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Mod1 Lecture4

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13 views23 pages

Mod1 Lecture4

Uploaded by

anuragkedar97
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Calculus For Engineers

Sequence and Series

Dr. Ramesh Arumugam


Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
VIT-AP University, Amaravati

[email protected]
Sequence of Real numbers

DEFINITION: A sequence of real numbers is a function defined on


the set N = {1, 2, ...} of natural numbers whose range is contained in
the set R of real numbers.

X:N→R denoted by (xn ) or {xn }

Examples:
Convergence and Divergence
Convergence and Divergence

Check the divergence of following the sequences {an }:

n2 − 2n + 1
(a) an =
n−1
2n + 1
(b) an = √
1−3 n
Examples

Which of the sequences {an } converge?


1 − 2n
(a) an =
1 + 2n

n
(b) an = 10n
1
 
(c) an = n 1 − cos
n
 
√ 1
(d) an = n sin √
n
The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences

The Sandwich Theorem

Let {an }, {bn } and {cn } be sequences of real numbers. If an ≤ bn ≤ cn


holds for all n beyond some index N , and if limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn =
L, then
lim bn = L.
n→∞
The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences

The Sandwich Theorem

Let {an }, {bn } and {cn } be sequences of real numbers. If an ≤ bn ≤ cn


holds for all n beyond some index N , and if limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn =
L, then
lim bn = L.
n→∞

Examples:
Bounded Sequences

Bounded sequence

The sequence {an } is bounded below if there exists m ∈ R such


that m ≤ an for all n ∈ N. The number m is called a lower
bound.

The sequence {an } is bounded above if there exists M ∈ R such


that an ≤ M for all n ∈ N. The number M is called a upper
bound.

The sequence {an } is bounded if an is bounded above and below.


i.e. there exists M, m ∈ R such that m ≤ an ≤ M for all n ∈ N.

Examples:

1 n
n o n o
{n} , , , {cos n}
n n+1
Monotonic Sequences

Monotonic sequence

The sequence {an } is increasing if it satisfies the inequalities

a1 ≤ a2 ≤ . . . ≤ an ≤ an+1 ≤ . . .

The sequence {an } is decreasing if it satisfies the inequalities

a1 ≥ a2 ≥ . . . ≥ an ≥ an+1 ≥ . . .

The sequence {an } is monotone if it is either increasing or


decreasing

Check the follwing sequences:

(1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...) (1, 1/2, 1/3, ..., 1/n, ...)


(1, −1, 1, −1, ..., (−1)n+1 , ...) (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, ...)
(1, 1/2, 1/22 , ..., 1/2n−1 , ...) (b, b2 , b3 , ..., bn , ...), b > 1
n
2 3
(a, a , a , ..., a , ...), a < 1 (−1, 2, −3, 4, ..., (−1)n n, ...)
Monotone Convergence Theorem

Monotone Convergence Theorem

If a sequence {an } is both bounded and monotonic, then the sequence


converges.

Check:
(1, −1, 1, −1, ..., (−1)n+1 , ...)

(1, 1/2, 1/22 , ..., 1/2n−1 , ...)

(1, 1/2, 1/3, ..., 1/n, ...)

(−1, 2, −3, 4, ..., (−1)n n, ...)

a1 = 1, an+1 = an + ( 15 )n
Series
Geometric Series
Geometric series are series of the form

X
a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn−1 + . . . = arn−1 , a 6= 0
n=1
Geometric Series
Geometric series are series of the form

X
a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn−1 + . . . = arn−1 , a 6= 0
n=1
Geometric Series
Geometric series are series of the form

X
a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn−1 + . . . = arn−1 , a 6= 0
n=1
Convergence of a Series

Theorem

X
an converges, then an → 0
n=1
Convergence of a Series

Theorem

X
an converges, then an → 0
n=1

The nth-Term Test for Divergence


X
an diverges if lim an fails to exist or is different from zero.
n→∞
n=1
Convergence of a Series

Theorem

X
an converges, then an → 0
n=1

The nth-Term Test for Divergence


X
an diverges if lim an fails to exist or is different from zero.
n→∞
n=1

p-series


X 1
The p − series converges if p > 1, diverges if p ≤ 1.
np
n=1
Convergence Tests

Direct Comparison Test


P∞ P∞
Let n=1
an and n=1
bn be two series with 0 ≤ an ≤ bn for all n.
Then
P P
If bn converges, then an also converges
P P
If an diverges, then an also diverges

Examples:

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
X 1 X n−1 X cos n2 X n+2
(i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv)
n2 + 30 n4 + 2 n3/2 n2 − n
n=1 n=2 1 n=2
Convergence Tests

Limit Comparison Test

Suppose an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N .


an X X
1. If lim = c and c > 0, then an and bn both converge or
n→∞ bn
both diverge.
an X X
2. If = 0 and
lim bn converges, then an converges.
n→∞ bn
an X X
3. If lim = ∞ and bn diverges, then an diverges.
n→∞ bn

Examples:
∞ ∞ ∞
X n−2 X 1 X (n + 1) 1
(i) , (ii) , (iii)
n3 − n2 + 3 ln n (n2 + 1) 5n
n=1 n=2 1
Convergence Tests

Absolute Convergence Test


X ∞
X
If |an | converges, then an converges.
n=1 n=1

Ratio Test

X an+1
Let an be any series and suppose that lim = ρ. Then
n→∞ an
(a) the series converges absolutely if ρ < 1
(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1
(c) the test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.

Check the convergence of the series:


∞ ∞ ∞
X 2n X 3n+1 X 2n2 + 5
(i) , (ii) , (iii)
n! ln n n4 + 1
n=1 n=2 1
Convergence Tests

Root Test

X p
n
Let an be any series and suppose that lim |an | = ρ. Then
n→∞

(a) the series converges absolutely if ρ < 1


(b) the series diverges if ρ > 1
(c) the test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.

Check:
∞ ∞   ∞
X 4n X n 1 X 1
(i) n
, (ii) sin √ , (iii)
(3n) n np
n=1 n=1 1
Convergence Test

Example

A rubber ball when dropped on a hard floor bounces back up to the 34


of the height from which it was dropped. We decide to ignore effects
of elasticity and small-scale phenomena. Find the distance that the ball
travels if it is dropped from the height of 64 meters.
Convergence Test

Example

A rubber ball when dropped on a hard floor bounces back up to the 34


of the height from which it was dropped. We decide to ignore effects
of elasticity and small-scale phenomena. Find the distance that the ball
travels if it is dropped from the height of 64 meters.

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