cooler outer

regions, where the gas giant planets and their icy
moons formed.

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Formation of Solar System in a nutshell

Small bodies collided and stuck together to slowly

build up the terrestrial planets.

Such accretion also built the cores of the gas giants

until they were massive enough for their gravity to
capture the abundant gases.

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Formation of Solar System in a nutshell

The terrestrial planets, as well as the larger moons and

asteroids, have spherical layers that were created by
melting and differentiation.

Heavier elements sank to the center, forming iron-rich

cores.

Lighter materials were buoyed upward to form the

outer rocky layers.

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The Terrestrial or “Earth-like rocky” Planets
Mercury Venus Earth Mars

The smallest and innermost Venus is the hottest planet, Our home planet, Earth is the The red planet, Mars has a
planet, Mercury is heavily with a dense atmosphere of only known planet to harbor thin atmosphere and is
cratered, with a thin carbon dioxide, creating a life, with a diverse range of characterized by its red-
atmosphere. runaway greenhouse effect. ecosystems. colored surface and polar
Avg. surface temp. = +167°C Avg. surface temp. = +465°C Avg. surface temp. = +15°C ice caps.
Avg. surface temp. = -65°C

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The Jovian or "Jupiter-like" Planets
1 Jupiter 2 Saturn
The largest planet in the solar Known for its spectacular ring
system, Jupiter is a gas giant with system, Saturn is a gas giant
a swirling atmosphere of with a dense atmosphere of
hydrogen and helium. hydrogen and helium.
Avg. surface temp. = -110 °C Avg. surface temp. = -140 °C

3 Uranus 4 Neptune
An ice giant, Uranus has a tilted axis The farthest planet from the
and a faint ring system, its sun, Neptune is an ice giant
atmosphere is composed of with a swirling blue atmosphere
methane and hydrogen. and strong winds.
Avg. surface temp. = -195 °C Avg. surface temp. = -200 °C
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Key Characteristics of the
Terrestrial Planets
Planet Size Density Atmosphere Surface

Mercury Small High Thin Cratered

Venus Medium High Dense Volcanic

Earth Medium High Moderate Diverse

Mars Small Low Thin Dusty

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Key Characteristics of the Jovian
Jovian Planets

Composition Ring Systems

Primarily composed of hydrogen and Most Jovian planets have rings,
helium, with trace amounts of other consisting of ice particles, dust, and
elements. rock.

Moons Atmospheric Features

All Jovian planets have numerous Swirling clouds, strong winds, and
moons, with some being larger than storms are common features in their
the planet Mercury. atmospheres.
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The Asteroid Belt, Kuiper Belt, and
Oort Cloud
1 Asteroid Belt
A region between Mars and Jupiter containing numerous
asteroids, remnants of early solar system formation.

2 Kuiper Belt
A disk-shaped region beyond Neptune, containing icy bodies,
comets, and dwarf planets like Pluto.

3 Oort Cloud
A spherical cloud of icy bodies at the edge of the solar system,
thought to be the source of long-period comets.

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 ORDER OF THE PLANETS BY SIZE
(SMALLEST TO LARGEST)

Mercury,

Mars,
Venus,
Earth,

Neptune,
Uranus,
Saturn,

Jupiter.
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The Roche limit is the distance at which a celestial body's tidal forces are strong enough
to disintegrate a second celestial body:

The Roche limit is the minimum distance a smaller object can approach a larger object
without being torn apart by the larger object's gravitational force.

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For Reading (planets):

https://www.space.com/16080-solar-system-planets.html

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