Advanced Mathematics

for Rwandan Schools

Teacher’s Guide
Senior Six
 Copyright
© 2020 Rwanda Education Board
All rights reserved.
This book is the property for the Government of Rwanda. Credit
must be given to REB when the content is quoted
FOREWORD
Dear Teachers,
Rwanda Education Board is honoured to present the teacher’s
guide for senior six Mathematics of advanced level where
Mathematics is a major subject. This book serves as a guide to
competence-based teaching and learning to ensure consistency
and coherence in the learning of the mathematics content. The
Rwandan educational philosophy is to ensure that learners
achieve full potential at every level of education which will prepare
them to be well integrated in society and exploit employment
opportunities.
In line with efforts to improve the quality of education, the
government of Rwanda emphasizes the importance of aligning
teaching and learning materials with the syllabus to facilitate
their learning process. Many factors influence what they learn,
how well they learn and the competences they acquire. Those
factors include the relevance of the specific content, the quality
of teachers’ pedagogical approaches, the assessment strategies
and the instructional materials.
The ambition to develop a knowledge-based society and the
growth of regional and global competition in the jobs market
has necessitated the shift to a competence-based curriculum.
This book provides active teaching and learning techniques that
engage student teachers to develop competences.
In view of this, your role is to:
• Plan your lessons and prepare appropriate teaching
materials.
• Organize group discussions for students considering
the importance of social constructivism suggesting that
learning occurs more effectively when the students works
collaboratively with more knowledgeable and experienced
people.

iii
 • Engage students through active learning methods such as
inquiry methods, group discussions, research, investigative
activities and group and individual work activities.
• Provide supervised opportunities for students to develop
different competences by giving tasks which enhance
critical thinking, problem solving, research, creativity and
innovation, communication and cooperation.
• Support and facilitate the learning process by valuing
students’ contributions in the class activities.
• Guide students towards the harmonization of their findings.
• Encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the work
done in the classroom and use appropriate competence-
based assessment approaches and methods.
To facilitate you in your teaching activities, the content of this
book is self explanatory so that you can easily use it. It is divided
in 3 parts:
The part I explain the structure of this book and give you the
methodological guidance;
The part II gives a sample lesson plan;
The part III details the teaching guidance for concepts given in
the student book.
Even though this teacher’s guide contains the guidance on
solutions for all activities given in the learner’s book, you are
requested to work through each question before judging student’s
findings.
I wish to sincerely express my appreciation to the people who
contributed towards the development of this book, particularly,
REB staff, Teachers from general education and experts from Local
and international Organizations for their technical support.

Dr. NDAYAMBAJE Irénée

Director General, REB

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my appreciation to the people who played a
major role in the development of this teacher’s guide for Senior
Six Mathematics in the options where Core Mathematics is a
major subject. It would not have been successful without active
participation of different education stakeholders.
I owe gratitude to teachers whose efforts during the editing
exercise of this book were very much valuable.
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Education
Board staffs who were involved in the whole process of in-house
textbook production.

Joan MURUNGI
Head of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources Department

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD.............................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................... v
PART I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION..................................................................... i
1.1 The structure of the guide.....................................................................................i
1.2 Methodological guidance.....................................................................................i

PART II: EXAMPLE OF LESSON...................................................................... xviii

Unit 1 Complex numbers...........................................................................1
1.1. Key unit competence............................................................................................1
1.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts..................................................................1
1.3. Guidance on the introductory activity...........................................................1
1.4. List of lessons ....................................................................................................2
1.5. Lesson development.............................................................................................3
1.7. Summary of the unit.......................................................................................... 59
1.8. End of Unit Assessment ................................................................................... 64

Unit 2 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions...............................72

2.1. Key unit competence......................................................................................... 72
2.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts............................................................... 72
2.3. Guidance on the introductory activity........................................................ 72
2.4. List of lessons ................................................................................................. 73
2.5. Lesson development.......................................................................................... 74
2.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................126
2.7. End of Unit Assessment .................................................................................129

Unit 3 Taylor and Maclaurin’s Expansions....................................... 133

3.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................133
3.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................133
3.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................133
3.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................134
3.5. Lesson development........................................................................................134

vi
 3.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................157
3.7. End of Unit Assessment .................................................................................161

Unit 4 Integration.................................................................................... 165

4.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................165
4.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................165
4.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................165
4.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................166
4.5. Lesson development........................................................................................167
4.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................220
4.7. End of Unit Assessment..................................................................................229

Unit 5 Differential Equations............................................................... 232

5.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................232
5.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................232
5.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................232
5.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................232
5.5. Lesson development........................................................................................233
5.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................260
5.7. End of unit assessment ..................................................................................263

Unit 6 Intersection and Sum of Subspaces.................................... 265

6.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................265
6.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................265
6.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................265
6.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................265
6.5. Lesson development........................................................................................266
6.6. Summary of the unit .......................................................................................275
6.7. End of Unit Assessment..................................................................................276

Unit 7 Transformation of Matrices..................................................... 278

7.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................278
7.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................278
7.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................278

vii
 7.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................279
7.5. Lesson development........................................................................................279
7.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................300
7.7. End of Unit Assessment .................................................................................304

Unit 8 Conics............................................................................................. 307

8.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................307
8.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................307
8.3. List of lessons ...............................................................................................308
8.4. Lesson development........................................................................................308

Unit 9 Random Variables...................................................................... 357

9.1. Key unit competence.......................................................................................357
9.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts.............................................................357
9.3. Guidance on the introductory activity......................................................357
9.4. List of lessons ...............................................................................................358
9.5. Lesson development........................................................................................358
9.6. Summary of the unit........................................................................................377
9.7. End of Unit Assessment .................................................................................381

References............................................................................................................ 432

viii
PART I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 The structure of the guide

The tutor’s guide of Mathematics is composed of three parts:
The Part I concerns general introduction that discusses
methodological guidance on how best to teach and learn
Mathematics, developing competences in teaching and learning,
addressing cross-cutting issues in teaching and learning and
Guidance on assessment.
Part II presents a sample lesson plan. This lesson plan serves to
guide the teacher on how to prepare a lesson in Mathematics.
The Part III is about the structure of a unit and the structure of
a lesson. This includes information related to the different
components of the unit. This part provides information and
guidelines on how to facilitate student while working on learning
activities. More other, many application activities from the textbook
have answers in this part.

1.2 Methodological guidance

1.2.1 Developing competences

Since 2015 Rwanda shifted from a knowledge based to a
competency-based curriculum for pre-primary, primary,
secondary education. This called for changing the way of learning
by shifting from teacher centred to a learner centred approach.
Teachers are not only responsible for knowledge transfer but also
for fostering learners’ learning achievement and creating safe
and supportive learning environment. It implies also that learners
have to demonstrate what they are able to transfer the acquired
knowledge, skills, values and attitude to new situations.
The competence-based curriculum employs an approach of
teaching and learning based on discrete skills rather than dwelling
on only knowledge or the cognitive domain of learning. It focuses
on what learner can do rather than what learner knows. Learners

i
develop competences through subject unit with specific learning
objectives broken down into knowledge, skills and attitudes
through learning activities.
In addition to the competences related to Mathematics, student
teachers also develop generic competences which should
promote the development of the higher order thinking skills and
professional skills in Mathematics teaching. Generic competences
are developed throughout all units of Mathematics as follows:

Generic Ways of developing generic

competences competences
Critical thinking
All activities that require learners to calculate,
convert, interpret, analyse, compare and
contrast, etc have a common factor of
developing critical thinking into learners
Creativity and All activities that require learners to plot a
innovation graph of a given algebraic data, to organize
and interpret statistical data collected and to
apply skills in solving problems of economics
have a common character of developing
creativity into learners
Research and All activities that require learners to make
problem solving a research and apply their knowledge to
solve problems from the real-life situation
have a character of developing research and
problem solving into learners.
Communication During Mathematics class, all activities that
require learners to discuss either in groups or
in the whole class, present findings, debate
…have a common character of developing
communication skills into learners.

ii
Co-operation, All activities that require learners to work
interpersonal in pairs or in groups have character of
relations and life developing cooperation and life skills among
skills learners.
Lifelong All activities that are connected with research
learning have a common character of developing
into learners a curiosity of applying the
knowledge learnt in a range of situations.
The purpose of such kind of activities is
for enabling learners to become life-long
learners who can adapt to the fast-changing
world and the uncertain future by taking
initiative to update knowledge and skills with
minimum external support.

The generic competences help learners deepen their

understanding of Mathematics and apply their knowledge in a
range of situations. As students develop generic competences,
they also acquire the set of skills that employers look for in their
employees, and so the generic competences prepare students
for the world of work.

1.2.2 Addressing cross cutting issues

Among the changes brought by the competence-based
curriculum is the integration of cross cutting issues as an integral
part of the teaching learning process-as they relate to and must
be considered within all subjects to be appropriately addressed.
The eight cross cutting issues identified in the national curriculum
framework are: Comprehensive Sexuality Education, Environment
and Sustainability, Financial Education, Genocide studies,
Gender, Inclusive Education, Peace and Values Education, and
Standardization Culture.
Some cross-cutting issues may seem specific to particular
learning areas/subjects but the teacher need to address all of

iii
them whenever an opportunity arises. In addition, learners should
always be given an opportunity during the learning process to
address these cross-cutting issues both within and out of the
classroom.
Below are examples of how crosscutting issues can be addressed:

Ways of addressing
Cross-Cutting Issue
cross-cutting issues
Comprehensive Sexuality Using different charts
Education: The primary goal and their interpretation,
of introducing Comprehensive Mathematics teachers
Sexuality Education program should lead students to
in schools is to equip children, discuss the following
adolescents, and young people situation: “Alcohol
with knowledge, skills and values in abuse and unwanted
an age appropriate and culturally pregnancies” and advise
gender sensitive manner so as to students on how they can
enable them to make responsible fight those abuses.
choices about their sexual and
Some examples can be
social relationships, explain and
given when learning
clarify feelings, values and attitudes,
statistics, powers,
and promote and sustain risk
logarithms and their
reducing behaviour.
properties.
Environment and Sustainability: Using Real life models
Integration of Environment, or students’ experience,
Climate Change and Sustainability Mathematics teacher
in the curriculum focuses on and should lead students to
advocates for the need to balance illustrate the situation
economic growth, society well- of “population growth”
being and ecological systems. and discuss its effects
Learners need basic knowledge on the environment and
from the natural sciences, social sustainability.
sciences, and humanities to
understand to interpret principles
of sustainability.

iv
Financial Education: Through different
The integration of Financial examples and calculations
Education into the curriculum on interest rate problems,
is aimed at a comprehensive total revenue and total
Financial Education program cost, Mathematics
as a precondition for achieving teacher can lead student
financial inclusion targets and to discuss how to make
improving the financial capability appropriate financial
of Rwandans so that they can decisions.
make appropriate financial
decisions that best fit the
circumstances of one’s life.
Gender: At school, gender Mathematics teacher
will be understood as family should address gender
complementarities, gender roles as cross-cutting issue
and responsibilities, the need through assigning leading
for gender equality and equity, roles in the management
gender stereotypes, gender of groups to both girls and
sensitivity, etc. boys and providing equal
opportunity in the lesson
participation and avoid
any gender stereotype in
the whole teaching and
learning process.
Inclusive Education: Inclusion is Firstly, Mathematics
based on the right of all learners teachers need to identify/
to a quality and equitable recognize students with
education that meets their basic special needs. Then by
learning needs and understands using adapted teaching
the diversity of backgrounds and and learning resources
abilities as a learning opportunity. while conducting a lesson
and setting appropriate
tasks to the level of
students, they can cater
for students with special
education needs. They
must create opportunity
where student teachers
can discuss how to
support colleagues with
special educational needs.

v
Peace and Values Education: Through a given lesson, a
Peace and Values Education teacher should:
(PVE) is defined as education that  Set a learning objective
promotes social cohesion, positive which is addressing
values, including pluralism and positive attitudes and
personal responsibility, empathy, values,
critical thinking and action in  Encourage students
order to build a more peaceful to develop the culture
society. of tolerance during
discussion and to
be able to instil it
in colleagues and
cohabitants;
 Encourage students
to respect ideas for
others.
Standardization Culture: With different word
Standardization Culture in problems related to the
Rwanda will be promoted through effective implementation
formal education and plays of Standardization, Quality
a vital role in terms of health Assurance, Metrology and
improvement, economic growth, Testing, students can be
industrialization, trade and general motivated to be aware
welfare of the people through of health improvement,
the effective implementation economic growth,
of Standardization, Quality industrialization, trade
Assurance, Metrology and Testing. and general welfare of the
people.

1.2.3 Guidance on how to help students with special

education needs in classroom
In the classroom, students learn in different way depending to
their learning pace, needs or any other special problem they
might have. However, the teacher has the responsibility to know
how to adopt his/her methodologies and approaches in order to
meet the learning need of each student in the classroom. Also
teachers need to understand that student with special needs,
have to be taught differently or need some accommodations to
enhance the learning environment. This will be done depending
on the subject and the nature of the lesson.

vi
In order to create a well-rounded learning atmosphere, teachers
need to:
• Remember that learners learn in different ways so they
have to offer a variety of activities (e.g. role-play, music and
singing, word games and quizzes, and outdoor activities);
• Maintain an organized classroom and limits distraction.
This will help learners with special needs to stay on track
during lesson and follow instruction easily;
• Vary the pace of teaching to meet the needs of each child.
Some learners process information and learn more slowly
than others;
• Break down instructions into smaller, manageable
tasks. Learners with special needs often have difficulty
understanding long-winded or several instructions at
once. It is better to use simple, concrete sentences in order
to facilitate them understand what you are asking.
• Use clear consistent language to explain the meaning (and
demonstrate or show pictures) if you introduce new words
or concepts;
• Make full use of facial expressions, gestures and body
language;
• Pair a learner who has a disability with a friend. Let them do
things together and learn from each other. Make sure the
friend is not over protective and does not do everything
for the one with disability. Both learners will benefit from
this strategy;
• Use multi-sensory strategies. As all learners learn in different
ways, it is important to make every lesson as multi-sensory
as possible. Learners with learning disabilities might have
difficulty in one area, while they might excel in another. For
example, use both visual and auditory cues.
Below are general strategies related to each main category of
disabilities and how to deal with every situation that may arise in
the classroom. However, the list is not exhaustive because each

vii
child is unique with different needs and that should be handled
differently.

Strategy to help learners with developmental

impairment:
• Use simple words and sentences when giving instructions;
• Use real objects that learners can feel and handle. Rather
than just working abstractly with pen and paper;
• Break a task down into small steps or learning objectives.
The learner should start with an activity that she/he can
do already before moving on to something that is more
difficult;
• Gradually give the learner less help;
• Let the learner with disability work in the same group with
those without disability.

Strategy to help learners with visual impairment:

• Help learners to use other senses (hearing, touch, smell
and taste) and carry out activities that will promote their
learning and development;
• Use simple, clear and consistent language;
• Use tactile objects to help explain a concept;
• If the learner has some sight, ask him/her what he/she can
see;
• Make sure the learner has a group of friends who are
helpful and who allow him/her to be as independent as
possible;
• Plan activities so that learners work in pairs or groups
whenever possible;

Strategy to help learners with hearing disabilities

or communication difficulties
• Always get the learner‘s attention before you begin to
speak;
• Encourage the learner to look at your face;

viii
 • Use gestures, body language and facial expressions;
• Use pictures and objects as much as possible.
• Keep background noise to a minimum.

Strategies to help learners with physical

disabilities or mobility difficulties:
• Adapt activities so that learners, who use wheelchairs or
other mobility aids, can participate.
• Ask parents/caregivers to assist with adapting furniture e.g.
the height of a table may need to be changed to make it
easier for a learner to reach it or fit their legs or wheelchair
under;
• Encourage peer support when needed;
• Get advice from parents or a health professional about
assistive devices if the learner has one.

Adaptation of assessment strategies:

At the end of each unit, the tutor is advised to provide additional
activities to help students achieve the key unit competence. These
assessment activities are for remedial, consolidation and extension
designed to cater for the needs of all categories of students; slow,
average and gifted students respectively. Therefore, the tutor is
expected to do assessment that fits individual student.

Remedial After evaluation, slow students are

activities provided with lower order thinking
activities related to the concepts learnt to
facilitate them in their learning.
These activities can also be given to assist
deepening knowledge acquired through
the learning activities for slow students.
Consolidation After introduction of any concept, a range
activities number of activities can be provided to all
students to enhance/ reinforce learning.

ix
Extended After evaluation, gifted and talented
activities students can be provided with high order
thinking activities related to the concepts
learnt to make them think deeply and
critically. These activities can be assigned
to gifted and talented students to keep
them working while other students
are getting up to required level of
knowledge through the learning activity.

1.2.4. Guidance on assessment

Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning process.
The main purpose of assessment is for improvement of learning
outcomes. Assessment for learning/ Continuous/ formative
assessment intend to improve students’ learning and tutor’s
teaching whereas assessment of learning/summative assessment
intends to improve the entire school’s performance and education
system in general.

Continuous/ formative assessment

It is an on-going process that arises during the teaching and
learning process. It includes lesson evaluation and end of sub
unit assessment. This formative assessment should play a big role
in teaching and learning process. The teacher should encourage
individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the
classroom and uses appropriate competence-based assessment
approaches and methods.

Formative assessment is used to:

• Determine the extent to which learning objectives are
being achieved and competences are being acquired and
to identify which students need remedial interventions,
reinforcement as well as extended activities. The application
activities are developed in the learner book and they are
designed to be given as remedial, reinforcement, end
lesson assessment, homework or assignment

x
 • Motivate students to learn and succeed by encouraging
students to read, or learn more, revise, etc.
• Check effectiveness of teaching methods in terms of variety,
appropriateness, relevance, or need for new approaches
and strategies. Mathematics tutors need to consider various
aspects of the instructional process including appropriate
language levels, meaningful examples, suitable methods
and teaching aids/ materials, etc.
• Help students to take control of their own learning.
In teaching Mathematics, formative or continuous assessment
should compare performance against instructional objectives.
Formative assessment should measure the student’s ability with
respect to a criterion or standard. For this reason, it is used to
determine what students can do, rather than how much they know.

Summative assessment
The assessment can serve as summative and informative
depending to its purpose. The end unit assessment will be
considered summative when it is done at end of unit and want to
start a new one.
It will be formative assessment, when it is done in order to give
information on the progress of learners and from there decide
what adjustments need to be done.
The assessment done at the end of the term, end of year, is
considered as summative assessment so that the teacher, school
and parents are informed of the achievement of educational
objective and think of improvement strategies. There is also end
of level/ cycle assessment in form of national examinations.

When carrying out assessment?

Assessment should be clearly visible in lesson, unit, term and
yearly plans.
• Before learning (diagnostic): At the beginning of a new
unit or a section of work; assessment can be organized to

xi
 find out what students already know / can do, and to check
whether the students are at the same level.
• During learning (formative/continuous): When students
appear to be having difficulty with some of the work, by
using on-going assessment (continuous). The assessment
aims at giving students support and feedback.
• After learning (summative): At the end of a section of work
or a learning unit, the Mathematics Tutor has to assess after
the learning. This is also known as Assessment of Learning
to establish and record overall progress of students towards
full achievement. Summative assessment in Rwandan
schools mainly takes the form of written tests at the end of
a learning unit or end of the month, and examinations at
the end of a term, school year or cycle.

Instruments used in assessment.

• Observation: This is where the Mathematics teacher
gathers information by watching students interacting,
conversing, working, playing, etc. A teacher can use
observations to collect data on behaviours that are difficult
to assess by other methods such as attitudes, values,
and generic competences and intellectual skills. It is very
important because it is used before the lesson begins and
throughout the lesson since the teacher has to continue
observing each and every activity.

• Questioning
(a) Oral questioning: a process which requires a student to
respond verbally to questions
(b) Class activities/ exercises: tasks that are given during the
learning/ teaching process
(c) Short and informal questions usually asked during a lesson
(d) Homework and assignments: tasks assigned to students by
their teacher to be completed outside of class.

xii
Homework assignments, portfolio, project work, interview, debate,
science fair, Mathematics projects and Mathematics competitions
are also the different forms/instruments of assessment.

1.2.5. Teaching methods and techniques that

promote active learning
The different learning styles for students can be catered for, if the
teacher uses active learning whereby learners are really engaged
in the learning process.
The main teaching methods used in mathematics are the following:
• Inductive-deductive method: Inductive method is
to move from specific examples to generalization and
deductive method is to move from generalization to
specific examples.
• Analytic-synthetic method: Analytic method proceeds
from unknown to known, ’Analysis’ means ‘breaking up’ of
the problem in hand so that it ultimately gets connected
with something obvious or already known. Synthetic
method is the opposite of the analytic method. Here one
proceeds from known to unknown.
• Skills Laboratory method: Laboratory method is based
on the maxim “learning by doing.” It is a procedure for
stimulating the activities of the students and to encourage
them to make discoveries through practical activities.

Problem solving method, Project method and

Seminar Method.
The following are some active techniques to be used in
Mathematics:
• Group work
• Research
• Probing questions
• Practical activities (drawing, plotting, interpreting graphs)

xiii
 • Modelling
• Brainstorming
• Quiz Technique
• Discussion Technique
• Scenario building Technique

What is Active learning?

Active learning is a pedagogical approach that engages learners
in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing.
Learners play the key role in the active learning process. They are
not empty vessels to fill but people with ideas, capacity and skills
to build on for effective learning. Thus, in active learning, learners
are encouraged to bring their own experience and knowledge
into the learning process.

The role of the teacher in The role of learners in active

active learning learning
- The teacher engages A learner engaged in active
learners through active learning:
learning methods such as
inquiry methods, group - Communicates and shares
discussions, research, relevant information with
investigative activities, peers through presentations,
group and individual work discussions, group work and
activities. other learner-centred activities
(role play, case studies,
- He/she encourages project work, research and
individual, peer and group investigation);
evaluation of the work
done in the classroom - Actively participates and takes
and uses appropriate responsibility for his/her own
competence-based learning;
assessment approaches - Develops knowledge and skills
and methods. in active ways;
- He provides supervised - Carries out research/
opportunities for learners investigation by consulting
to develop different print/online documents and
competences by giving resourceful people, and
tasks which enhance presents their findings;
critical thinking, problem
solving, research,
creativity and innovation,
communication and
cooperation.

xiv
- Teacher supports and - Ensures the effective
facilitates the learning contribution of each group
process by valuing member in assigned tasks
learners’ contributions in through clear explanation and
the class activities. arguments, critical thinking,
responsibility and confidence in
public speaking
- Draws conclusions based on
the findings from the learning
activities.

Main steps for a lesson in active learning

approach
All the principles and characteristics of the active learning process
highlighted above are reflected in steps of a lesson as displayed
below. Generally, the lesson is divided into three main parts
whereby each one is divided into smaller steps to make sure that
learners are involved in the learning process. Below are those
main part and their small steps:

1) Introduction
Introduction is a part where the teacher makes connection between
the current and previous lesson through appropriate technique.
The teacher opens short discussions to encourage learners to
think about the previous learning experience and connect it with
the current instructional objective. The teacher reviews the prior
knowledge, skills and attitudes which have a link with the new
concepts to create good foundation and logical sequencing.

2) Development of the new lesson

The development of a lesson that introduces a new concept
will go through the following small steps: discovery activities,
presentation of learners’ findings, exploitation, synthesis/summary
and exercises/application activities.

xv
  Discovery activity

Step 1
• The teacher discusses convincingly with learners to
take responsibility of their learning
• He/she distributes the task/activity and gives
instructions related to the tasks (working in groups,
pairs, or individual to instigate collaborative learning,
to discover knowledge to be learned).

Step 2
• The teacher let learners work collaboratively on the
task;
• During this period the teacher refrains to intervene
directly on the knowledge;
• He/she then monitors how the learners are progressing
towards the knowledge to be learned and boosts
those who are still behind (but without communicating
to them the knowledge).

 Presentation of learners’ findings/productions

• In this episode, the teacher invites representatives of

groups to present their productions/findings.
• After three/four or an acceptable number of
presentations, the teacher decides to engage the class
into exploitation of learners’ productions.

 Exploitation of learner’s findings/ productions

• The teacher asks learners to evaluate the productions:

which ones are correct, incomplete or false
• Then the teacher judges the logic of the learners’
products, corrects those which are false, completes
those which are incomplete, and confirms those which
are correct.

xvi
  Institutionalization or harmonization (summary/con-
clusion/ and examples)

• The teacher summarizes the learned knowledge and

gives examples which illustrate the learned content.

 Application activities

• Exercises of applying processes and products/objects

related to learned unit/sub-unit
• Exercises in real life contexts
• Teacher guides learners to make the connection of
what they learnt to real life situations. At this level, the
role of teacher is to monitor the fixation of process and
product/object being learned.

3) Assessment
In this step the teacher asks some questions to assess achievement
of instructional objective. During assessment activity, learners
work individually on the task/activity. The teacher avoids
intervening directly. In fact, results from this assessment inform
the teacher on next steps for the whole class and individuals. In
some cases, the teacher can end with a homework/ assignment.
Doing this will allow learners to relay their understanding on the
concepts covered that day. Teacher leads them not to wait until
the last minute for doing the homework as this often results in an
incomplete homework set and/or an incomplete understanding
of the concept.

xvii
PART II: EXAMPLE OF LESSON
When teaching any lesson, you can follow the following steps.

Introduction
Start by reviewing previous lesson through asking some questions
to learners. If there is no previous lesson, ask them prerequisites
related questions for the lesson of the day.

Lesson development
In this step, activities can be more than one (exploration activity,
explanation activity and elaboration activity). For each one, give
an activity to learners that will be done in groups or individually.
After a while, invite one or more groups for presentation of their
work to other groups. If the activity is individual, ask one or more
learners to present his/her work to others. After activities, capture
the main points from the presentation of the learners and guide
the whole class to summarize them. After this, provide application
activity in their respective groups. Request learners to correct
them on chalkboard where you guide every student by addressing
eventual misconception.

Evaluation
Give students an activity to be done individually as an assessment.
Correct every one and provide related feedback.

Conclusion
Conclude the lesson and remember to assign a home work
to students. This homework may include remedial activities,
consolidation activities or extended activities depending on the
feedback from the assessment. Sometimes when there is no
problem in the assessment, a teacher can provide a homework
which will arouse the curiosity of students for the next lesson.

xviii
Part II: Sample lesson plan
School: ……………………… Academic year: ………..
Teacher’s name: ………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson Duration Class
No No size
1 .... Mathe- S6 1 1 of 27 40 35
matics MEG minutes
Type of Special Educational Needs • 3 low vision learners:
and number of learners Give them places where
they are able to see what is
written on the blackboard.
Avoid making their own
group otherwise it can be
considered as segregation.
• 4 learners with extra
abilities: To encourage
them to explain, to each
other and help their
classmates.
Unit title Complex numbers
Key Unit Perform operations on complex numbers in
Competence: different forms and use complex numbers to
solve related problems in Physics (voltage and
current in alternating current), computer Science
(fractals), Trigonometry (Euler’s formula to transform
trigonometric expressions).
Title of the Concepts of complex numbers
lesson
Instructional Through examples, learners should be able to define
objective a complex number, show real part and imaginary
part of a complex number and show that two
complex numbers are equal or not equal accurately.
Plan for this Location: Classroom
Class Learners are organised into groups
Learning Exercise book, pen, calculator, ruler
Materials
References Advanced Mathematics for Rwanda Schools,
Learner’s Book Senior 6

xix
 DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING ACTIVITY
In groups, learners will do activity 1.1 in
learner’s book page 2, make presentation
of group findings. In conclusion, learners
will do questions 1.a), 1.b), 2.a) and 2.b)
of exercise 1.1 in the Learner’s Book in Competences
their respective groups and solve them on and cross
Timing for
the chalkboard. Learners will do questions cutting
each step
1.c) and 2.c) of exercise 1.1 as individualissues to be
quiz and questions 1.d) and 2.d) will be addressed
an assignment. At the end of the lesson,
learners are also given another assignment
to be discussed as an activity of the next
lesson “Definition and properties of the
number i”.
Teacher’s activities Learners’ activities
Introduction Ask a question, Questions
5 minutes on how to By using
solve quadratic discriminant
equations in set method, solve in 
of real numbers 2
1. x + 7 x + 10 =
0
using discriminant
method (Including 2. x2 + 4x + 4 =0
2
case where the 3. x + x + 4 =0
discriminant is Students are
Solution
negative). 2
developing
1. x + 7 x + 10 = 0
communication
∆= 49 − 40= 9
skills when they
−7 + 3 −7 − 3
x1 = = −2, x2 = = −5 are explaining
2 2
and sharing
S ={−5, −2}
ideas.
2
2. x + 4 x + 4 = 0
∆= 16 − 16= 0
−4
x1 = x2 = = −2
2
S= {−2}
2
3. x + x + 4 =0
∆ = 1 − 16 = −15 < 0
No real solution

xx
Development Step 1:
of the lesson Form groups In their groups, Cooperation and
5 minutes learners will do interpersonal
• Ask learners to
activity 1.1. In their management
do activity 1.1 in
exercise book using developed through
Learner’s Book page 2
the fact that −1 =i working in groups.
in their groups.
, they will find two
• Go round to check
numbers, a and b,
the progress of the
whose sum is 6 and
discussion, and
whose product is Communication:
intervene where
18. Learners communicate
necessary.
and convey
• Guide learners with
information and ideas
10 minutes special educational Secretary presents through speaking
needs on how to do the work. when they are
activity.
Learners interact presenting their work.
Step 2: through questions Self confidence:
Ask groups to present and comments. Learners will gain
their work on the Answers self confidence
chalkboard. competence when
Recall that a
quadratic equation they are presenting
is written as their work.
0,
x 2 − sx + p =
where s and p In group activities,
are the sum and the fact of being
product of two convinced without
roots respectively. fighting, peace and
Then, we need to education values are
solve the equation developed too.
x 2 − 6 x + 18 =
0
∆ = ( −6 ) − 4 (18 )
2

= 36 − 72
= −36

6 + −36
x1= a=
2

xxi
 and
6 − −36
x2= b=
2
Now, if −1 = i or
i 2 = −1 , we have
6 + 36 × i 2
a=
2
6 − 36 × i 2
b=
2
or
3 + 3i, b =
a= 3 − 3i
Conclusion Ask learners to give Summarise the
5 minutes the main points of learned lesson:
the learned lesson in A complex
summary. number is a
number that can
be put in the form
a + bi ,
where a and b
are real numbers Learners develop
and = i −1 (i critical thinking
being the first through generating
letter of the word a summary.
“imaginary”).
The set of all
complex numbers Through group
is denoted by  activities,
and is defined as cooperation is
a + bi : a, b ∈   developed.
z =
= 2 
and i = −1 

The number a
of the complex
number z= a + bi
is called the real
part of z and
denoted by Re ( z )
or ℜ ( z ) ;

xxii
 the number b
is called the
imaginary part
and denoted by
Im ( z ) or ℑ ( z ) . A
complex number
whose real part is
zero, is said to be
purely imaginary,
whereas a complex
number whose
imaginary part is
zero, is said to be
a real number or
simply real.
Thus,
∀x ∈ , x ∈  ,
which gives that
 ⊂ .
5 minutes Request learners to do Learners will do Through presentation
questions 1.a) and 2.a) questions 1.a) and on chalkboard,
of exercise 1.1 in their 2.a) of exercise 1.1, communication skills
respective groups. in their respective are developed.
Move around the class groups.
checking the progress
of the discussion,
and intervene where
necessary.
Learners will
5 minutes present answers of
Request some learners to questions 1.b) and
answer to questions 1.b), 2.b) of exercise 1.1,
and 2.b) of exercise 1.1 on chalkboard.
on chalkboard.
Ensures that learners
understand the learned
lesson and decide
whether to repeat the
lesson or to start a new a
lesson next time.

xxiii
5 minutes Give learners an Learners will
individual evaluation do questions
(quiz) and homework in 1.c) and 2.c)
regard to the learned of exercise 1.1
lesson. as individual
Lead into next lesson: quiz; questions
1.d) and 2.d) as
Request learners to do
assignment.
activity 1.2 at home.
Teacher’s Even if the objective has been achieved, some learners don’t
self remember how to solve a quadratic equation using discriminant
evaluation method. The time management has been disturbed by revising
how to use discriminant method. For this reason, next time before
any activity, learners will be given a task of revising the topics
related to the given activity as homework.
Icons
The icons used in this book are as follows:
Practical Activity icon
The hand indicates a practical activity such as curve
sketching, draw figures and then presents the results or
comments. The activity is done in groups.

Group Work icon

Group work means that learners are expected to discuss
something in groups and report back on what their group
discussed. In this way, they learn from each other and also
learn how to work together as a group to address or solve
a problem.
Pairing Activity icon
This means that they are required to do the activity in
pairs, exchange ideas and write down the results.

Research Activity icon

Some activities require you to do research either by
reading textbooks or using the internet.

xxiv
 Unit 1 Complex numbers

1.1. Key unit competence

Perform operations on complex numbers in different forms
and use complex numbers to solve related problems in
Physics (voltage and current in alternating current), Computer
Science (fractals), Trigonometry (Euler’s formulae to transform
trigonometric expressions), …

1.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Argand diagram: Plane representing complex plane
where x − axis is called real axis and y − axis
is called imaginary axis.
Affix: Coordinates of a complex number in
Argand diagram.
Modulus: The distance from origin to the affix of the
complex number.
Argument: Argument of complex number z is the
angle the segment oz makes with the
positive real x -axis.
Polar form: A way of expressing a complex number
using its modulus, its argument and basic
trigonometric ratios (sine and cosine).
Exponential form: A way of expressing a given complex
number using its modulus, its argument
and the number e .

1.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

The problem statement is “Solve in set of real number the following
equations x 2 + 6 x + 8 =0 and x 2 + 4 =0 ”.

1
For first equation, we have solution in  but second equation
does not have solution in  . Therefore, the set  is not sufficient
to contain solutions of some equations.
Since the square root of −4 does not exist in set of real number,
for second equation we introduce new kind of number i such that
i 2 = −1 and we write x 2 =−4 =4 × i 2 so that x =± −4 =± 4 × i 2 =±2i

1.4. List of lessons

Number of
No Lesson title
periods
1 Concepts of complex numbers 1
2 Definition and properties of number i 1
3 Geometric representation of a complex 1
number
4 Modulus of a complex number 1
5 Loci related to distances 1
6 Equality of complex numbers 1
7 Addition and subtraction of complex 1
numbers
8 Conjugate and opposite of a complex 1
number
9 Multiplication of complex numbers 1
10 Inverse and division of complex 1
numbers
11 Square root of a complex number 1
12 Linear equations in set of complex 1
numbers
13 Quadratic equations in set of complex 1
numbers
14 Polynomials in set of complex numbers 2
15 Argument of a complex number 2
16 Loci related to angles 1
17 Polar form of a complex number 1
18 Multiplication and division of complex 1
numbers in polar form

2
19 Powers of complex number in polar 1
form
20 Nth roots of a complex number 2
21 Graphical representation of nth roots 2
of a complex number
22 Construction of regular polygon 2
23 Exponential form of a complex number 1
24 Trigonometric number of a multiple of 2
an angle
25 Linearisation of trigonometric 2
expressions
Solving equation of the form
26 2
a cos x + b sin x =
c
27 Alternating current problem 2
Total periods 36

1.5. Lesson development

Lesson 1.1. Concepts of complex numbers

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a complex
number, show real part and imaginary part of a complex number
and show that two complex numbers are equal or not equal
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Find the square root of a positive real number.
• The square root of a negative real number does not
exist.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

3
 Activity 1.1
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Here, we need to solve the equation x 2 − 6 x + 18 =
0
Calculating the discriminant for x 2 − 6 x + 18 =
0 , we get
∆ = ( −6 ) − 4 (18 ) = 36 − 72 = −36
2

6 + −36 and x = b= 6 − −36

x1= a= 2
2 2
As ∆ < 0 , x − 6 x + 18 =
2
0 has no real solutions.

2. Now, if −1 =i or i 2 = −1 , we get
6 + −36 6 + 36i 2 6 + 6i
a= = = = 3 + 3i
2 2 2
6 − −36 6 − 36i 2 6 − 6i
and b= = = = 3 − 3i .
2 2 2
3. a and b, are not elements of  or a, b ∉ 

Synthesis
As conclusion, a complex number is a number that can be put in
i
the form a + bi , where a and b are real numbers and = −1 (i
being the first letter of the word “imaginary”).

Application Activity 1.1

1. =
a) Re ( z ) 0,=
Im ( z ) 45 b) Re ( z ) =
−3, Im ( z ) =
0
c) Re ( z ) =
−1, Im ( z ) =
3 d) Re ( z ) =
−10, Im ( z ) =
7
2. a) Real b) Purely imaginary
c) Purely imaginary
d) neither real nor purely imaginary

4
Lesson 1.2. Definition and properties of the
number i
Learning objectives
Given powers of the number i with natural exponents, learners
should be able to simplify them accurately.
Prerequisites
• Properties of powers in set of real numbers.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 1.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. i 3 =i 2i1 =−1i =−i
i 4 = i 2i 2 = ( −1) × ( −1) = 1
i 5 =i 2i 2i1 =( −1) × ( −1) × i =i
i 6 =i 2i 2i 2 =( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) =−1
i 7 =i 2i 2i 2i =( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) i =−i
i 8 = i 2i 2i 2i 2 = ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) = 1
i 9 = i 2i 2i 2i 2i = ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) × ( −1) i = i
2. In general;
i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i k = 0,1, 2,3, 4,5,...

Synthesis
The imaginary unit, i, “cycles” through 4 different values each
time we multiply as it is illustrated in the following figure .

5
 The powers of imaginary unit can be generalised as follows:
i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i

Application Activity 1.2

1. -1 2. i 3. 1
4. −i 5. i 6. −i

Lesson 1.3. Geometric representation of a

complex number
Learning objectives
Given complex numbers and using a ruler, learners should be
able to represent those complex numbers in Argand diagram
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Remember how to represent a point ( x, y ) in Cartesian
plane.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, instruments of geometry

Activity 1.3
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

6
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
y
4

A (1, 2 )
2
B ( −3, 2 )
1

x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1
C ( 2, −1)
-2

-3
D ( −2, −3)
-4

Synthesis
A complex number z= a + bi can be visually represented as
a pair of numbers ( a, b ) forming a vector from the origin or
point on a diagram called Argand diagram.

Application Activity 1.3

y
5

4
z4 = 4i
z8 = 3 + 3i
3

1
z5= 2 + i
z2 = 3 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1
z3 =−1 − i
-2
z1= 2 − 2i
-3
z6 =−2 − 3i
-4

-5
z7 = −5i

7
Lesson 1.4. Modulus of a complex number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find its
modulus correctly.
Prerequisites
• Finding distance between two points in Cartesian
plane.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 1.4
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
Curve:
9
y
8
z =−3 + 7i 7
6
5
4
3
2 z = 2i
z = −8 1
x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
-3
-4 z= 3 − 4i
-5
-6
-7

z =−8 =( −8, 0-9)

-8
1.

( −8 − 0 )
2
Distance from origin is + 0 =8

8
 z 2=
2. = i ( 0, 2 )
0 + ( 2 − 0) =
2
Distance from origin is 2

3. z =−3 + 7i =( −3, 7 )

( −3 − 0 ) + ( 7 − 0 )
2 2
Distance from origin is = 58
4. z =3 − 4i =( 3, −4 )

( 3 − 0 ) + ( −4 − 0 )
2 2
Distance from origin is =5

Synthesis
As conclusion, the distance from the origin to point ( x, y )
corresponding to the complex number z= x + yi is called the
modulus of z and is denoted by z or x + iy : =
r z= x2 + y 2

z= x + yi
y
y2
x 2+
=r

X
0 x

Figure 1.1: Modulus of a complex number

Application Activity 1.4

1) 5 2) 5 3) 1

2
4. 5) 1 6) 5 5
2

9
 Lesson 1.5. Loci related to distances on Argand
diagram
Learning objectives
Given a condition, learners should be able to determine the locus
on Argand plane precisely.
Prerequisites
• Finding modulus of a complex number.
• The general form of equation of a circle, a straight line,… in
Cartesian plane.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instrument of geometry

Activity 1.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
Let z= x + yi , we have

x + yi − 1 + 3i =2 ⇔ x − 1 + i ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =
2 2 2 2

⇔ x − 1 + i ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =2 ⇔ ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =22
2 2 2 2

which is the circle of centre (1, −3) or 1 − 3i and radius R = 2 .

Curve 1
y

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1
( x − 1) + ( y + 3)
2 2
22
=

-2

(1, −3) R
-3

-4

-5

10
 Synthesis
As conclusion, z = R represents a circle with centre P and
radius R, z − z1 =
R represents a circle with centre z1 and
radius R and z − z1 = z − z2 represents a straight line, the
perpendicular bisector (mediator) of the segment joining the
points z1 and z2 .

Application Activity 1.5

2 2 1
1. Circle: 3 x + 3 y + 4 x + 1 =0 , radius is and centre is
3
 2 
 − ,0
 3  2 2
2. a) Circle: x + y =4 , radius 2, centre at origin; (0,0)
b) Interior of the circle: x 2 + y 2 =
4 , radius 2, centre at origin
c) Exterior of the circle: x 2 + y 2 =
4 , radius 2, centre at origin

d) Circle: ( x + 1) + y =
2 2
1 , radius 1, centre ( −1, 0 )
e) Vertical line: z1 = −1 , mediator of the line segment joining
points z1 = −1 and z2 = 1
f) Circle: ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) =
4 , radius 2, centre (1, −3)
2 2

Lesson 1.6. Equality of two complex numbers

Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to show
that they are equal or not and to use this concept to solve some
equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Solving a linear equation with one unknown.
• Solving a system of two linear equations with two
unknown.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

11
 Activity 1.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. 3 + 2i − 1 = 3 − 1 + 2i = 2 + 2i and 2 + 4i − 2i =2 + 2i .
Argand diagram

The two complex numbers are represented by the same

point in Argand diagram.
From their real and imaginary parts, the two quantities have
equal real parts and equal imaginary parts, so they are equal.
2. Combine like terms on the right: x + 2i =x + ( 2 x − 3) i
. Since the imaginary parts must be equal,
5
2 = 2x − 3 ⇒ x = .
2
3. This is interesting: we have only one equation, but
two variables; it doesn’t seem like there is enough
information to solve.

But since we can break this into a real part and an imaginary

12
 part, we can create two equations: − ( 2 x − 4 ) . Doing
3 y, y =
x=

4 12
substitution gives us y =−6 y + 4 ⇒ y = , which gives x =
7 7
Synthesis
As conclusion, if two complex numbers, say a + bi and c + di
are equal, then their real parts are equal and their imaginary
parts are equal. That is, a + bi = c + di ⇔ a = c and b = d .

Application Activity 1.6

1. x = 4, y = −3 2. =x 5,=y 6
3. =x 3,=y 3 4. −6, y =
x= 9
5. =x 2,=y 5 6. =x 3,=y 1
7. x = 6, y = −6 8. =x 8,=y 14

Lesson 1.7. Addition and subtraction of complex

numbers
Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to add and
subtract them correctly.
Prerequisites
• Simplification by combining like terms.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 1.7
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills

13
 • Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. z1 + z2 = ( 2 + 3i ) + ( 5 − 4i ) = 2 + 5 + 3i − 4i = 7 − i
z1 − z2 =( 2 + 3i ) − ( 5 − 4i ) =2 − 5 + 3i + 4i =−3 + 7i
2. Re ( z1 + z2 ) =
7, Im ( z1 + z2 ) =
−1
Re ( z1 − z2 ) =
−3, Im ( z1 − z2 ) =
7

Synthesis
As conclusion, two complex numbers are added (or subtracted)
by adding (or subtracting) separately the two real and the two
imaginary parts.

Application Activity 1.7

1. z1 + z2 =−12, z1 − z2 =
12 + 6i
2. 16i, z1 − z2 =
z1 + z2 = −10 + 8i
3. z1 + z2 =5 + 3i, z1 − z2 =1 + 5i
4. z1 + z2 =−2 − 24i, z1 − z2 =−44 − 4i
5. z1 + z2 =−2 + 8i, z1 − z2 =8 + 12i
6. z1 + z2 =−2 − 24i, z1 − z2 =−44 − 4i
7. z1 + z2 =35 − 13i, z1 − z2 =−9 − 15i
8. z1 + z2 =4 + 9i, z1 − z2 =2 − 11i

Lesson 1.8. Conjugate and opposite of a

complex number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find the
conjugate and opposite moderately.
Prerequisites
• Plot a complex number in Argand plane

14
 • Adding two complex numbers
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and instruments of geometry

Activity 1.8

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Argand diagram of complex numbers
y
5

z1= 4 + 3i
3

x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1

-2

-3
z3 =−4 − 3i z2= 4 − 3i
-4

-5

1 1
2. a) ( z1 + z2 =) ( 4 + 3i + 4 − 3i=) 4
2 2
1 1
b) ( z1 − z2= ) ( 4 + 3i − 4 + 3=
i) 3
2i 2i
1
3. 1 ( z1 + z2 ) = Re ( z1 ) and ( z1 − z2 ) = Im ( z1 )
2 2i

15
 Synthesis
As conclusion, the conjugate of the complex number z= x + yi
, denoted by z or z*, is obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part. Hence, the complex conjugate of z= x + yi is
z = x − yi .

Application Activity 1.8

1. −76 2. 9i 3. 12 + 4i
4. 3 − i 5. −8 − 10i 6. 3 + i
7. 3 + 5i 8. −5 − 5i

Lesson 1.9. Multiplication of complex numbers

Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to multiply
them perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Distributive property.
• Multiplication is distributive over addition.
• Relation i 2 = −1 .
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 1.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

16
 Answers
1. z1 × z2 = ( 2 − 3i )( 3 + 2i )
=6 + 4i − 9i − 6i 2
= 6 + 6 − 5i
= 12 − 5i
2. Re ( z1 × z2 ) =
12, Im ( z1 × z2 ) =
−5

Synthesis
As conclusion, the multiplication of two complex numbers
z1= a + bi and z2 = c + di is defined by the following formula:
z1 × z2 = ( a + bi )( c + di )
= ( ac − bd ) + ( bc + ad ) i

Application Activity 1.9

1. 9 − 36i 2. −73 + 40i 3. 10 + 5i

4. −3 − 10i 5. 10 − 41i 6. −4 − 7i

Lesson 1.10. Inverse and division of complex

numbers
Learning objectives
Given complex numbers, learners should be able to find the
inverse of a complex number and divide two complex numbers
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Multiplication of complex numbers.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 1.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:

17
 • Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. z1 ⋅ z1 = ( 2 + i )( 2 − i ) = 22 − 2i + 2i + 12 = 22 + 12 = 5
Hence, if z= a + bi then, z= a − bi and z ⋅ z = a 2 + b 2 .
5 z 1
2. z1 ⋅ z1 =5 ⇒ z1 = ⇒ 1=
z1 5 z1
Then,
1 z1 or 1 = z1
=
z1 5 z1 a 2 + b 2

1 z
3. = 2 1 2
z1 a + b
z2 z z
Multiplying both sides by z2, we get = 22 1 2
z1 a + b
Synthesis

The inverse of z= a + bi is given by = z z and

z −1 = 2 2
the division of two complex z ⋅ z a + b

z1 z1 ⋅ z2 a + bi  ac + bd   bc − ad 
numbers is
= = =  +i 
z2 z2 ⋅ z2 c + di  c 2 + d 2   c 2 + d 2 

Application Activity 1.10

1 i 1 4 i z 1 4
1. − ,
= − + , 1 =
= − − i
z1 3 z2 51 51 z2 17 17
1 5 12 1 5 4 z 23 80
2. =
− − i, =− i, 1 =+ i
z1 169 169 z2 41 41 z2 41 41

3. 1 3 4 1 2 i z1 2 11
=− i, = + , = + i
z1 25 25 z2 5 5 z2 5 5

18
 4. 1 23 14 1 21 10 z1 343 524
=
− + i, =+ i, =
− − i
z1 725 725 z2 541 541 z2 541 541
1 1 3 1 1 2 z 7 1
5. = + i, =− − i, 1 =− + i
z1 10 10 z2 5 5 z2 5 5
1 2 1 1 5 2 z 12 1
6. =− − i, =− − i, 1 = − i
z1 5 5 z2 29 29 z2 29 29
1 1 1 1 1 1 z1
7. =− − i, = + i, =−1
z1 2 2 z2 2 2 z2
1 1 3 1 1 10 z1 118 32
8. − − i,
= = − i, = + i
z1 74 37 z2 101 101 z2 101 101

Lesson 1.11. Square root of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find its
square root accurately.
Prerequisites
• Solve a system of two linear equations with two unknowns.
Use of the identity ( a + b ) =a 2 + 2ab + b 2 .
2
•
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator
Activity 1.11

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

19
 Answers

( x + yi )
2
8 − 6i
=
⇔ x 2 − y 2 + 2 xyi =8 − 6i
 x2 − y 2 =
8
⇔
2 xy = −6
Squaring both sides of each equation and adding two
equations, gives
 x 4 − 2 x 2 y 2 + y 4 =
64
⇔ 2 2
4 x y = 36
x4 + 2x2 y 2 + y 4 = 100
Using algebraic identity, gives

⇒ ( x2 + y 2 ) =
2
100
⇒ x2 + y 2 =
10
Now,

 x − y =
2 2
8
 2 2
 x + y = 10
2x2 = 18 ⇒ x 2 =
9 or x =
±3
2 2
But x + y =10 , then, y 2 = 10 − x 2 = 10 − 9 = 1 or y = ±1
Thus, the square root of z= 8 − 6i is 3 − i or −3 + i
We take different sign (for x and y) since the product xy is
negative.

Synthesis
To get a square root of the complex number a + bi , we
let a + bi be a square root of the complex number a + bi ,
and solve the simultaneous equation
 x2 − y 2 =
a
( x + iy )2 =+ a bi 

 ⇒ 2 xy = b
( )
2
 x + iy a
=+ bi  2 2 2 2
x + y = a + b

20
  x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2
⇔ and 2xy = b
2 2
 x − y = a
Notice:
In writing square root of the complex number a + bi
, that is, x + iy , x and y must satisfy the condition 2xy = b .

Application Activity 1.11

1) ± ( 7 +i 7 ) 2) ± ( −4 − 6i ) 3) ± ( −4 − 6i )

4) ± ( −3 + 10i ) 5) ± ( 3 + 2i ) 6) ± ( −6 + 2i )
7) ± ( −6 − 2i ) 8) ± ( −5 − 12i )

Lesson 1.12. Linear equations

Learning objectives
Given linear equations with complex coefficients, learners will be
able to solve them in the set of complex numbers accurately.
Prerequisites
• Solving linear equations in set or real numbers.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 1.12
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers

1. z + 3i − 4 = 0 ⇒ z = 4 − 3i
2. 4 − i + iz =4 z − 3i ⇒ iz − 4 z =−3i − 4 + i

21
 ⇒ z ( i − 4 ) =−4 − 2i
−4 − 2i
⇒z=
i−4
14 12
⇒z= + i
17 17
3. (1 + i )( i + z ) = 4i ⇒ i + z − 1 + iz = 4i
⇒ z ( i + 1) = 4i + 1 − i
⇒ z ( i + 1) =1 + 3i
1 + 3i
⇒z= =2+i
i +1
2+i 1 + 3i
4. (1 − i ) z = 2+i ⇒ z = ⇒z=
1− i 2
Synthesis
As conclusion, in complex numbers also, we may need to find
the complex number z that satisfies the given linear equation.

Application Activity 1.12

1. 2 + 2i 2. −4 − 2i
9 3
3. −7 + 6i 4. + i
5 5

Lesson 1.13. Quadratic equations

Learning objectives
Given quadratic equations, learners should be able to solve
them in the set of complex numbers correctly.
Prerequisites
• Discriminant method used to solve a quadratic
equation.
• Relation i= −1 .
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

22
 Activity 1.13
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. x2 + 2x + 3 =0
∆ = 4 − 12 = −8
−2 + −8 −2 + 2i 2
x1 = = =−1 + i 2
2 2
−2 − −8 −2 − 2i 2
x2 = = =−1 − i 2
2 2
{
S = −1 + i 2, − 1 − i 2 }
2. x 2 + 2 x + 1 + i =0
∆ = 4 − 4 (1 + i ) = 4 − 4 − 4i = −4i
∆= −4i
∆= 2 − i 2 or − 2 + i 2
−2 + 2 − i 2 −2 + 2 2
=x1 = −i
2 2 2
−2 − 2 + i 2 −2 − 2 2
=x2 = +i
2 2 2
 −2 + 2 2 −2 − 2 2 
S=  −i , +i 
 2 2 2 2 

Synthesis
In solving equation az 2 + bz + c =0 where a, b and c are real
numbers ( a ≠ 0 ), we get either:

23
 −b + ∆
• Two real roots ( if ∆ > 0 ); z1 = and
2a
−b − ∆
z2 =
2a −b
• One double real root ( if ∆ = 0 ); z=
1 z=
2 or
2a
• Two conjugate complex roots ( if ∆ < 0 ):
−b + i −∆ −b − i −∆
z1 = and z2 = .
2a 2a

Application Activity 1.13

 2 + i 26 2 − i 26 
1. S =  ,  2. S ={5 + 3i,5 − 3i}
 3 3 
 3 11 3 11 
3. S =
 + i, − i
 2 2 2 2 

Lesson 1.14. Polynomials in set of complex

numbers
Learning objectives
Given a polynomial with complex coefficients, learners should
be able to factorise completely it in set of complex numbers
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding zero of a polynomial.
• Use of synthetic division.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 1.14

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

24
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. a) ( z − 2 − 3i )( z + 3 + i ) = z 2 + 3 z + iz − 2 z − 6 − 2i − 3zi − 9i + 3
= z 2 + (1 − 2i ) z − 3 − 11i

b) ( z − i )( z + 3i )( z − 4i ) = (z2
+ 3 zi − iz + 3) ( z − 4i )
= (z 2
+ 2iz + 3) ( z − 4i )
= z 3 − 4iz 2 + 2iz 2 + 8 z + 3 z − 12i
=z 3 − 2iz 2 + 11z − 12i

2. P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4 is divisible by z + i if
and only if P ( −i ) =0.
P ( −i ) = ( −i ) + ( −2 − i )( −i ) + ( 2 + 2i )( −i ) − 4
3 2

=i + 2 + i − 2i + 2 − 4
=0
Thus, P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4 is divisible by
z +i .
Now, using synthetic division

1 −2 − i 2 + 2i −4
−i −i 2i − 2 4
1 −2 − 2i 4i 0
P ( z ) = z 3 + ( −2 − i ) z 2 + ( 2 + 2i ) z − 4
( z + i )  z 2 + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i 
=
Again, we factorise z + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i
2
since
2 is a root, then

1 −2 − 2i 4i
2 2 −4i
1 −2i 0

25
 z 2 + ( −2 − 2i ) z + 4i = ( z − 2 )( z − 2i )
Thus, P( z) =( z + i )( z − 2 )( z − 2i )
3. If P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 6 ( 2 − i )
2 − i is a factor of −6 ( 2 − i ) ,
P ( 2 − i ) = ( 2 − i ) − 2 ( 2 − i ) + ( 7 + 2i )( 2 − i ) − 6 ( 2 − i )
3 2

= 2 − 11i − 6 + 8i + 16 − 3i − 12 + 6i
=0
Other values are: z = 3i, z = −2i
All roots can be found as follows:
P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
P ( z ) =0 ⇔ z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i =0
z = 3i is a root since
P ( 3i )= ( 3i ) − 2 ( 3i ) + ( 7 + 2i )( 3i ) − 12 + 6i
3 2

=−27i + 18 + 21i − 6 − 12 + 6i
=0
Using Synthetic division, we have

1 −2 7 + 2i −12 + 6i
3i 3i −6i − 9 −6i + 12

1 −2 + 3i −2 − 4i 0
P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
= ( z − 3i )  z 2 + ( −2 + 3i ) z − 2 − 4i 
−2i is also a root

1 −2 + 3i −2 − 4i
−2i −2i 4i + 2

1 −2 + i 0
P ( z ) = z 3 − 2 z 2 + ( 7 + 2i ) z − 12 + 6i
= ( z − 3i )( z + 2i )( z − 2 + i )
3i or z =
Then, z = −2i or z =
2−i

26
 Synthesis
As conclusion, the process of finding the roots of a polynomial
in set of complex numbers is similar to the case of real numbers
remembering that the square root of a negative real number exist
in set of complex numbers considering −1 = i . The methods
used are synthetic division and factorisation.

Application Activity 1.14

1. a) P ( z ) = ( z + 2 )( z − 1 + 3i )( z − 1 − 3i ) ; {−2,1 − 3i,1 + 3i}

b) Q ( z ) = ( z − 2 )( z − 2 + i )( z − 2 − i ) ; {2, 2 − i, 2 + i}
c) R ( z ) = ( z − 2 + 3i )( z − 2 − 3i ) ( z + 2 − 2 )( z + 2 + 2 ) ; {2 − 3i, 2 + 3i, −2 + 2, −2 − 2

(
z − 2 − 3i ) z + 2 − 2 )( z + 2 + 2 ) , {2 − 3i, 2 + 3i, −2 + 2, −2 − 2 }
d) M ( z ) = ( z − 3i )( z + 2i )( z − 2 + i ) ; {3i , −2i , 2 − i}
=
2. a 79,
= b 29
3. p ( z ) =
−2 z 3 + 8 z 2 − 18 z + 20
 7 7 
4. S = 3 − i, − + i 
 2 2 

Lesson 1.15. Argument of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex numbers, learners should be able to find its
argument moderately.
Prerequisites
• Concepts of trigonometry.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, scientific calculator and instruments of
geometry

Activity 1.15
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:

27
 • Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
2 y

z5 = i z1 = 1 + i
1
z3 =−1 + i

x
-1 0 1

-1
z4 =−1 − i z6 = −i z2 = 1 − i

1 π
For z1 = 1 + i , tan θ = =1 ⇒ θ =arctan (1) = . From the
1 4
figure, this is the needed angle.
1 π
For z2 = 1 − i , tan θ = =−1 ⇒ θ =arctan ( −1) =− .
−1 4
From the figure, this is the needed angle.
−1 π
For z3 =−1 + i , tan θ = =−1 ⇒ θ =arctan ( −1) =− .
1 4
From the figure, this is not the needed angle. The needed
π 3π
angle is π + θ = π − =
4 4
−1 π
For z4 =−1 − i , tan θ = =1 ⇒ θ =arctan (1) = .
−1 4
From the figure, this is not the needed angle. The needed
π 3π
angle is θ − π = − π = − .
4 4
π
For z5 = i . From the figure, the needed angle is θ =
2
π
For z6 = −i . From the figure, the needed angle is θ = −
2

28
Synthesis
Depending on the quadrant in which the argument of
complex number z= x + yi lies, we define arg ( z ) as follows:
 y
arctan x , if z lies in 1 or 4 quadrant or on positive x − axis
st th


π + arctan y , if z lies in 2nd quadrant or on negative x − axis
 x

−π + arctan y , if z lies in 3rd quadrant
arg ( z ) =  x
π
 , if z lies on positive y − axis
2
 π
− , if z lies on negative y − axis
 2
undefined=, if x 0= and y 0
This is equivalent to

 y

arctan , if x > 0

 x

 y

p + arctan , if x < 0 and y ≥ 0

 x


 y
−p + arctan x , if x < 0 and y < 0

arg ( z ) = 


 p

 , x = 0, if y > 0

 2

 p

− , x = 0, if y < 0

 2



undefined , if x = 0 and y = 0

z= x + yi
y

0
θ ) x
X

Figure 1.2: Argument of a complex number

29
 Application Activity 1.15

π π
1. − 2. − π 3.
4 6 4
π π
4. − 5. −
3 6

Lesson 1.16. Loci related to the angles

Learning objectives
Given an argument condition, learners should be able to sketch on
Argand diagram, the region satisfying that condition accurately.
Prerequisites
• Drawing angle with a given size.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil and instruments of geometry

Activity 1.16

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
π π
1. arg ( z ) = ⇒ arg ( x + yi ) =
4 4
Here, we need all complex numbers lying on the half line
π
passing through ( 0, 0 ) and makes an angle of with
4
positive x - axis .

30
 p p p
2. arg ( z − 4) =
⇒ arg ( x + yi − 4) = ⇒ arg ( x − 4 + yi ) =
3 3 3
Here, we need all complex numbers lying on the half line
π
passing through ( 4, 0 ) and makes an angle of with
3
positive x - axis .

Synthesis
As conclusion, arg ( z ) = θ represents the half line through O
inclined at an angle θ to the positive direction of x − axis .

Figure 1.3: Locus as a half line through 0

31
 arg ( z − z1 ) =
θ represents the half line through the point z1
inclined at an angle θ to the positive direction of x − axis .

Figure 1.4: Locus as a half line through any point

θ ≤ arg ( z − z1 ) ≤ β indicates that the angle between AP and

the positive x-axis lies between θ and β , so that P can lie on
or within the two half lines as shown in
Figure 5.1.

Figure 1.5: Locus between two half lines

Application Activity 1.16

1. a)

32
 b)

2.

a) From the graph, we see that there is only one point of

intersection. Thus, there is only one complex number
satisfying both conditions.
b) Putting z =−7 − 4i , we have
−7 − 4i + 3 + i = −4 − 3i = 16 + 9 =5 also
π 3π
arg ( −7 − 4i + 3) =arg ( −4 − 4i ) =−π + arctan (1) =−π + =−
4 4
Thus, z =−7 − 4i verifies both conditions.

Lesson 1.17. Polar form of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to express it in
polar form accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding the modulus of s complex number.
• Finding argument of a complex number.

33
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator

Activity 1.17
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
1. Graph

2. r = 16 + 16 = 4 2
4 π
3. θ arctan
= =  
4 4
x π
4. cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ ⇒ 4 = 4 2 cos
r 4
y π
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ ⇒ 4 = 4 2 sin
r 4
From z= 4 + 4i , we have
π π  π π
z = 4 2 cos + i 4 2 sin = 4 2  cos + i sin 
4 4  4 4
Synthesis
As conclusion, if r and θ are the modulus and principal
argument of complex number z respectively, then the polar
z is z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .
form of=

34
 y

y z= x + yi

0
θ ) x
x

Figure 1.6: Modulus and argument of a complex number

Application Activity 1.17

π
1. a) 4 cis 0 b) 2 cis c) 2 cis (π )
2
 π π  π
d) 5cis  −  e) 2 cis f) 2 3 cis  −
 2 6  3
 π
g) 2 3 cis  − 
 6

Here, remember that the notation r cis θ is the same as

r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .
2. a) 1 + i 3 b) 2 ( −2 + 2i ) c) 1 − i
1
d) 3i e) −4 f)
2
(− 3 −i )
g) 3 −i

Lesson 1.18. Multiplication and division of

complex numbers in polar form
Learning objectives
Given two complex numbers, learners should be able to multiply
and divide them in polar form exactly.
Prerequisites
• Putting a complex number in polar form
• Addition formulae in trigonometry.

35
 Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator

Activity 1.18
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
1. (1 − i )
z1 z2 = ( 3 −i )
= 3 − i − i 3 − 1= 3 −1− ( )
3 +1 i

( ) ( )
2 2
z1 z2 = 3 −1 + 3 +1 = 3 − 2 3 + 1 + 3 + 2 2 + 1= 8= 2 2

 − 3 −1  5π
arg ( z1 z2 ) = arctan   = −
 3 −1  12
 −5π 
Then, z1 z2 = 2 2 cis  
 12 
2. z1 = 1 − i
π  π
z1 = 2, arg ( z1 ) =arctan ( −1) =− ⇒ z1 = 2 cis  − 
4  4
z2
= 3 −i
 1  π  π
z2 =2, arg ( z2 ) =arctan  − =− ⇒ z2 =2 cis  − 
 3 6  6
 π  π   π  π    π   π 
z1=
z2 2 cis  −  2 cis  − =
 2 2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  + i sin  −  
 4  6   4  4    6   6 
  π  π  π  π  π  π  π   π 
= 2 2 cos  −  cos  −  + i cos  −  sin  −  + i sin  −  cos  −  − sin  −  sin  −  
  4  6  4  6  4  6  4   6 
  π  π  π  π   π  π  π  π  
= 2 2 cos  −  cos  −  − sin  −  sin  −  + i  cos  −  sin  −  + sin  −  cos  −   
  4  6  4  6   4  6  4  6  
  π  π     π  π   
= 2 2 cos  − +  −   + i  sin  − +  −     , from addition formulae in trigonometry
  4  6     4  6   
  5π   5π    −5π 
= 2 2 cos  −  + i cos  − =  2 2 cis  
  12   12    12 

36
 3. The two results are the same
z1 1− i
4. =
z2 3 −i

=
(1 − i ) ( 3 +i
=
) 3 + i − i 3 +1
=
3 +1 1− 3
+ i
4 4 4 4
z1 z1 1− i 2
= = =
z2 z2 3 −i 2

 1− 3 
z    π
arg  1  = arctan  4  = −
 z2   1+ 3  12
 
 4 
Then,
z1 2  π 
= cis  − 
z2 2  12 
 π  π
5. z1 = 2 cis  −  , z2 =2 cis  − 
 4  6
 π   π  π 
2 cis  −  2 cos  −  + i sin  −  
z1  4   4  4 
= =
z2  π   π  π 
2 cis  −  2 cos  −  + i sin  −  
 6   6  6 

  π  π    π   π 
2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  − i sin  −  
=   4  4    6   6 
  π  π     π   π 
2 cos  −  + i sin  −   cos  −  − i sin  −  
  6  6    6   6 
  π  π  π  π  π  π  π   π 
2 cos  −  cos  −  − i sin  −  cos  −  + i cos  −  sin  −  + sin  −  sin  −  
  4  6  6  4  6  4  4   6 
=
  π  π 
2 cos 2  −  + sin 2  −  
  6  6 

  π  π  π  π   π  π  π   π  
2 cos  −  cos  −  + sin  −  sin  −  + i  sin  −  cos  −  − cos  −  sin  −   
4
    6 4 6
         4 6  4   6  
= 
2 ×1
  π  π   π  π  
2 cos  − −  −   + i sin  − −  −   
  4  6   4  6  
=
2
2  π   π z1 2  π 
=  cos  −  + i sin =
−  cis  − 
2   12   12z2 2  12 

37
 6. The two results are the same.

Synthesis
=
Given two complex numbers z1 r1 ( cos θ1 + isin θ1 )
and z2 r2 ( cos θ 2 + isin θ 2 ) then,
=
z1 z2 r1r2 ( cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + isin (θ1 + θ 2 ) ) and
=
z1 r1
=
z2 r2
( cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 ) ) with the provision
that 2π may have to be added to, or substracted from θ1 + θ 2
(or θ1 − θ 2 ) if θ1 + θ 2 (or θ1 − θ 2 ) is outside the permitted range
of the principal argument ]−π , π ] .
We note that;
( z1 z2 ) Arg ( z1 ) + Arg ( z2 ) and
Arg=
 z1 
Arg
=   Arg ( z1 ) − Arg ( z2 )
 z2 

Application Activity 1.18

 11π  z 2  7π 
1. a) zw =2 2 cis  − , = cis  − 
 12  w 2  12 
π  z
zw 4 cis  =
b)= , 4 cis ( −π )
3 w
 5π  z 2 π 
=c) zw 2=
2 cis   , cis  
 12  w 2  12 
 5π  z 6  11π 
d) zw 4 6 cis  =
= , cis  − 
 12  w 3  12 
π  z 2  7π 
=e) zw =2 cis   , cis  
 12  w 2  12 
z π 
= f) zw 2= cis (π ) , cis  
w 2
 5π 
2. 2 cis  − 
 12 

38
Lesson 1.19. Powers of complex number in polar form
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find its powers
and use De Moivre’s theorem accurately.
Prerequisites
• Putting a complex number in polar form.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator

Activity 1.19
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
z
1. = 3 +i
 1  π
= arg ( z ) arctan
z 2,= =  
 3 6
π 
z = 2 cis  
6
( )( ) ( )
2
3 + i =3 + 2i 3 + ( i ) =
2 2
2. z =3 + i 3 + 2i 3 − 1 =
2 + 2i 3
p
z 2 = 4 + 12 = 4, arg ( z 2 ) = arctan ( 3 ) =
3
π 
z 2 = 4 cis  
3
3
(
3. z = 2 + 2i 3 )( )
3 + i = 2 3 + 2i + 6i − 2 3 = 8i
π
=z3 =82 8, arg ( = z3 )
2
π 
z 3 = 8cis  
2

39
 4. From 1 to 3, we see that
π   2π 
=z 2 4=
cis   22 cis  
3  6 
 π  3  3π 
=z 3 8cis
=   2 cis  
2  6 
Hence, z = r cis ( nθ ) where r is modulus and θ is
n n

argument of z.

Synthesis
The power of a complex number in polar form is given by;
( r ( cos θ + i sin θ ))
n
=zn = r n ( cos nθ + i sin nθ ) ; n ∈  0 where r
and θ are modulus and argument of z respectively.

Application Activity 1.19

1
1. a)
2
(
−1 − i 3 ) b) −64 c) −32i

1
d)
2
(
−1 − i 3 ) e) −1 f) −512

g) −128 − 128i
2.=m 6=
k , k 1, 2,3, 4,...

Lesson 1.20. nth root of a complex number

Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to find the nth
roots of that complex number accurately.
Prerequisites
• Putting a complex number in polar form.
• Evaluating powers in polar form.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator

40
 Activity 1.20
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
arg ( z ) arctan
1. z 4,=
= = ( 0 ) 0 ⇒ z =4 cis 0
( zk )
4
2. =z

But ( zk ) = ( r ') cis 4θ '

4 4

Then ( r ' ) cis 4θ ' = 4 cis 0

4

r ' = 4 4 ⇒ r ' = 2
( r ')4 = 4 
 ⇒ kπ
4θ ' = 2kπ θ ' =
 2
 kπ 
Now, zk = 2 cis  
 2 
If k 0,=
= z0 2 cis 0
π 
If=k 1,=
z1 2 cis  
2
If k 2,=
= z2 2 cis π
 3π   π
If k 3,=
= z3 2 cis  =  2 cis  − 
 2   2
Synthesis
To find nth roots of a complex number z , you start by expressing
z in polar form z = rcisθ , where r is modulus of z and θ
argument of z.
Then, nth roots of a complex number z is given by
 θ + 2 kπ 
z=
k
n
r cis   k 0,1, 2,3,......, n − 1
=
 n 

41
 Application Activity 1.20

π   5π   7π   3π 
1. cis   , z1 =
z0 = cis   , z2 =−
cis   , z3 =−
cis  
8  8   8   8 
 2π   4π   4π   2π 
2. 1, z1 =
z0 = cis   , z2 =
cis   , z3 =−
cis   , z4 =−
cis  
 5   5   5   5 
 2π   4π   4π   2π 
3. 2, z1 =
z0 = 2 cis   , z2 =
2 cis   , z3 =
2 cis  −  , z4 =
2 cis  − 
 5   5   5   5 
π   7π   11π   5π 
4. 2 cis   , z1 =
z0 = 2 cis   , z2 =
2 cis  −  , z3 =
2 cis  − 
 12   12   12   12 

2π 10 + 2 5
5. sin =
5 4
Hint:
2π
First, find cos and then use the relation
5
2π 2π
sin = 1 − cos 2
5 5

Lesson 1.21. Graphical representation of nth roots

of a complex number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number and using a ruler, learners should be
able to represent nth roots of that complex number in Argand
plane correctly.
Prerequisites
• Finding nth roots of a complex number.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instruments of geometry and calculator

Activity 1.21
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

42
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
= arg ( z ) 0
1. z 4,=
2 kπ 4π
zk = 5 4 cis z2 = 5 4 cis
5 5
=z0 =
5
4 cis 0 5 4 6π
z3 = 5 4 cis
2π 5
z1 = 5 4 cis 8π
5 z4 = 5 4 cis
5
2. Representation of the obtained roots on Argand
diagram and joining the obtained points.
y

2π
z1 = 5 4 cis
5
1
4π
z2 = 5 4 cis
5

x
-1 0 1
z0 = 5 4

6π
z3 = 5 4 cis
5 -1

8π
z4 = 5 4 cis
5

3. See diagram above.

Synthesis
As conclusion, if the complex number for which we are computing
n nth roots is z = rcisθ , the radius of the circle will be R = n r and
the
the first root z0 corresponding to k = 0 will be at an amplitude of
θ
ϕ= . This root will be followed by the n − 1 remaining roots at
n
equal distances apart.

43
 Application Activity 1.21
π   π
z0 3cis 
1.= =, z1 3cis (π )=
, z2 3cis  − 
3  3
y
3
z0
2

z1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1

-2

z2
-3

π   3π   3π   π
2. z0 = 2 cis   , z1 = 2 cis   , z2 = 2 cis  −  , z3 = 2 cis  − 
4  4   4   4
 3π   3π   π
2 cis   , z2 = 2 cis  −  , z3 = 2 cis  − 
 4   4   4
y

z1 z0
1

x
-2 -1 0 1 2

z2 -1
z3

44
 π   5π   π
z0 2 cis 
3.=  , z1 2 cis 
= =, z2 2 cis  − 
6  6   2
y

z1 z0
1

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2
z2

π   3π   3π   π
4. cis   , z1 =
z0 = cis   , z2 =−
cis   , z3 =−
cis  
4  4   4   4
y
1

z1 z0

x
-1 0 1

z2 z3

-1

45
Lesson 1.22. Construction of regular polygon
Learning objectives
Using nth roots of unity and geometric instruments, learners
should be able to construct a regular polygon in Argand plane
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding nth roots of unity
• Representation of nth roots of unity in Argand diagram.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instrument of geometry and calculator

Activity 1.22

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
2 kπ
1. zk cis =
= , k 0,1, 2
3
2π 4π
z0 cis
= = 0 1 , z1 = cis , z2 = cis
3 3
2. Graph

3. See the graph above.

46
 4. The obtained figure is an equilateral triangle.

Synthesis
To draw a regular polygon with n sides follow the following
steps:
• Start by drawing a unit circle in Argand diagram. The radius
and the centre of this circle will be the radius and centre of
the regular polygon.
• Around the circle, place the points with affixes
2 kπ
=zk cis = , k 0,1, 2,....., n − 1 . Those points are the
n
vertices of the polygon.
• Using a ruler, join the obtained points around the circle.
• The obtained figure is the needed regular polygon.

Application Activity 1.22

z1 1. A regular hexagon (6 sides) z0
y
1

x
-1 0 1

-1

z2 47
 z1 2. A regular heptagon (7 sides) z0
y
1

x
-1 0 1

-1

z1 3. A regular octagon (8 sides) z0

y
1

z2

x
-1 0 1

-1

z1 4. A regular nonagon (9 sides) z0

y
1

z2

x
-1 0 1

-1

48 z2
Lesson 1.23. Exponential form of a complex
number
Learning objectives
Given a complex number, learners should be able to express that
complex number in exponential form accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding modulus of a complex number.
• Finding argument of a complex number.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 1.23

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6 x 7
1. 1 x+
e x =+ + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Replacing x with iθ gives

( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ )
2 3 4 5 6 7
iθ
e 1 + iθ +
= + + + + + + ...
2! 3!
5! 6! 4! 7!
θ iθ θ iθ θ iθ
2 3 4 5 6 7
=1 + iθ − − + + − − + ...
2! 3! 4! 2! 6! 7!
θ2
iθ 3 θ 4 iθ 5 θ 6 iθ 7
2. eiθ =+
1 iθ − + + − − − + ...
2! 3! 4! 2! 6! 7!
θ2 θ4 θ6  θ3 θ5 θ7 
=1 − + − + ... + i  θ − + − + ... 
2! 4! 6!  3! 2! 7! 
x2 x4 x6
Since cos x =−
1 + − ... and
2! 4! 6!

49
 x3 x5 x 7
sin x =x − + − ... , we can write
3! 5! 7!
eiθ cos θ + i sin θ
=
3. The right hand side of the expression obtained in 2) is
the polar form of complex number having modulus 1
and argument θ .

Synthesis
Exponential form of a complex number z, can be simply found
from its polar form z = rcisθ .
For a complex number having modulus 1 and argument θ , we
eiθ cos θ + i sin θ , which leads to
have the following equality;=
r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) =
reiθ .
Therefore, z = reiθ is exponential form of complex number
=z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .

Application Activity 1.23

iπ 2 iπ iπ
−
1. e 2. 2e 3. 2 2 e
2 3 4

iπ iπ
−
4. 2 3 e 6. 3 2 e 4
6
5. 5eiπ
0.9 i
7. 5e
−1.9 i
8. 13e

Lesson 1.24. Trigonometric number of a multiple of

an angle
Learning objectives
Given a multiple of an angle, learners should be able to find its
trigonometric number accurately.
Prerequisites
• Binomial expansion.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

50
 Activity 1.24
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Self confidence
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Newton binomial expansion gives
( cos x +=
i sin x ) C0 cos n x + nC1 cos n −1 x ( i sin x ) + nC2 cos n − 2 x ( i sin x ) + ..... + nCn ( i sin x ) (1)
n n 2 n

= n n n
C0 cos x + C1i cos n −1 n
x sin x − C2 cos n−2 2 n n
x sin x + ..... + Cni sin x n
( 2)
2. Relations (1) and (2) are equivalent. Then,
cos nx + i sin nx= nC0 cos n x − nC2 cos n −2 x sin 2 x + .......
(
+ i nC1 cos n −1 x sin x − nC3 cos n −3 x sin 3 x + .... ) ( 3)
3. Recall that two complex numbers are equal if they have the
same real parts and same imaginary parts. Thus, from ( 3)
, we have
n
cos nx = C0 cos n x − nC2 cos n −2 x sin 2 x + nC4 cos n −4 x sin 4 x + .....
sin nx =n
C1 cos n −1 sin x − nC3 cos n −3 x sin 3 x + nC5 cos n −5 x sin 5 x + ....
Synthesis
Generally,
cos nx ∑
0≤ k ≤ n
n
Ck i k cos n − k x sin k x, with k − even
n!
i sin nx ∑
1≤ k ≤ n
n
Ck i k cos n − k x sin k x, with k − odd n
Ck =
k !( n − k ) !

51
 Application Activity 1.24
2
1. 2 cos x − 1 2. 2 cos x sin x
3cot x − cot 3 x 3cot x − cot 3 x
3. 4.
1 − 3cot 2 x 1 − 3cot 2 x
tan 5 x − 10 tan 3 x + 5 tan x
5.
5 tan 4 x − 10 tan 2 x + 1
6. 32 cos 6 x − 48cos 4 x + 18cos 2 x − 1
3 5
7. −32 cos x sin x + 32sin x cos x + 6sin x cos x

Lesson 1.25. Linearisation of trigonometric

expressions
Learning objectives
Given a trigonometric expression, learners should be able to
linearise that trigonometric expression exactly.
Prerequisites
• Euler’s formulae.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen
Activity 1.25

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
Euler’s formulae are
1 ix − ix
cos
= x
2
(
e +e )
1 ix − ix
sin x
=
2i
(
e −e )
52
 From these formulae, we have
2
2  eeixix − − ee − ix   eeix +
− ix 2 ix
+ ee − ix 
− ix
sin x cos
2 x =
sin x cos x =  2i   
 2i   22 
 ee 2ix +2 ix
+
−2 ix
ee −2ix −− 22   eeix +
ix
+ ee −− ixix 
=
=    
 −44
−   22 
3ix ix − ix −3ix ix − ix
=
ee3ix + + eeix + + ee − ix ++ ee −3ix − − 22eeix − − 22ee − ix
=
−88
−
3ix −3ix ix − ix
ee3ix + + ee −3ix − − eeix − − ee − ix
=
=
−88
−
11  ee3ix +
3ix −3ix
+ ee −3ix − eeix +
ix
+ ee − ix 
− ix
== −− 4  − 
4  22 22 
11
− 4 (( cos
== − cos 33 xx + cos xx ))
+ cos
4

Synthesis
To linearise trigonometric expression (product in sum), we
use Euler’s formulae
1 iθ −iθ 1 iθ −iθ
cos θ =
2
(
e +e ) sin θ =
2i
e −e ( )

Application Activity 1.25

1 1 1 1
1. cos ( x − y ) + cos ( x + y ) 2. cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y )
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
3. sin 2 x 4. − cos 2 x
2 2 2
1 1 3 1
5. + cos 2 x 6. sin x − sin 3 x
2 2 4 4
3 1 1 1
7. cos x + cos 3 x 8. − cos 4 x
4 4 8 8

53
Lesson 1.26. Solving equation of the form
a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0
Learning objectives
Given equation of the form
a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 , learners should be able
to solve it using complex numbers precisely.
Prerequisites
• Putting a complex number in polar form.
• Solving simple trigonometric equation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and scientific calculator.
Activity 1.26

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. z = 1− i 3 2. z = 1+ 3 = 2
π
3. arg ( z ) = (
arctan − 3 =
−
3
)
 π
4. 2 cos  x + =−1
 3
 2π
+ 2 kπ
 π 1 π  3
⇔ cos  x +  =− ⇔ x + =
 3 2 3  2π
− + 2 kπ
 3
π
 + 2 kπ
⇒x=3
−π + 2kπ

54
Synthesis
To solve the equation of the form
a cos x + b=
sin x c, a, b, c ∈  and a ⋅ b ≠ 0 , follow these steps:
1. Reduction of a cos x + b sin x a, b ∈ 
y

b N ( z ')

)
sin x M ( z)

θ
)x x
0 a cos x

Figure 1.7: Reduction of a trigonometric expression

To get the expression equivalent to a cos x + b sin x

, we use dot product expressed in terms
of angle θ − x that is, between two vectors
 
OM = ( cos x,sin x ) and ON = ( a, b ) .
 
OM ⋅ ON
Or cos (θ − x ) = 
OM ⋅ ON
a cos x + b sin x
⇔ cos (θ − x ) =
a + b 2 ⋅ cos 2 x + sin 2 x
2

a cos x + b sin x
⇔ cos (θ − x ) =
a 2 + b2
⇒ a cos x + b sin x = a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x )
Therefore, a cos x + b sin x =
c
⇔ a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x ) =
c
2. Solve reduction formula of a cos x + b sin x =
c
c ⇔ a 2 + b 2 cos (θ − x ) =
a cos x + b sin x = c

55
 c
⇔ cos (θ − x )
= , as a 2 + b2 ≠ 0
2 2
a +b
Since ∀α ∈ , − 1 ≤ cos α ≤ 1 ⇔ cos α ≤ 1 , thus,
a cos x + b sin x =
c has many solutions if and only if
c 2 2
≤ 1 or c ≤ a + b , otherwise, there is no
2 2
a +b
solution.

Application Activity 1.26

π
1.  x =+ π   π 
kπ , x =, k ∈   2.  x =+ kπ , k ∈  
 6 2   4 
3π π π π
3. ± − + 2 kπ , k ∈  4. ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
4 4 6 4
π
5. π ± π + 2kπ , k ∈  6. − + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
6 3 4

Lesson 1.27. Alternating current problem

Learning objectives
By leading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should be
able to solve alternating current problems that involve complex
numbers accurately.
Prerequisites
• Converting a complex number to different forms.
• Make a research by reading textbooks or accessing
internet.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, textbooks or internet if available.
Activity 1.27
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

56
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1
R jω L +
Z =+
jωC
R 10,=
when = L 5,=
C 0.04 and ω = 4 we have
1
10 + j ( 4 )( 5 ) +
Z=
j ( 4 )( 0.04 )
1 − j 0.16
=10 + j 20 + =10 + j 20 +
0.16 j ( j 0.16 )( − j 0.16 )
j 0.16
=10 + j 20 − =10 + j 20 − j 6.25 =10 + j13.75
0.0256
Thus, Z= 10 + j13.75 or Z= 10 + 13.75 j

Synthesis
The voltage in an AC circuit can be represented as
V = V0 e jwt
= V0 ( cos wt + j sin wt )
which denotes Impedance, Vo is peak value of impedance
and ω = 2π f where f is the frequency of supply. To obtain the
measurable quantity, the real part is taken:
Re (V ) = V0 cos wt and is called Resistance while imaginary
part denotes Reactance (inductive or capacitive).
Briefly, the current, I (cosine function) leads the applied
potential difference (p.d.), V (sine function) by one quarter of

a cycle i.e.
π radians or 900 .
2

57
 Figure 1.8: R − L series circuit Figure1.9: R − C series circuit

In the Resistance and Inductance ( R − L ) series circuit, as

shown in figure 1.8,
VR + jVL =V as= VR IR
= , VL IX L (where X L is the inductive
reactance 2πf L ohms) and V=IZ (where Z is the impedance),
then, R + jX L =Z.
In the Resistance and Capacitance ( R − C ) circuit, as shown
in figure 1.9,
V , from which R − jX C =
VR − jVC = Z
1
=
(where X C is the capacitive reactance, XC Ω ).
2π fC

Application Activity 1.27

1. a) R =3Ω, L =25.5mH b) R =2Ω, L =1061µ F

R 0,=
c)= L 44.56mH d) R =4Ω, L =459.5µ F

2. 15.76 A, 23.20 lagging 

0

3.  27.25 A,3.37 lagging 

0

4. a) 0.3A b) V leads I by 52
0

( )
5. Z 0 = 390.2cis −10.430 , γ = 0.1029cis 61.920

58
1.7. Summary of the unit
1. Concepts of complex numbers
A complex number is a number that can be put in the form a + bi
i
, where a and b are real numbers and = −1 .
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by  and is defined as
{z =
= −1} .
a + bi : ( a, b ) ∈  2 and i 2 =
The real number a of the complex number z= a + bi is called the
real part of z, and the real number b is often called the imaginary
part. A complex number whose real part is zero is said to be
purely imaginary, whereas a complex number whose imaginary
part zero is said to be a real number or simply real.
2. Algebraic form of a complex number
Powers of i : i 4 k = 1, i 4 k +1 = i, i 4 k + 2 = −1, i 4 k +3 = −i
z = ( a, b ) is a geometric form of the complex number z. z= a + bi
is the algebraic (or standard or Cartesian or rectangular) form
of the complex number z.
If two complex numbers, say a + bi and c + di are equal
then, both their real and imaginary parts are equal. That is,
a + bi = c + di ⇔ a = c and b = d .
The addition and subtraction of two complex
numbers a + bi and c + di is defined by the formula:
( a + bi ) ± ( c + di ) = ( a ± c ) + ( b ± d ) i
The complex conjugate of the complex number z= x + yi ,
*
denoted by z or z , is defined to be z = x − yi .
The complex number − z =− x − yi is the opposite of z= x + yi ,
symmetric of z with respect to 0.
The multiplication of two complex numbers c + di and c + di is
defined by the formula: ( a + bi )( c + di ) = ( ac − bd ) + ( bc + ad ) i
1 z
The inverse of z = a + bi is given by = z=
−1

z a + b2
2

59
 If z1= a + bi and z2 = c + di then,
z1 a + bi  ac + bd   bc − ad 
= =  + i
z2 c + di  c 2 + d 2   c 2 + d 2 
If a complex number x + yi is a square root of the complex number

x =

±
1
2
(
a + a 2 + b2 )
a + bi , then, 
y =
 ±
1
2
(
a 2 + b2 − a )
Let a, b and c be real numbers ( a ≠ 0 ), then the equation
az 2 + bz + c =0 has either two real roots, one double real root or
two conjugate complex roots.
a) If ∆ > 0 , there are two distinct real roots:

−b + ∆ and z = −b − ∆ .
z1 = 2
2a 2a
b) If ∆ =0 , there is a double real root:
b
z1 = z2 = −
2a
c) If ∆ < 0 , there is no real roots. In this case, there are
two conjugate complex roots:

−b + i −∆ and z = −b − i −∆ .
z1 = 2
2a 2a
2
Where, ∆= b − 4ac
b c
z1 + z2 =− , z1 ⋅ z2 =
a a
Every polynomial of positive degree with coefficients in the system
of complex numbers has a zero in the system of complex numbers.
Moreover, every such polynomial can be factored linearly in the
system of complex numbers.
3. Polar form of a complex number
The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex
r
number z= x + yi is = z= x2 + y 2

60
 Principal argument of a complex number z= x + yi
 y
arctan x , if x > 0

π + arctan y , if x < 0, y ≥ 0
 x

−π + arctan y , if x < 0, y < 0
arg ( z ) =  x
π
 , if= x 0, y > 0
2
 π
− , if x = 0, y < 0
 2
Undefined = if x 0= and y 0
is z r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) or
Polar (or modulus-argument) form=
z = r cisθ .
=
Given two complex numbers z1 r1 ( cos θ1 + isin θ1 ) and
=z2 r2 ( cos θ 2 + isin θ 2 ) , the formulae for multiplication
=
and division are z1 z2 r1r2 ( cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + isin (θ1 + θ 2 ) ) and
z1 r1
=
z2 r2
( cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 ) ) respectively.
Power of a complex number z is given by

( r ( cos θ + i sin θ ))
n
=zn = r n ( cos nθ + i sin nθ ) ; n ∈  0

De Moivre’s theorem: ( cos θ + i sin θ ) =( cos nθ + i sin nθ )

n

If ( zk ) = z for z = rcisθ , then

n

 θ + 2 kπ 
z=
k
n
r cis   k 0,1, 2,3,......, n − 1
=
 n 
To draw a regular polygon with n sides, the steps followed are:
a) Start by drawing a unit circle in Argand diagram. The radius
and the centre of this circle will be the radius and centre of
the regular polygon.
b) Around the circle, place the points with affixes
2 kπ
=zk cis = , k 0,1, 2,....., n − 1 . Those points are the vertices
n
of the polygon.

61
c) Using a ruler, join the obtained points around the circle.
d) The obtained figure is the needed regular polygon.
4. Exponential form of a complex number
The exponential form of a complex number z whose modulus is r
and argument is θ , is z = reiθ
Euler’s formulae (these formulae are used to linearise
trigonometric expressions):
1 iθ
cos
= θ
2
(
e + e − iθ )
1 iθ
sin θ
=
2i
(
e − e − iθ )
5. Applications
Formulae for trigonometric number of a multiple of an angle

cos nx = ∑Ci
0≤ k ≤ n
k
k
cos n − k x sin k , with k even

n!
i sin nx = ∑Ci
1≤ k ≤ n
k
k
cos n − k x sin k , with k odd n
Ck =
k !( n − k ) !
ᅧ To solve the equation a cos x + b sin x =
c, solve the
equation
c
cos ( x=
−θ ) =, θ arg ( a + bi )
a + b2
2

Alternating current
Resistance and Capacitance (R-C)
Let a p.d. V be applied across a resistance R and a capacitance
C in series. The same current I flows through each component
and so the reference vector will be that representing I. The p.d. R
across R is in phase with I, and VC , that across C, lags on current I
by 900 .

62
 R C

I VR VC

V
Phasor diagram
VR I
ϕ

VC
V
Figure showing Resistance and Capacitance in series

Vector sum of VR and VC is called Impedance and equals the

applied p.d. V;
Z= VR + jVC where VR and VC are known as resistance and
reactance respectively.
But VR = IR and VC = IX C where X C is the capacitive reactance
1
of C and equals .
ωC
Resistance and inductance (R-L)
The analysis is similar but here, the p.d. VL across L leads on
current I and the p.d. VR across R is again in phase with I.
R L

I VR VL

Phasor diagram
VL V

θ
VR I
Figure showing Resistance and Inductance in series
63
Z= VR + jVL where VR and VL are known as resistance and
reactance respectively.
But VR = IR and VL = IX L where X L is the inductive reactance of
L and equals ω L
or ω = 2π f .
For the n–branch parallel circuit, Impedance Z is given by:
1 n
1
=∑
Z k =1 Z k

1.8. End of Unit Assessment

1. a) 3 − 8i b) 5 + 5i
1 − 7i
c) 100 + 200i d)
5
2. a) x =± −4 =± 2 −1 =±2i

−1 ± i 3 1 3
b) x = =− ± i
2 2 2
−6 ± 36 − 44 −6 ± i 2 2
c) x = = =−3 ± i 2
2 2
1 3
d) x = 1, − ±i
2 2
3. Plot
y
5

−3 + 2i 2

i 2+i
1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1
1− i
-2
−3 − 2i
−3i
-3

-4

-5

64
 π
1 cis 0
a) = b) i = cis
2
 π  π
c) −3=
i 3cis  −  1− i
d) = 2cis  − 
 2  4
  1 
e) 2 + i = 5cis  arctan   
  2 
  2 
−3 − 2i
f) = 13cis  π − arctan   
  3 
  2 
g) =−3 + 2i 13cis  π + arctan  −  
  3 
4. a) 2 cis 0 =2 b) 3 cis π =−3
π 3π 3 2 3 2
c) cis i
= d) 3 cis =− +i
2 4 2 2
b) (1 + i ) = −4 (1 + i )
7 5
5. a) i = −i
 1 3
( )
−4
c) 3 − i = 2−4  − + i 
 2 2 
π  3 1  5π  3 1
z0 cis  =
6. a) =  + i , z1 =
cis  =− +i ,
6 2 2  6  2 2
 3π 
z2 = cis   = −i
 2 
 π  z = 8 2cis  9π  z = 8 2cis  17π 
b) z0 = 2cis 
8
, 1  , 2  ,
 16   16   16 
 25π 
z3 = 8 2cis  
 16 
z1 7π
7. Polar form: = cis , Cartesian form:
z2 12
z1 2 6  2 6
= − + i  + 
z2 4 4  4 4 

 7π 2− 6
cos =
 12 4

sin 7π = 2 + 6
 12 4

65
 8. eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ =1

( e=
) ( cos θ + i sin θ )
−1 −1
iθ
9.
1 cos θ − i sin θ
= = 2 2
= cos θ − i sin θ= cos ( −θ ) + i sin ( −θ )= e−iθ
cos θ + i sin θ cos θ + sin θ
10. The nth roots of unit are given by:
2 kπ
=zk cis = k 0,1, 2,3,...., n − 1
n
 2π 
z=
0 cis =
0 1 z1 = cis  
 n 
2
 4π    2π   2
=z2 cis
=    cis =  z1
 n    n 
3
 6π    2π   3
=z3 cis
=    cis =
   z1
 n    n 

 2 ( n − 1) π    2π  
n −1

=zn −1 cis=
 cis 
 =  z1n −1
 n    n 
2 3 n −1
The sum is sn = 1 + z1 + z1 + z1 + .... + z1 (1)
Multiplying both sides by z1 gives

(
z1sn= z1 1 + z1 + z12 + z13 + .... + z1n −1 )
⇔ z1sn= z1 + z12 + z13 + z14 + .... + z1n ( 2)
(1) − ( 2 ) gives
( sn − z1sn ) =1 + z1 + z12 + z13 + .... + z1n−1
− z1 − z12 − z13 − z14 − .... − z1n
sn (1 − z1 ) = 1 − z1n
1− zn
⇔ sn = 1
1 − z1

 2nπ 
= n
But z1 cis =
  cis
= ( 2π ) 1 , then
 n 

66
 1 − z1n 1 − 1 0
sn
= = = = 0
1 − z1 1 − z1 1 − z1
Thus, the sum of nth roots of unit is zero.

π 1+ 5
11. cos
=
5 4
3
12. z = − + yi, y ∈ 
2
13. S ={−3, −2i, 2i}
2001
1 3
14.  + i
2  = −1
 2   
15. a) M is a point on circle of diameter [ AB ] if BM ⊥ AM .
z − zB
We need to check if M is pure imaginary.
zM − z A
zM − z B ieiθ − i eiθ − 1
= =
zM − z A ieiθ + i eiθ + 1
θ θ θ
i  i −i 
e 2  e 2 − e 2  2i sin θ
= θ θ =  = 2 i tan θ
i  i
θ
−i  θ 2
e 2  e 2 + e 2  2 cos
2
 
which is a pure imaginary.
Thus, M is a point on circle of diameter [ AB ] .
π
π z ' e=
i
z iz
b) Rotation of centre o and angle of is= 2

2
i (1 ieiθ ) =
zM ' =+ i − eiθ
θ
zM − z B ieiθ − i i ( eiθ − 1) ( eiθ − 1) 2i sin 2 θ
= = = = = tan
zM ' − z B −e − 1 i ( e + 1) i ( e + 1) 2i cos θ
iθ 2 iθ iθ
2
2
which is real.
Thus, points B, M and M ' are collinear.
16. Values of x are 2 and -5
17. a) The locus is the mediator of the segment [ AB ] such
that z A =2 and z B =−1 .

67
 b) The locus is the mediator of the segment [ AB ] such
that z A =2i and z B =−2 .
c) The locus is the circle of centre 1 − 3i and radius 2.
d) The locus is the circle of centre −1 + 0i and radius 1.
e) The locus is the rectangular hyperbola.
f) The locus is the union of 2 bisectors of equations
y = − x and y = x respectively.
18. The two complex numbers are 1 + 2i 2 and 1 − 2i 2
 kπ 
19. z cis 
= ,k ∈
 4 
3
20. Re ( z ) = 0 , Im ( z ) = −
3
θ π
21. z= cot , arg ( z )= θ −
2 2
 −1 + 3   −1 + 3 
22. z 
=  +   i or
 2   2 
 −1 − 3   −1 − 3 
= z   +   i
 2   2 
23. 6 + yi, y ∈ 
z=
24. Isosceles triangle has two sides equal in length
different from the third. We must check if there are two
  
equal sides among AB , AC and BC

AB = 4 − 2i − 1 − 2i = 3 − 4i = 9 + 16 =5

AC = 1 − 6i − 1 − 2i = −8i = 64 = 8

BC = 1 − 6i − 4 + 2i = −3 − 4i = 9 + 16 = 5
  
Then, =AB BC ≠ AC and hence the triangle is
isosceles.
9 30
 3 −i   3 +i 3 −i 
25. a) (i)   = −i (ii)  + − 2  =
1
 1+ i 3   3 − i 3 + i 
 
=
b) (i) n 6k , k ∈ {1, 2,3, 4,5,.......}

68
 (ii) n= 3m, m ∈ {1,3,5, 7,9,.....}

c) Let z1 = 1 + i z2 = 1 − i

z1 = 2 z2 = 2
π π
arg ( z1 ) = arg ( z2 ) = −
4 4
π   π
z1 = 2cis   =z2 2cis  − 
4  4
Then,
n n
  π    π 
(1 + i ) + (1 − i )
n n
= z + z =  2cis    +  2cis  −  
n
1
n
2
  4    4 

( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  n4π  + ( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  − n4π 
n n n n
=

( 2 ) cos  n4π  + i ( 2 ) sin  n4π  + ( 2 ) cos  n4π  − i ( 2 ) sin  n4π 
n n n n
=

 nπ  nπ  nπ 
( 2) 
( 2) 
( 2)
n n n
= cos  + cos  =2 cos  
 4   4   4 
n
 nπ   nπ  1+ 2  nπ 
( )
n n
= 2 =
2 cos   2=( 2 ) 2 cos
  2 cos  
 4   4   4 
n+2
 nπ  as required.
=2 2
cos  
 4 
26. a) E ( −1) =−
( 1) + 2 ( −1) + 2 ( −1) + 1 =0 . Thus, -1 is a
3 2

root of E.
a 1,=
b)= b 1,=
c 1
 1 3 1 3 
c) S = −1, − − i ,− +i 
 2 2 2 2 

69
 27. a) Complex plane
y
5

4
(1, 4 )
3

2
( 4, 2 )
1
1 
 ,0 x
2 
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3
( 2, −3)
-4

-5

1 3 1 1
 = − 2 + 3i =
b) z − + 3i , z =1 + 4i − = + 4i
AB
2 2
BC
2 2
5
c) E= +i
2
z 2  5π 
28. a) Polar form: 1 = cis  
z2 2  12 
z1 3 −1 3 +1
=
Algebraic form: +i
z2 4 4
 5π 6− 2
cos =
 12 4
b) 
sin 5π = 6 + 2
 12 4
c) The lowest value of n is 12.
0
29. 11.86 N , 146.77 from force A
30. 8.394 N , 208.680 from force A
31. (10 + j 20 ) Ω, 22.36cis63.430 Ω
 mh 
32. ± 
 2π 
33. 14.42 A, 43.850 lagging 
34. 14.58 A, 2.510 leading
V
35. Current I =
Z

70
 Impedance Z for three branch parallel circuit is given
by
1 1 1 1
= + +
Z Z1 Z 2 Z 3
4 + 3 j, Z 2 =
For our case, Z1 = 10, Z 3 =
12 − 5 j .
And then,
1 1 1 1 2797 764
= + + = − = 0.331 − 0904 j
Z 4 + 3 j 10 12 − 5 j 8450 8450
= 0.343 cos ( −15017 ') + j sin ( −15017 ') 
V
I == 240 × 0.343 cos ( −15.280 ) + j sin ( −15.280 ) 
Z
= 82.32 cos ( −15.280 ) + j sin ( −15.280 ) 

Thus, I 82.32
= = A, with θ 15.280 lagging .

71
Unit 2 Logarithmic and
Exponential Functions

2.1. Key unit competence

Extend the concepts of functions to investigate fully logarithmic
and exponential functions, finding the domain of definition, the
limits, asymptotes, variations, graphs, and model problems
about interest rates, population growth or decay, magnitude of
earthquake, etc

2.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Depreciation: A negative growth (diminishing in value
over a period of time).
Earthquake: A sudden violent shaking of the ground
as a result of movements within the earth’s
crust.
Richter scale: A logarithmic scale for expressing the
magnitude of an earthquake on the basis
of seismograph oscillations.

2.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

The problem statement is “The population P of a city increases
according to the formula P = 500e where t is in years and t = 0
at

corresponds to 1980. In 1990, the population was 10,000. Find the

value of the constant a; correct your answer to 3 decimal places.”
From this problem, if t = 0 corresponds to1980, then 1990
corresponds to t = 10 and this gives the following equation:
500e at = 1000 or e = 2 .
at

To find the value a, we take ln on both sides and we get

ln 2
ln e10 a = ln 2 or 10a ln e= ln 2 ⇒ a= = 0.069 . Such kind
10
of problems are solved using logarithms.
2.4. List of lessons
No Lesson title Number of
periods
1 Domain and range of natural 1
logarithmic function
2 Limit and asymptotes for natural 1
logarithmic function
3 Derivative of natural logarithmic 1
function
4 Variation and curve of natural 2
logarithmic function
5 Domain and range of logarithmic 1
function with any base
6 Limit and asymptotes for logarithmic 1
function with any base
7 Logarithmic differentiation 1
8 Further differentiation 1
9 Variation and curve of logarithmic 2
function with any base
10 Domain and range of exponential 1
function with base e
11 Limit and asymptotes for exponential 1
function with base e
12 Derivative of exponential function with 1
base e
13 Variation and curve of exponential 2
function with base e
14 Domain and range of exponential 1
function with any base
15 Limit and asymptotes for exponential 1
function with any base
16 Derivative of exponential function with 1
any base
17 Variation and curve of exponential 2
function with any base

73
18 Compound interest problems 2
19 Mortgage amount problems 1
20 Population growth problems 1
21 Depreciation value problems 1
22 Earthquake problems 1
23 Carbon-14 dating 1
Total periods 28

2.5. Lesson development

Lesson 2.1. Domain and range of natural

logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
Given any logarithmic function, learners should be able to find its
domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding domain of polynomial, rational/irrational and
trigonometric functions.
• Finding range of polynomial, rational/irrational and
trigonometric functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 2.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education

74
Answers
x ln x x ln x x ln x
-0.8 impossible 0.2 -1.61 1.5 0.40
-0.6 impossible 0.4 -0.91 2 0.69
-0.4 impossible 0.6 -0.51 2.5 0.91
-0.2 impossible 0.8 -0.22 3 1.09
0 impossible 1 0 3.5 1.25
1. (i) For negative x values and zero, ln xis impossible.
(ii) For x values between 0 and 1, ln xis less than zero.
(iii) For x values greater than 1, ln xis greater than zero.
2. Curve
4 y
3
y = ln x
2

x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Figure 2.1: Curve of y = ln x

Synthesis
From figure 2.1, ln x is defined on positive real numbers,
]0, +∞[ and its range is all real numbers that is domf= ]0, +∞[
and Im f = ]−∞, +∞[ .
Application Activity 2.28

1. a) ]0, +∞[ b) ]0, 4[

c) ]−∞, +∞[ d) ]−∞,3[

2. 316.2

75
Lesson 2.2. Limit and asymptotes for natural
logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
Given a natural logarithmic function, learners should be able to
evaluate limits and deduce relative asymptotes accurately.
Prerequisites
• Evaluating limits.
• Finding relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 2.2
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. lim− ln x does not exist since at the left of zero ln is

x →0
impossible.
2. If x takes on values closer to 0 from the right, we have

x ln x
0.5 -0.69315
0.45 -0.79851
0.4 -0.91629
0.35 -1.04982
0.3 -1.20397
0.25 -1.38629
0.2 -1.60944
0.15 -1.89712
0.1 -2.30259
0.05 -2.99573

76
 We see that if x takes on values closer to 0 from the
right, ln x becomes smaller and smaller negative. Then
lim ln x = −∞ . There is a vertical asymptote x = 0 .
x → 0+
3. If we give to x the values of the form 10n ( n ∈  ) ,
ln10
= n
n ln10 ≈ 2.30n and let n take values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10,…, we have;

ln x
n x = 10n ln x
x
1 10 2.302585 0.230258509
2 100 4.60517 0.046051702
3 1000 6.907755 0.006907755
4 10000 9.21034 0.000921034
5 100000 11.51293 0.000115129
6 1000000 13.81551 0.000013816
7 10000000 16.1181 0.000001612
8 100000000 18.42068 0.000000184
9 1000000000 20.72327 0.000000021
10 10000000000 23.02585 0.000000002

We see that if x takes on values of the form 10 ( n ∈  ) ,

n

ln x becomes larger and larger without bound

and consequently approaches no fixed value. Then
lim ln ( x ) = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote.
x →+∞
ln x
Also, that if x takes the values of the form 10
n
(n ∈ ) ,
x
becomes closer to zero.
ln x
Then, lim = 0.
x →+∞ x

There is no oblique asymptote.

Synthesis
As conclusion, xlim
→+∞
ln x = +∞ and lim+ ln x = −∞
x →0
There exists a vertical asymptote with equation VA ≡ x =0
No horizontal asymptote.

77
 Application Activity 2.29

1) −∞ 2) 0 3) +∞ 4) +∞

Lesson 2.3. Derivative of natural logarithmic

functions
Learning objectives
Given a natural logarithmic function, learners should be able to
differentiate it accurately.
Prerequisites
• Definition of derivative.
• Differentiating a polynomial, rational/ irrational and
trigonometric functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 2.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-cutting

issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

 x+h
ln  
ln ( x + h ) − ln x  x 
1. ( ln x ) ' = lim = lim
h
h →0 h h →0

1
1  x+h  h h
= lim ln  =  lim ln 1 + 
h →0 h
 x  h →0  x 
h
Let u = ⇒ h = ux
x

78
 If h → 0, u → 0
1
 h h 1
lim ln 1 + = lim ln (1 + u ) ux
h →0
 x u →0

1 1
= lim ln (1 + u ) u
u →0 x

1 1
= lim ln (1 + u ) u
x u →0
1 1
= ln lim (1 + u ) u
x u →0
1 1
= ln e = since lim (1 + u ) u e
x u →0

1
=
x
1
Thus, ( ln x ) ' =
x
2. ( ln = 1 u ' . Thus, ( ln u ) ' = u ' where u is
u)' = u' u
u u
another differentiable function.

Synthesis
1
( ln x ) ' = ; if u is another differentiable function of x
x
u'
then, ( ln u ) ' = .
u

Application Activity 2.30

2 ln x tan 2 x + 1 x
1. 2. 3. 2
x tan x x −1
2 x tan x − ln ( sin x ) 1
4. 2
5. 6. − tan x +
x -1 x2 x

7. tan 2 x −
1 − ln x
+1 8.
−2 ln ( x +1 +1 )
3x 2 2 ( x + 1)
2

79
Lesson 2.4. Variation and curve sketching of
natural logarithmic functions
Learning objectives
Given a natural logarithmic function, learners should be able to
study the variation and sketch its curve perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Finding domain and limits at the boundaries of the domain.
• Deducing relative asymptotes.
• Finding first and second derivative.
• Variation and concavity of a function.
• Sketch a curve in Cartesian plane given some points.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instrument of geometry and calculator

Activity 2.4

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers

1. f ( x ) = ln x . The domain is ]0, +∞[ .

lim f ( x ) = −∞ . There is a vertical asymptote x = 0
x → 0+

lim f ( x ) = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote

x →+∞

f ( x) ln x
lim= lim = 0 . There is no oblique
x →+∞ x x →+∞ x
asymptote.
1
2. f ( x) =ln x ⇒ f ' ( x ) = . Since x ∈ ]0, +∞[ , f ' ( x ) is
x
always positive and hence f ( x ) = ln x increases on its domain.

80
 1
Since f ' ( x =
) ≠ 0 , there is no extrema
x
(no maximum, no minimum).
1 1
3. f '( x) = − 2 . f '' ( x ) is always negative
⇒ f '' ( x ) =
x x
and hence the concavity of f ( x ) = ln x is turning down on
1
its domain. Since f '' ( x ) =
− 2 ≠ 0 , there is no inflection
x
points.
4. Completed table of variation
+∞
x 0 1 e
Sign of  + + + + +
f '( x)

Sign of  - - - - -
f '' ( x )
+∞
Variation of
f ( x) 1
0
−∞
Concavity
of f ( x )

5. Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates:

There is no intersection of f ( x ) with y − axis since this

axis is an asymptote.
Intersection with yx − axis :
f ( x ) = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ ln x = ln1 ⇒ x = 1 . Then,
{(1, 0 )} .
f ( x ) ∩ ox =
6. Additional points
x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
y -2.3 -1.2 -0.7 -0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

x 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9

y 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4

81
 Graph
y

VA ≡ x =0

y = ln x

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Synthesis
To sketch a function, follow the following steps:
• Find domain of definition.
• Evaluate limits at the boundary of domain and deduce
relative asymptotes.
• Find first derivative. Deduce maxima and draw variation
table.
• Find second derivative. Deduce inflection points and draw
concavity table.
• Find x and y intercepts.
• Find additional points.
• Sketch the curve.
For other function, you may need to study party and periodicity.
Also, you may need to find tangent lines at remarkable points
(maxima, inflection points, x and y intercepts)

Application Activity 2.31

1. Domain of definition: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 0
f ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, 0[ and increases on
interval ]0, +∞[ .

82
 Curve

2. Domain of definition: ]−1, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −1
g ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

3. Domain of definition: ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 0
h ( x ) increases on its domain

83
 Curve

4. Domain of definition: ]−∞,1[ ∪ ]2, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 1 and x = 2
k ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞,1[ and increases
on interval ]2, +∞[
Curve

84
Lesson 2.5. Domain and range of logarithmic
function with any base
Learning objectives
Given a logarithmic function with any base, learners should be
able to find the domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
• Domain of a natural logarithmic function.
• Range of a natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 2.5

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education
Answers
1. Existence condition: x > 0
Hence, Domf= ]0, +∞[
Limit on boundaries
ln x ln x
lim+ = −∞ lim = +∞
x →0 ln 2 x →∞ ln 2

From limits on boundaries, we get that range of f ( x ) is

]−∞, +∞[ .
2. Existence condition: x > 0
Hence, Domg = ]0, +∞[
Limit on boundaries
ln x ln x ln x
lim+ = +∞ lim = lim = −∞
x →0 1 x →∞ 1 x →∞ − ln 2
ln ln
2 2

85
 From limits on boundaries, we get that range of g ( x ) is
]−∞, +∞[ .
Synthesis
Logarithm of a real number x with base a is the number denoted
ln x
log a x defined by log a x = , x ∈  +0 , a ∈  +0 \ {1}
ln a
By letting a = 2 , the curve of f ( x ) = log 2 x is the following
4 y
3 VA ≡ x =0
y = log 2 x
2

x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Figure 2.2: Curve of y = log 2 x

1
By letting a = , you get the curve of f ( x ) = log 1 x as
2 2

illustrated in figure 2.2.

4 y
3

x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-1

-2
y = log 1 x
2

-3
VA ≡ x =0
-4

Figure 2.3:-5 Curve of y = log 1 x

2

86
 Application Activity 2.32

1. ]0, +∞[ 2. ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[

3. ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]4, +∞[ 4. ]−5, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[

Lesson 2.6. Limit of logarithmic function with

any base
Learning objectives
Given a logarithmic function with any base, learners should be
able to find limits and deduce its relative asymptotes accurately.
Prerequisites
• Limit of natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen
Activity 2.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Domf= ]0, +∞[ and ln 3 > 0 ,

ln x xlim ln x −∞
lim= f ( x ) lim
= = → 0+
= −∞
x → 0+ x → 0+ ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x = 0
ln x lim ln x +∞
lim
= f ( x ) lim= x= →+∞
= +∞
x →+∞ x →+∞ ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
There is no horizontal asymptote

87
 ln x
f ( x) lim
ln x x →+∞ x 0
lim = lim = = = 0
x →+∞ x x →+∞ x ln 3 ln 3 ln 3
There is no oblique asymptote
1 1
2. For 0 < < 1, ln < 0 ,
3 3
ln x xlim ln x −∞
lim+ f ( x ) = lim+
+
= →0 = = +∞
x →0 x →0 1 1 1
ln ln ln
3 3 3
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x= 0
ln x xlim ln x +∞
lim f ( x ) = lim = →+∞ = = −∞
x →+∞ x →+∞ 1 1 1
ln ln ln
3 3 3
There is no horizontal asymptote
ln x
f ( x) lim
ln x x →+∞ x 0
lim = lim = = = 0
x →+∞ x x →+∞ 1 1 1
x ln ln ln
3 3 3
There is no oblique asymptote.

Synthesis
Figure 2.4 and figure 2.5, are helpful to note that
lim log 3 x = −∞ and lim log 3 x = +∞
x →0 x →+∞

lim log 1 x = +∞ and lim log 1 x = −∞ .

x →0 x →+∞
3 3

Figure 2.4: Curve of y = log 3 x

88
 Figure 2.5: Curve of y = log 1 x
3
Generally, calculating limit of logarithmic function with any
ln x
base, for example log a x , from definition log a x = , you get
ln a
the following results:

−∞ if a > 1
• lim+ f ( x ) = 
x →0
+∞ if 0 < a < 1
Thus, there is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x =0

+∞ if a > 1
• lim f ( x ) = 
x →+∞
−∞ if 0 < a < 1
Then, there is no horizontal asymptote. In addition,
no oblique asymptote.

Application Activity 2.33

1. +∞ 2. +∞ 3. −∞ 4. +∞

Lesson 2.7. Logarithmic differentiation

Learning objectives
Given a logarithmic function with any base, learners should be able
to find its derivative accurately.
Prerequisites
• Differentiation of natural logarithmic functions.

89
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 2.7

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1
ln x 1
1. f ( x ) = ⇒ f ' ( x ) =x =
ln 2 ln 2 x ln 2
1 2 /
2 /
 ln x  x
x2 = =
( )
2x 2
2.  =  2
 ln 2  ln 2 x ln 2 x ln 2

Synthesis
1
As conclusion, ( log a x ) ' = . Also, if u is another
x ln a
differentiable function of x, then
u'
( log a u ) ' =
u ln a

Application Activity 2.34

2x + 2 6
1. 2. −
( x 2 + 2 x + 1) ln10 ( x 2 − 4 x − 5) ln 2
3. −3 x 2 − 2 4. x sin x
−
( 2 x3 + 4 x − 16 ) ln 2 2 x ln 3cos x

90
Lesson 2.8. Further logarithmic differentiation
Learning objectives
Given a function containing more complicated products and
quotients, learners should be able to differentiate it moderately.
Prerequisites
• The laws of logarithms,
• The derivative of logarithmic functions, and
• The differentiation of implicit functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen.

Activity 2.8

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x +1
1. y=
x −3
x +1
Taking ln on both sides gives ln y = ln
x −3
Applying laws of logarithms, we get
ln y= ln ( x + 1) − ln ( x − 3)

2. Differentiating with respect to x yields

1 dy 1 1
= − .
y dx x + 1 x − 3
dy  1 1 
= y
Rearranging gives − 
dx  x +1 x − 3 
dy  x + 1 1 1 
Substituting for y gives =   − 
dx  x − 3  x + 1 x − 3 

91
 Synthesis
For functions containing more complicated products and
quotients, differentiation is often made easier if the logarithm
of the function is taken before differentiating. And then apply
the property of differentiation of implicit functions.

Application Activity 2.35

1.
=
dy ( x − 2 )( x + 1)  1 + 1 − 1 − 1 
dx ( x − 1)( x + 3)  x − 2 x + 1 x − 1 x + 3 
=2.
dy ( 2 x − 1) x + 2  2 + 1 − 1 − 3 

3  2x −1

dx ( x − 3) ( x + 1)  2( x + 1) x − 3 2 ( x + 1) 

dy 1 
=
3. 3θ sin θ cos θ  + tan θ − cot θ 
dθ θ 
dy x3 ln 2 x  3 1 
4.
= x  + − 1 − cot x 
dx e sin x  x x ln 2 x 
dy 2 x 4 tan x  4 1 1 
=
5. 2x  + −2− 
dx e ln 2 x  x sin x cos x x ln 2 x 

Lesson 2.9. Variation and curves of logarithmic

functions with any base
Learning objectives
Given a logarithmic function with any base, learners should be
able to study the variation and sketch its curve accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding domain and limits at the boundaries of the domain.
• Deducing relative asymptotes.
• Finding first and second derivative.
• Variation and concavity of a function.
• Sketch a curve in Cartesian plane given some points.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, instrument of geometry and calculator

92
 Activity 2.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. f ( x ) = log 2 x
e) From Activity 2.6
lim f ( x ) = −∞
x → 0+
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x =0
lim f ( x ) = +∞
x →+∞

There is no horizontal asymptote. In addition, no

oblique asymptote.
1
/
 ln x  x 1
f) f ' (=
x)  =  =
 ln 2  ln 2 x ln 2
1
For ln 2 > 0 , f= '( x) > 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The function f ( x ) = log 2 x increases on its domain
1
f='( x) ≠ 0 , for ∀x > 0 , no extrema.
x ln 2
/
 1  1
g) f '' ( x ) =   = − 2
 x ln 2  x ln 2
1
For ln 2 > 0 , f '' ( x ) =
2
− 2 < 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The concavity of function f ( x ) = log 2 x turns downward
on domain of f ( x ) .
1
f '' ( x ) =
− 2 ≠ 0 , for ∀x > 0 , no inflection points.
x ln 2

93
 h) Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates:
No intersection with y − axis since this axis is a vertical
asymptote.
Intersection with x − axis :
ln x
log 2 x = 0 ⇔ = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 .
ln 2
{(1, 0 )}
Hence, f ( x ) ∩ ox =
i) Additional points for f ( x ) = log 2 x
x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
y -3.3 -1.7 -1.0 -0.5 -0.2 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9

x 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9
y 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Curve
y

VA ≡ x =0

y = log 2 x

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

2. g ( x ) = log 1 x
2
a) From Activity 2.6
lim g ( x ) = +∞
x → 0+
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x =0
lim g ( x ) = −∞
x →+∞
There is no horizontal asymptote. In addition, no
oblique asymptote.

94
 /
  1
 ln x  x 1 2
b) ( x )  1=
g '=  =
1
=
1 − x ln 2
,
 ln  ln x ln
 2 2 2
1
since ln = − ln 2
2
1
For ln 2 > 0 , =g '( x) < 0 since x > 0
− x ln 2
The function g ( x ) = log 1 x decreases on its domain
2
1
g '( x)
= ≠ 0 , no extrema.
− x ln 2
/
 1  1
g '' ( x ) =
c) =  2
 − x ln 2  x ln 2
1
'' ( x )
2
For ln 2 > 0 , g= 2
> 0 since x > 0
x ln 2
The concavity of function g ( x ) = log 1 x turns upward on
domain of g ( x ) .
2

1
'' ( x )
g= 2
≠ 0 , no inflection points.
x ln 2
d) Intersection of f ( x ) with axes of co-ordinates
No intersection with y − axis since this axis is a vertical
asymptote.
Intersection with x − axis :
ln x
log 1 x = 0 ⇔ = 0 ⇔ ln x = 0 ⇒ x = 1 .
2 ln 2
Hence, f ( x ) ∩ ox = {(1, 0 )} .
e) Additional points for g ( x ) = log 1 x
2

x 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
y 3.3 1.7 1.0 0.5 0.2 -0.1 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -0.9

x 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9
y -1.1 -1.2 -1.3 -1.4 -1.5 -1.6 -1.7 -1.8 -1.9 -2.0

95
 Curve
y

3
VA ≡ x =0

1
y = log 1 x
2

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Synthesis
To sketch a function, follow the following steps:
• Find domain of definition.
• Evaluate limits at the boundary of domain and
deduce relative asymptotes.
• Find first derivative. Deduce maxima and draw
variation table.
• Find second derivative. Deduce inflection points
and draw concavity table.
• Find x and y intercepts.
• Find additional points.
• Sketch the curve.
For other function, you may need to study parity and periodicity.
Also, you may need to find tangent lines at remarkable points
(maxima, inflection points, x and y intercepts).

96
Application Activity 2.36

1. Domain: ]−1, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −1
f ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

2. Domain: ]2, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 2
g ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

97
 3. Domain: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[
Vertical asymptote: x = 0
h ( x ) increases on interval ]−∞, 0[ and decreases on
interval ]0, +∞[
Curve

4. Domain: ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 0
k ( x ) decreases on its domain
Curve

98
Lesson 2.10. Domain and range of exponential
functions with base " e "
Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base " e " , learners should be
able to find domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
• Domain of natural logarithmic function.
• Range of natural logarithmic function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 2.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education

Answers

We saw that the domain of f ( x ) = ln x is ]0, +∞[ and its

range is  . Since g ( x ) is the inverse of f ( x ) ,

the domain of g ( x ) is  and its range is ]0, +∞[ .

Synthesis
The domain of definition of y = e x is ]−∞, +∞[ and its range is
]0, +∞[ as illustrated in figure 2.6.

99
 y
5

y = ex
4

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Figure 2.6: Curve of y = ex

Application Activity 2.37

1)  \ {2,5} 2)  3) ]0, +∞[ 4) [ 4, +∞[

Lesson 2.11. Limit of exponential functions with

base " e "
Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base " e " , learners should be
able to find limit and deduce relative asymptote accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding limits using table of values.
• Deduction of relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 2.11

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication

100
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. Completed table

x ex x ex
-1 0.36787944117144 1 2.7182818
-2 0.13533528323661 2 7.3890561
-5 0.00673794699909 5 148.4131591
-15 0.00000030590232 15 3269017.3724721
-30 0.00000000000009 30 10686474581524.5

2. From table in 1), when x takes values approaching to −∞ ,

e x takes value closed to zero. Hence, lim e x = 0 .
x →−∞

There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no oblique

asymptote.
x
Also, when x takes value approaching to +∞ , e
increases without bound. Hence, xlim
→+∞
e x = +∞ . There is no
horizontal asymptote.
3. Graph
7 y
y = ex
6

1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

101
 Synthesis
From the above figure, it is clear that

lim e x = 0 and xlim

→+∞
e x = +∞ .
x →−∞
There exists horizontal asymptote: H . A ≡ y =
0.
ex ex
lim = 0, lim = +∞
x →−∞ x x →+∞ x

There is no oblique asymptote.

Application Activity 2.38

1.
3
e 2. 0 3. +∞
4. 0 5. 0

Lesson 2.1. Derivative of exponential functions

with base “e”
Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with base " e " , learners should be
able to differentiate it correctly.
Prerequisites
• Use the derivative of natural logarithmic function.
• Rule of differentiating inverse functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 2.12

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

102
Answers
1
1. f '( x) =
( f ) ( y)
−1 /

1
f ( x) = ln x but ( ln x ) ' =
e x ⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
x
1
f '( =
x) = ex
1
ex
( )
x /
Thus, e = ex

( f  g ) ' = f ' ( g ) g ' . Then, ( eu )

/
2. = u ' eu

Synthesis
( e ) ' = e and if u is another differentiable function of x,
x x

(e ) ' = u 'e .
u u

Or from the definition of differentiation,

df ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
= lim , thus,
dx h → 0 h
( )
d ex
= lim
e x+h − e x
dx h →0 h
e x ( e h − 1)  eh − 1 
= lim = e lim x

h →0 h h →0
 h 
  eh − 1  
= e ln e  as lim 
x
 = ln e 

h →0
 h  
x
= e= ln e e x

d (ex )
(e ) =
Therefore,=
dx
x '
ex

Application Activity 2.39

1. 2e
2 x −1
2. 2 ( e 2 x + e −2 x )

( x − 2) ex
3. (1 + tan x ) e
2 tan x
4.
( x − 1) x − 1

103
Lesson 2.2. Variation and curve of exponential
functions with base " e "
Learning objectives
For an exponential function with base " e " , learners should be
able to study the variation and sketch its curve accurately.
Prerequisites
• Reflecting a curve about the first bisector.
• Properties of inverse functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, calculator and instruments of geometry.

Activity 2.13

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = ln x about the first bisector,

we obtain
y

3
g ( x ) = ex y=x

1
f ( x ) = ln x

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Figure 2.6: Reflection of y = ln x about first bisector

104
Synthesis

Since e is the inverse of ln x , the curve of g ( x ) = e is the image

x x

of the curve of f ( x ) = ln x with respect to the first bisector, y = x

. Then, the coordinates of the points for f ( x ) = ln x are reversed
to obtain the coordinates of the points for g ( x ) = e .
x

Application Activity 2.40

1. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
f ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

2. Domain: ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = 0 and horizontal asymptote:
y=0
g ( x ) increases on interval ]1, +∞[
g ( x ) decreases on intervals: ]−∞, 0[ and ]0,1[

105
 Curve

3. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
h ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

4. Domain: ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[

Vertical asymptote: x = −2 and horizontal asymptote:
y=0
k ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, −1[ and
increases on interval ]−1, +∞[

106
 Curve

Lesson 2.3. Domain and range of exponential

functions with any base
Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with any base, learners should be
able to find the domain and range accurately.
Prerequisites
• Domain of logarithmic function with any base.
• Range of logarithmic function with any base.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 2.14

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education

107
 Answers

We know that the domain of f ( x ) = log a x is ]0, +∞[ and its

range is  . Since g ( x ) is the inverse of f ( x ) , the domain of
g ( x ) is  and its range is ]0, +∞[ .

Synthesis
The domain of f ( x ) = a x with a > 0 and a ≠ 1 , is the set of real
numbers and its image is the positive real numbers.

Application Activity 2.41

1.  \ {−5, −2} 2. 
3. ]−∞, −1] ∪ ]3, +∞[ 4. ]−∞, −3[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[
Lesson 2.4. Limit of exponential functions
with any base
Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with any base, learners should be
able to evaluate limit and deduce relative asymptotes accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding limits using table of values.
• Deduction of relative asymptotes.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 2.15

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

108
Answers
1. a) Table of values
x 2x x 2x
-1 0.5 1 2
-2 0.25 2 4
-5 0.03125 5 32
-15 0.0000305176 15 32768
-30 0.0000000009 30 1073741824

b) From table in a), when x takes values approaching to −∞ , 2

x

takes values closed to zero. Hence, lim 2 = 0 .

x
x→−∞

There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no oblique

asymptote.

Also, when x takes values approaching to +∞ , 2 increases

x

without bound. Hence, lim 2 = +∞ . There is no horizontal

x
x→+∞
asymptote.

2. a) Table of values

x x
x 1 x 1
   
2 2
-1 2 1 0.5
-2 4 2 0.25
-5 32 5 0.03125
-15 32768 15 0.0000305176
-30 1073741824 30 0.0000000009
b) From table in a), when x takes values approaching to −∞ ,
x
 1  increases without bound. Hence,
 
2
x
1
lim   = +∞ . There is no horizontal asymptote.
x→−∞ 2
  x
1
Also, when x takes values approaching to +∞ ,  
2
x
1
takes values closed to zero. Hence, lim   = 0 .
x→+∞ 2
 

109
 There exists a horizontal asymptote y = 0 , no oblique asymptote.

Synthesis

If a > 1 , lim a x = 0 and lim a x = +∞

x →−∞ x →+∞

If 0 < a < 1 , lim a = +∞ and lim a x = 0

x
x →−∞ x →+∞

There is horizontal asymptote y = 0 .

No vertical asymptote since the domain is the set of real numbers. In

addition there is no oblique asymptote.

Application Activity 2.42

4 2
1. 1 2. e 3. e
4. e
k
6. e
k
5. e

Lesson 2.5. Derivative of exponential functions

with any base
Learning objectives
Given an exponential functions with any base, learners should be
able to differentiate it accurately.
Prerequisites
• Derivative of logarithmic function with any base.
• Rule of differentiating inverses functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 2.16

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education

110
 • Inclusive education

Answers

1
1. f '( x) =
( f ) ( y) −1 /

1
f ( x) =
3x ⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
log 3 x but ( log 3 x ) ' =
x ln 3
1
f '( x)
= = 3x ln 3
1
3x ln 3
( )
/
Thus, 3
x
= 3x ln 3

( f  g ) ' = f ' ( g ) g ' . Then, ( 3cos x ) = ( cos x ) ' ( 3cos x ) ( ln 3)

/
2.

( ) = − sin x ( 3cos x ) ( ln 3)
cos x /
Or 3

Synthesis
( )
As conclusion, a x ' = a x ln a . Also, if u is another differentiable

function of x, we have a ' = u ' a ln a

u u
( )

Application Activity 2.43

1 
1. a) −2 ( 0.3) ln ( 0.3)
x
b) 10 
x
+ ln x ln10 
x 
c) sin x ( sin x + 2 x cos x ) d) x ( 4 ) ( 2 + ln 4 )
ln x

1 1
b) e ( e + 1)
e
2. a) ln 2 c) d)
2 2

Lesson 2.6. Variation and curve of exponential

functions with any base
Learning objectives
Given an exponential function with base any base, learners should
be able to study the variation and sketch its curve accurately.
Prerequisites
• Reflecting a curve about the first bisector.
• Properties of inverse functions.

111
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pencil, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 2.17

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = log 2 x about the first
bisector, we obtain
y

3
y=x

g ( x ) = 2x
2

1 f ( x ) = log 2 x

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2

-3

Figure 2.8: Reflection of y = log 2 x about first bisector

112
 2. When reflecting the curve of f ( x ) = log 1 x about the first
2
bisector, we obtain
y

3
y=x
x
1
g ( x) =  
2
2

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

f ( x ) = log 1 x
2

-2

-3

Figure 2.9: Reflection of log 1 x about first bisector

2
Synthesis
x
As a is the inverse of log a x , we can obtain a curve of a x by
symmetry with respect to the first bisector y = x .
If a = 2 , we have f ( x ) = 2 x .
x -4 -3.6 -3.2 -2.8 -2.4 -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4
y 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.33 0.44 0.57 0.76

x 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4

y 1.00 1.32 1.74 2.30 3.03 4.00 5.28 6.96 9.19 12.13 16.00

Curve: 16 y
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8 f ( x ) = 2x
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
Figure 2.10: Curve of 2 x

113
 x
1 1
If a = , we have f ( x ) =  
2 2
x -4 -3.6 -3.2 -2.8 -2.4 -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0
y 16 12.13 9.19 6.96 5.28 4.00 3.03 2.30 1.74 1.32 1.00

x 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4

y 0.76 0.57 0.44 0.33 0.25 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.06

Curve:
16 y
15
14
13
12
11
x 10
1
f ( x) =   9
2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2

x
1
Figure 2.11: Curve of  
2

Application Activity 2.44

1. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
f ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

114
2. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
g ( x ) increases on interval ]0, +∞[ and decreases on
interval: ]0, +∞[
Curve

3. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
h ( x ) decreases on its domain
Curve

115
 4. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
k ( x ) increases on interval ]−∞, −1[ and increases on
interval ]−1, +∞[
Curve

Lesson 2.7. Compound interest problems

Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should be able
to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve compound
interest problems accurately.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.

Activity 2.18

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication

116
 • Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education

Answers
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, r is the interest
rate per period, k is the number of periods per year, and A the
kn
 r
A P 1 + 
total amount at the end of periods, then=
 k
Here,= P 4000,= r 0.06,=k 4,= n 5
Then,
4×5
 0.06 
 =4000 (1.015 ) =5387.42
20
A =4000 1 +
 4 
After 5 years there, will be 5,387.42 FRW on the account.

Synthesis
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, k is the interest
rate per period, k is the number of periods per year, and A the
kn
 r
A P 1 + 
total amount at the end of periods, then=
 k

Application Activity 2.45

1) 11,358.24 FRW 2) 7,007.08 FRW

3) Approximately 7.9 years 4) Approximately 6.3 years
5) Approximately 23.1 years

117
Lesson 2.8. Mortgage amount problems
Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
mortgage amount problems accurately.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.

Activity 2.19

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Financial education

Answers
The following formula illustrates the relationship:
rM
P= n
− nt
 r
1 − 1 + 
 n
Where
r the annual rate , M = the mortgage amount , t
P = the payment , =
= the number of years and n = the number of payments per year
Here,=P 800,=
M 100000,
= n 12,
= r 0.09 and we need t.

118
Now,
0.09 ×100000
800 = 12
−12 t
 0.09 
1 − 1 + 
 12 
750 750
⇔ (1.0075 )
−12 t
⇔ 800 = =
− +1
1 − (1.0075 )
−12 t
800
750 −750 + 800
⇔ (1.0075 )
−12 t
⇔ 1 − (1.0075 )
−12 t
= =
800 800
750 1
− 1 ⇔ (1.0075 )
−12 t
⇔ − (1.0075 ) =
−12 t =
800 16
Take natural logarithm both sides
1 1
⇔ ln (1.0075 ) = ⇔ −12t ln (1.0075 ) =ln
−12 t
ln
16 16
ln ( 0.0625 )
⇔ −12t = ⇔ −12t = −371.06 ⇒ t = 30.92
ln (1.0075 )
Then, you have to make payments to pay off the mortgage in
approximately 30 years and 11 months. You would have 370
payments of 800 FRW and the last payment would be 850.40
FRW. The interest paid over the term of the mortgage would
be 216,850.40 FRW.

Synthesis
There is a relationship between the mortgage amount M, the
number of payments per year n, the amount of the payment P,
how often the payment is made t, and the interest rate r. The
rM
n
following formula illustrates the relationship: P = − nt
 r
1 − 1 + 
 n

Application Activity 2.46

1. 2,400,000 FRW 2. 2,400,000 FRW

3. 12,719.89 FRW 4. 8.42%

119
Lesson 2.9. Population growth problems
Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
population growth problems accurately.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.

Activity 2.20

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers

If P0 is the population at the beginning of a certain period and

r % is the constant rate of growth per period, the population n
Pn P0 (1 + r )
n
periods will be=
=
Here, P0 1, 000,
= r 0.5,
= n 5
P5 = P0 (1 + r ) = 1, 000 (1 + 0.5 ) = 1, 000 (1.5 ) = 7,593.75
5 5 5

Thus, the population of bacteria in flask at the start of day 5 is

7,593.75.

Synthesis
If P0 is the population at the beginning of a certain period and
r % is the constant rate of growth per period, the population for n
Pn P0 (1 + r ) .
n
periods will be=

120
 Application Activity 2.47

1. a) 4200 b) 4% c) 5109
2. a) 1,726,458.24 b) 2020

Lesson 2.10. Depreciation value problems

Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
depreciation value problems moderately.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.
Activity 2.21

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
If V0 is the value at a certain time, and r % is the rate of
depreciation per period, the value Vt at the end of t periods
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
is=
Here, V0 = 5 , r = 0.5 since the number of
2.3 ×1030 , t =
bacteria halves every second.

121
 Then,

2.3 ×1030 (1 − 0.5 )

5
V5 =
=2.3 ×1030 ( 0.5 ) =2.3 ×1030 × 0.03125
5

=0.071875 ×1030 =7.2 ×1028

28
Thus, 7.2 × 10 bacteria were left after 5 seconds.

Synthesis
Depreciation (or decay) is negative growth. If V0 is the value at
a certain time, and r % is the rate of depreciation per period,
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
the value Vt at the end of t periods is=

Application Activity 2.48

1. V = x ( 0.75 )
t
2. 19 years

Lesson 2.11. Earthquake problems

Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
earthquake problems.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.

Activity 2.22

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research

122
 • Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

I
The formula M = log determines the magnitude of an
S
earthquake, where I is the intensity of the earthquake and S is the
intensity of a “standard earthquake.”
Here,
I1 I I1
=8 log
= , 6 log 2 10 8
I
S S = S ⇒ 100 = 1
I1 I2 10 6
I 2 I2
=108 = , 106 S
S S
So, the earthquake will be a hundred times stronger.

Synthesis
I
The magnitude of an earthquake is given by M = log where I is
S
the intensity of the earthquake and S is the intensity of a ‘’standard
earthquake’’

Application Activity 2.49

1. 5
2. 2.6
3. a) 39.8 times more intense b) 7.2
4. 1.26 times more intense

Lesson 2.12. Carbon-14 dating problems

Learning objectives
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use logarithmic and exponential functions to solve
carbon-14 dating problems accurately.
Prerequisites
• Use of logarithmic and exponential functions

123
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and textbooks or internet if available.

Activity 2.23

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
A formula used to calculate how old a sample is by carbon-14
N 
ln  f 
 N0  × t
=
dating is: t 1
− 0.693 2
Nf
where is the percent of carbon-14 in the sample compared
N0
to the amount in living tissue, and t 1 is the half-life of carbon-14
2
( 5, 730 ± 30 years).
ln ( 0.10 )
t
Then,= × 5700
= 18,940 years old
−0.693
Synthesis
Carbon dating is used to work out the age of organic material —
in effect, any living thing. The technique hinges on carbon-14,
a radioactive isotope of the element that, unlike other more
stable forms of carbon, decays away at a steady rate. The half-
life of a substance is the amount of time it takes for half of that
substance to decay.
A formula to calculate how old a sample is by carbon-14 dating
is:

124
 N 
ln  f 
=t  N0  × t
1
− 0.693 2

Nf
where is the percent of carbon-14 in the sample
N0
compared to the amount in living tissue, and t 1 is the half-life
of carbon-14 ( 5, 730 ± 30 years). 2

Application Activity 2.50

1. 8,260 years
2. 9,953 years
3. 0.239 mg
4. 3.2 per minutes per gram
5. 3,870 years
6. a) A common rule of thumb is that a radioactive dating
method is good out to about 10 half-lives. Given a
Carbon-14 half-life of 5730 years, you can see that
Carbon-14 dating is (theoretically) good out to around
60,000 years (more-or-less). In fact, due to fluctuations in
the carbon amount in the atmosphere, modern Carbon-14
dating needs to be correlated to dates determined by
analysis of tree-ring records (dendrochronology).
b) A skull does not have very much (if any) carbon in it after
73 million years. It would not be dated using Carbon-14
dating. In fact, the value of 73 million years is not arrived at
by directly testing the skull. Minerals containing radioactive
elements are dated and the age of the skull would be
assumed to be of the same age as the strata in which it was
discovered.

125
2.6. Summary of the unit

1. Logarithmic functions
• Domain of definition and range:
The Natural logarithm of x is denoted as ln x or log e x and
defined on positive real numbers, ]0, +∞[ , its range is all real
numbers.
∀x ∈ ]1, +∞[ , ln x > 0 and ∀x ∈ ]0,1[ , ln x < 0

The equation ln x = 1 has, in interval ]0, +∞[ , a unique

solution, a rational number
2.718281828459045235360.... . This number is denoted by e.
Hence ln x =1 ⇔ x =e .
x
 1
=
Generally e lim 1 + 
x →+∞
 x
• Limits on boundaries:
Logarithmic function f ( x ) = ln x being defined on ]0, +∞[ ,
lim ln x = +∞ and lim+ ln x = −∞ .
x →+∞ x →0

From xlim
→+∞
ln x = +∞ , we deduce that there is no horizontal
asymptote.
From lim+ ln x = −∞ , we deduce that there exists a vertical
x →0
asymptote with equation VA ≡ x =0
• Derivative of natural logarithmic functions or logarithmic
derivative:
1
and ( ln x ) > 0
'
x ∈  +0 , ( ln x ) =
'

x
Also, if u is differentiable function at x then,
u'
( ln u ) ' =
u
With certain functions containing more complicated
products and quotients, differentiation is often made easier
if the logarithm of the function is taken before differentiating.

126
• Domain and limits on boundaries of a logarithmic function
with any base:
Logarithm function of a real number x with base a is
a function f denoted f ( x ) = log a x and defined by
ln x
log a x = , x ∈  +0 , a ∈  +0 \ {1}
ln a
∀x ∈  +0 , log a x = y ⇔ x = a y
−∞ if a > 1
lim+ f ( x ) = 
x →0
+∞ if 0 < a < 1
There is a vertical asymptote VA ≡ x =0
+∞ if a > 1
lim f ( x ) = 
x →+∞
−∞ if 0 < a < 1
There is no horizontal asymptote nor oblique asymptote.
• Logarithmic Differentiation:
1
If f ( x ) = log a x , then f ' ( x ) =
x ln a
Also, if u is another differentiable function in x , then
u'
( log a u ) ' =
u ln a

2. Exponential functions
Exponential function with base “e”
• Domain and range of exponential functions with base " e "
The domain of definition of y = e x is ]−∞ + ∞[ and its range
is ]0, +∞[ .
Then, ∀x ∈ ]0, +∞[ , y ∈ ]−∞, +∞[ =
: y ln x ⇔=
x ey .
• Limit of exponential functions with base “e”
lim e x = 0 and xlim
→+∞
e x = +∞
x →−∞
There exists horizontal asymptote: H . A ≡ y =
0
• Derivative of exponential functions with base “e”
∀x ∈ , ( e x ) ' = e x

127
 If u is another differentiable function at x ,

(e ) ' = u 'e
u u

Remarks
ln y
1. ∀y > 0, y =e
x x ln a
In particular, a x = eln a means a = e .
x

Hence, to study the function y = u v is the same as to

v ln u
study the function y = e where u and v are two other
functions.
2. Whenever an expression to be differentiated contains
a term raised to a power which is itself a function of the
variable, then logarithmic differentiation must be used.
For example, the differentiation of expressions such
1− x 2
as x , (1 − x ) , x x + 2, ( x )
x sin x
and so on can only be
achieved using logarithmic differentiation.

3. Applications
a) Compound interest problems
If P is the principal, n is the number of years, r is the interest rate
per period, k in the number of periods per year, and A the total
kn
amount at the end of periods, then=  r
A P 1 +  .
 k
b) Population growth problems
If P0 is the population at the beginning of a certain period and r %
is the constant rate of growth per period, the population after n
Pn P0 (1 + r ) .
n
periods will be=
c) Depreciation value problems
Depreciation (or decay) is negative growth. If V0 is the value at a
certain time, and r % is the rate of depreciation per period, the
Vt V0 (1 − r ) .
t
value Vt at the end of t periods is=
d) Earthquake problems

128
 Charles Richter defined the magnitude of an earthquake to be
I
M = log where I is the intensity of the earthquake
S
(measured by the amplitude of a seismograph reading taken
100 km from the epicentre of the earthquake) and S is the
intensity of a ‘’standard earthquake’’ (whose amplitude is
1 micron = 10−4 cm ).
e) Carbon-14 dating problems
Carbon dating is used to work out the age of organic material
— in effect, any living thing. By measuring the ratio of the radio
isotope to non-radioactive carbon, the amount of carbon-14
decay can be worked out, thereby giving an age for the
specimen in question.
Through research, scientists have agreed that the half-life of
C14 is approximately 5700 years.
A formula to calculate how old a sample is by carbon-14 dating
is:
N 
ln  f 
=t  N0  × t
1
− 0.693 2

Nf
where is the percent of carbon-14 in the sample
N0
compared to the amount in living tissue, and t 1 is the half-life
2
of carbon-14 ( 5, 730 ± 30 years).

2.7. End of Unit Assessment

1. ]1, +∞[ 2. ]0,1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[

3. ]−4,1[ ∪ ]2, +∞[ 4. {
 \ 2 − 3, 2 + 3 }
5. ]0,1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[ 6.  \ {−2, −1, 0}
7.  8.  \ {1}
9. 0 10. +∞

129
11. 0 12. +∞
13. 1 14. 0
15. +∞ 16. 0
17. +∞ 18. +∞
19. 2 20. e
3
1
21. 22. 0
3 2
e
2 x 1 x x
23. xe 24.  tan + cot 
2 2 2
1 x2 + a2
25. 26.
x ln x x2 + a2
2e x −2 x 2 + 1
27. 28.
e 2 x + 2e x + 1 x2 + 1
29. x ln x
x
30. ( cos x ) ln ( cos x ) − x tan x 
x

ex
31. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
f ( x ) increases on intervals ]−∞, −2[ and ]0, +∞[ , it decreases on
interval ]−2, 0[
Curve

130
32. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[
No asymptote
f ( x ) decreases on interval ]−∞, 0[ , it increases on interval
]0, +∞[ .
Curve
y
5

4
f ( x ) = 2 x −4
2

1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

33. Domain: ]−∞, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 1 and horizontal asymptote y = 0
f ( x ) increases on its domain
Curve

34. Domain: ]0, +∞[

Vertical asymptote x = 0 and horizontal asymptote y = 0

131
 f ( x ) increases on interval  0, e  and decreases on interval
 e , +∞  .
 
Curve

a) f ( t ) = 1, 000, 000 ( 0.9 )

t
35. b) t = 109.27 min
36. f ( t ) 75, 000 × e0.98083t
a)= b) 2,942, 490
37. $3,315.53
38. Monthly payment is $550.32. Interest is $123,115.20
39. $72,537.23
a) f ( t ) = 3 b) 4.239 ×10
t 28
40.
t
1
41. a) f ( t ) = 100, 000   b) 97.65625
2
42. a) 7.3 b) 125,892,451 as greater as A0
43. 8.43

44. a) 3.16 × 10−3 mol b) 12,589 times more acidic

l
45. 1,000,000 times more intense
46. 70dB

132
 Taylor and Maclaurin’s
Unit 3
Expansions

3.1. Key unit competence

Use Taylor and Maclaurin’s expansion to solve problems
about approximations, limits, …
Extend the Maclaurin’s expansion to Taylor series.

3.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

∞

∑ a ( x − c) .
n
Power series: Infinite series of the form n
n =0

Taylor series of function f ( x ) at point x0 : The infinite

∞
f (n)
( x0 )
∑ ( x − x0 )
n
series of the form .
n =0 n!
Maclaurin series: The special case of the Taylor series when
x0 = 0 .
Lagrange remainder: The remainder function in Taylor
series.

3.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

The problem statement is
“Suppose that we need to complete the table below.

Angle, x 00 10 20 30 40 50
sin x

For x = 00 is very easy since this angle is a remarkable angle. But,

what about other angles, 10 , 20 ,30 , 40 ,50 ? How can we find their
sine without using sine button on scientific calculator?

133
To solve this problem, we need the Maclaurin series of sin x and
then x will be replaced by its value, remembering that all angles
must be expressed in radian.

3.4. List of lessons

No Lesson title Number of periods
1 Finite series 1
2 Infinite series 1
3 Test for convergence of series 1
4 Power series 1
5 Taylor and Maclaurin series 2
6 Taylor series by using Maclaurin series 1
7 Calculation of limits 1
8 Estimation of the number e 1
9 Estimation of the number π 1
10 Estimation of trigonometric number of 1
an angle
11 Estimation of an irrational number 1
12 Estimation of a natural logarithm 1
number
13 Estimation of roots of equations 1
Total periods 14

3.5. Lesson development

Lesson 3.1. Finite series
Learning objectives
Given a finite series, learners should be able to sum that series
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Terms of a series.
• General term of a series.
• Sigma notation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

134
 Activity 3.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. uk = f ( k ) − f ( k + 1)

, u1
For k = 1= f (1) − f ( 2 )

, u2
For k = 2= f ( 2 ) − f ( 3)

, u3
For k = 3= f ( 3) − f ( 4 )
, u4
For k = 4= f ( 4 ) − f ( 5)
, u5
For k = 5= f ( 5) − f ( 6 )

For k= n − 1 , un −1= f ( n − 1) − f ( n )
For k = n , un = f ( n ) − f ( n + 1)
2. Adding obtained terms we have
u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 + ... + un −1 + un =
= f (1) − f ( 2 ) + f ( 2 ) − f ( 3) + f ( 3) − f ( 4 ) + f ( 4 )
− f ( 5 ) + f ( 5 ) − f ( 6 ) + .... + f ( n − 1) − f ( n ) + f ( n ) − f ( n + 1)
= f (1) − f ( n + 1)
Thus, adding these terms, on the right hand side, nearly
all the terms cancel out leaving just f (1) − f ( n + 1) and on
the left hand side, is the required sum of the series. Thus,
n

∑u
k =1
n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) .

135
 Synthesis
As conclusion, the sum of the series u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un is given by
n

∑u
k =1
n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) where f ( k ) is a

function of k.

Application Activity 3.51

1 1 1
1. 1 − 2. −
n +1 2 4n + 2
1 4 3 3 11 2 3 1 1 1 3
3. n + n + n + n 4. − − + 
4 2 4 2 2  n +1 n + 2 2 

Lesson 3.2. Infinite series

Learning objectives
Given an infinite series or a repeating decimal, learners should
be able to find the sum of infinite series or find a rational number
represented by the repeating decimal accurately.
Prerequisites
• Evaluating limits
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 3.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

136
Answers
7 7 7 7 7
1. S n = + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ...
10 10 10 10 10
1 17 7 7 7 7 
S=n  + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ... 
10 10  10 10 10 10 10 
1 7 7 7 7 7
⇒ S n= 2
+ 3 + 4 + 5 + ... + n +1 + ...
10 10 10 10 10 10
2. Subtracting, we have
7 7 7 7 7
S n = + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n + ...
10 10 10 10 10
1 7 7 7 7 7
− Sn = − 2 − 3 − 4 − 5 − ... − n +1 − ...
10 10 10 10 10 10
1 7 7
S n − S n = − n +1
10 10 10
9 7 7 
⇒ Sn = 1 − n 
10 10  10 
7 10  7  7 7 
⇒ Sn = × 1 − n  ⇒ Sn = 1 − n 
10 9  10  9  10 
3. Taking limit as n → +∞ .
7 7  7
lim S n= lim 1 − n =
n →∞ 9
n →∞
 10  9

Synthesis
It is impossible to add up infinitely many numbers, thus, we will
deal with infinite sums by limiting process involving sequences.
An infinite series is an expression of the form +∞
u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + uk + ... or in sigma notation ∑ uk . The
k =1
terms u1 , u2 , u3 ,... are called terms of the series.
To carry out this summation process, we proceed as follows:

137
 Let sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the series. Thus,
s1 = u1
s2= u1 + u2
s3 = u1 + u2 + u3

n
sn = u1 + u2 + u3 +  + un = ∑ uk
k =1

The number sn is called the nth partial sum of the series and
the sequence {sn }n =1 is called the sequence of partial sums.
+∞

Application Activity 3.52

1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1
1. a) n + n b) n + n + n
2 2 3 2 6
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 2
c) n + n + n d) n + n + n
4 2 4 3 3
3 5 49
2. a) b) c)
11 6 396

Lesson 3.3. Tests for convergence of series

Learning objectives
Given a series and by using comparison test, limit comparison
test, the ratio test or the nth root test, learners should be able to
test for convergence accurately.
Prerequisites
• Evaluating limits.
• Compare two expressions.
• Compare real numbers.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

138
 Activity 3.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

3n +1 + 1
un +1 5n +=1 3n +1 + 1 5n 3n × 3 + 1
1. a) lim = lim lim × = lim
n →∞ u
n
n →∞ 3n + 1 n →∞ 5n × 5 3n + 1 n→∞ 5 ( 3n + 1)
5n
 1 1
3n  3 + n  3+ n
 = 3  3 3+ 0 3
= lim lim = =
n →∞  1 n →∞  1  5 (1 + 0 ) 5
5 × 3n 1 + n  5 × 1 + n 
 3   3 
1
nn
n n n0 1
lim n u= lim = lim =
b) n →∞ n n →∞ =
3 n→∞ 3 3 3
1
2. Taking , if we add 1 to the denominator, we get
2n − 1
1
and then by comparison methods for rational
2n
1 1
numbers, > since the numerators are the
2n − 1 2n
same and denominator 2n > 2n − 1

Synthesis
Comparison test
∞
Let ∑a
n =1
n be a series with positive terms;
∞
a) ∑a
n =1
n converges if there exists a convergent series

139
 ∞

∑b
n =1
n such that an ≤ bn for all n > N , where N is
some positive integer.
∞
b) ∑a
n =1
n diverges if there exists a divergent series
∞

∑c
n =1
n such that an ≥ cn for all n > N , where N is
some positive integer.
Limit comparison test
∞ ∞
If the series ∑ an and ∑b
n =1
n are two series with positive
n =1
an
terms, and lim is finite, both series converge or diverge.
n →∞ b
n
The ratio test
∞
u
Let ∑ un be a series with positive terms and let lim n +1 = L ,
n →∞ u
n =1 n
then;
a) the series converges if L < 1 .
b) the series diverges if L > 1 .
c) the series may or may not converge if L = 1 (i.e. the
test is inconclusive).
th
The n root test
∞
Let ∑u
n =1
n be a series with positive terms and let lim n un = L ,
n →∞
then;
a) the series converges if L < 1 .
b) the series diverges if L > 1 .
c) the test is inconclusive L = 1 .

Application Activity 3.53

1. Converges 2. Converges 3. Converges

4. Diverges 5. Converges 6. Converges

140
Lesson 3.4. Power series
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a power
series and to find radius of convergence accurately.
Prerequisites
• Test for convergence of series.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 3.4

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
xn
( −1)
n +1
1. un =
n
th
n root test:
xn xn n xn x
lim un = lim n ( −1)
n +1
n = lim n = lim = lim 1
= x
n →∞ n →∞ n n →∞ n n →∞ n n n →∞
n n

The series is convergence for x < 1 (and divergence

for x > 1 )
xn
2. un = and
n!
un +1 x n +1 n! x
lim =lim × n =lim =0 < 1
n →∞ un n →∞ ( n + 1) ! x n →∞ n + 1

for all x. Therefore, the series is absolutely

convergence.

141
 Synthesis
Power series is like an infinite polynomial. It has the form
∞

∑ a ( x − c) = a0 + a1 ( x − c ) + a2 ( x − c ) + ... + an ( x − c ) + ...
n 2 n
n
n =0

• The power series converges at x = c . Here, the radius of

convergence is zero.
• The power series converges for all x , i.e ]−∞, +∞[ . Here,
the radius of convergence is infinity.
• There is a number R called the radius of convergence
such that the series converges for all c − R < x < c + R and
the series diverges outside this interval.

Application Activity 3.54

2 1
1. −3 < x < −1, R =1 2. − < x < 0, R =
3 3
1
3. −2 < x < −1, R = 4. −1 < x < 3, R =2
2
5. All x, R → ∞ 6. −1 < x < 1, R =1
7. All x, R → ∞ 8. −8 < x < −2, R =3
9. =x 3,=
R 0 10. All x, R → ∞

Lesson 3.5. Taylor and Maclaurin series

Learning objectives
Using power series, learners should be able to give general form
of a Taylor and Maclaurin series without errors.
Prerequisites
• Power series
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

142
 Activity 3.5

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

f ( x ) =c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) + c3 ( x − a ) + c4 ( x − a ) + ... + cn ( x − a ) + ...

2 3 4 n
1.
f ( a ) = c0

f '( x) =
c1 + 2c2 ( x − a ) + 3c3 ( x − a ) + 4c4 ( x − a ) + ... + ncn ( x − a ) + ...
2 3 n −1
2.
f ' ( a ) = c1

f ' ( x ) = 2 × c2 + 3 × 2 × c3 ( x − a ) + 4 × 3 × c4 ( x − a ) + ... + n ( n − 1) cn ( x − a ) + ...

2 n−2
3.
f '' ( a )
f '' ( a )= 2!c2 ⇒ c2=
2!
f ''' ( x ) = 3 × 2 × c3 + 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 ( x − a ) + ... + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) cn ( x − a ) + ...
n −3
4.
f ''' ( a )
f ''' ( a ) = 3 × 2 × c3 = 3!c3 ⇒ c3 =
3!
f( ( x ) = 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 + ... + n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )( n − 3) cn ( x − a )
iv ) n−4
5. + ...
f ( ) (a)
iv

f ( a ) = 4 × 3 × 2 × c4 = 4!c4 ⇒ c2 =
( iv )
4!
6. Now, we can see the pattern. If we continue to
differentiate and substitute x = a , we obtain
f ( n ) ( a ) = n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )( n − 3) ...1× cn or using
factorial notation; f ( n ) ( a ) = n !cn

f (n) ( a )
Solving we get cn =
n!

143
 7. Now,
f '(a) f '' ( a ) f ''' ( a )
f ( x=
) f (a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a)
2 3

1! 2! 3!
f (a)
( iv )
f (a)
(n)
( x − a ) + ... + ( x − a ) + ...
4 n
+
4! n!
Using sigma notation, we can write,
∞
f(
n)
(a)
f ( x) ∑ ( x − a)
n
=
n =0 n!
Synthesis
As conclusion, the Taylor series for f ( x ) is given by
∞
f(
n)
( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 )
n
= and the Maclaurin series is
n =0 n!
given by
∞
f (n) ( 0 ) n
f ( x) = ∑ x
n =0 n!
f ' ( 0) f '' ( 0 ) 2 f ''' ( 0 ) 3 f ( ) ( 0) n
n

= f ( 0) + x+ x + x + ... + x + ...
1! 2! 3! n!

Application Activity 3.55

a) 6 − 11( x + 2 ) + 6 ( x + 2 ) − ( x + 2 ) + ...
2 3

( −1) ( −1)
n n
∞ ∞

∑ ( x − 2) ∑ ( 2 x − 1)
n n
b) c)
n =0 2 k +1
n =0 k !e

( −1)  x − π 2 n + ∞ ( −1)
n n 2 n +1
∞
 π
d) ∑   ∑ x− 
= ( 2n )! 2  4  n 0 ( 2n + 1)!
n 0= 2 4

Lesson 3.6. Taylor series by using Maclaurin

series
Learning objectives
By using Maclaurin series ( x0 = 0 ) without necessary using Taylor’s
formula, learners should be able to find the Taylor series for other
functions accurately.

144
 Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 3.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. a) sin x
=f ( x ) sin
= x f ( 0) 0
=f ' ( x ) cos
= x f ' ( 0) 1
f '' ( x ) =
− sin x f '' ( 0 ) =
0
f ''' ( x ) =
− cos x f ''' ( 0 ) =
−1
=f ( 4) ( x ) sin
= x f ( 4) ( 0 ) 0

Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can write the
Maclaurin series as follows:
1 0 −1 0
sin x =
0+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x3 x5 x 7
=x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
∞
x 2 n +1
= ∑ ( −1)
n

n =0 ( 2n + 1)!
b) cos x
=f ( x ) cos
= x f ( 0) 1
f '( x) =
− sin x f ' ( 0) =
0
f '' ( x ) =
− cos x f '' ( 0 ) =
−1
=f ''' ( x ) sin
= x f ''' ( 0 ) 0
=f ( 4) ( x ) cos
= x f ( 4) ( 0 ) 1


145
 Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can write the
Maclaurin series as follows:
0 −1 0 1
cos x =
1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x2 x4 x6
1
=− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
2n
n x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =0 ( 2n ) !
Alternative method
d
Since cos x = ( sin x ) , we can differentiate the Maclaurin
dx
series for sin x obtained in a) to get one for cos x . That, is,
d d  x3 x5 x 7 
cos =
x ( sin x=)  x − + − + ... 
dx dx  3! 5! 7! 
x x4 x6
2
1
=− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
2n
n x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =0 ( 2n ) !
c) ln (1 + x )
f ( x) =
ln (1 + x ) f ( 0) =
0
1
=f '( x) = f ' ( 0) 1
1+ x
1
f '' ( x ) =
− f '' ( 0 ) =
−1
(1 + x )
2

2
=f ''' ( x ) = f ''' ( 0 ) 2
(1 + x )
3

6
f ( 4) ( x ) =
− f ( 4) ( 0 ) =
−6
(1 + x )
4


Now,
1 −1 2 −6 4
ln (1 + x ) =0 + x + x 2 + x3 + x + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4
=x − + − + ...
2 3 4
n
n −1 x
∞
= ∑ ( −1)
n =1 n

146
 2. From results in 1),

( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x)

3 5 7

sin 2 x =
2x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
4 4 8 7
=2 x − x3 + x 5 − x + ...
3 15 315
( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x)
2 4 6

cos 2 x =
1− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
2 4 4 6
1 − 2x2 +
= x − x + ...
3 45
( 2x) ( 2x) ( 2x)
2 3 4

ln (1 + 2 x ) 2x −
= + − + ...
2 3 4
8
=2 x − 2 x 2 + x 3 − 4 x 4 + ...
3
Synthesis
As conclusion, in calculating the limit of some functions, find
the Maclaurin series for the transcendental functions contained
in the given function, simplify and then evaluate the limit.

Application Activity 3.56

1 ( x − 3) ( x − 3) n ( x − 3)
2 n

1. a) − 2
+ 3
+  + ( −1) +
3 3 3 3n +1
x x2 x n −1
b) 1 + + +  + +
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
c) 1 − x 2 + x 4 −  + ( −1)
n +1
x 2n−2 + 
3! 5! ( 2n − 1)!
π2 π4 π 2n
2 ( ) 4 ( ) ( ) 2n ( x − 2) + 
2 4 n 2n
d) 1 − x − 2 + x − 2 −  + −1
4 2! 4 4! 4 ( 2n ) !
∞
22 n −1 2 n x n+2
∞
2. a) 1 + ∑ ( −1) b) ∑
n
x
n =1 ( 2n ) ! n =0 k !

1 3 1 6 5 2
c) 1 − x − x − ... d) 1 + 2 x + x + ...
2 8 2

147
Lesson 3.7. Calculation of limits
Learning objectives
Given a function involving transcendental functions and by using
Maclaurin series, learners should be able to evaluate its limit at a
given point correctly.
Prerequisites
࿌ Maclaurin series of some functions like
e x , sin x, cos x, tan x, ln x,...
࿌ Limits concepts.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 3.7

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
9 3
1. cos 4 x = 1 − 8 x 2 and sin 3=
x 3x − x
2
 9 
1 − (1 − 8 x 2 ) + x  3 x − x 3 
2.
1 − cos 4 x + x sin 3 x  2 
2
= 2
x x
9 9
1 − 1 + 8 x 2 + 3 x 2 − x 4 11x 2 − x 4
= 2 = 2 = 11 − 9 x 2
2 2
x x 2
1 − cos 4 x + x sin 3 x  9 
Then lim 2
= lim 11 − x 2  = 11
x →0 x x →0
 2 

148
 Synthesis
As conclusion, find the Maclaurin series for the
transcendental functions contained in the given function,
simplify and then evaluate the limit.

Application Activity 3.57

1 1
1) − 2) 2 3) 4) 0
2 2

Lesson 3.8. Estimation of the number e

Learning objectives
Given number e and by using Maclaurin series of e x , learners
should be able to estimate this number to some decimal places
perfectly.
Prerequisites
Maclaurin series of e x
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 3.8

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6 x 7 x8 x9 x10 x11 x12 xn
1 x+
e x =+ + + + + + + + + + + + ... + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9! 10! 11! 12! n!
Putting x = 1 , we have
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
e =1 + 1 + + + + + + + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9! 10! 11! 12!

149
 Since we need this number to 8 decimal places, we will stop when
−8 1
we reach the decimal term less than 10 . Here, 2 ×10−9 < 10−8
=
12!
1
, so we will stop at
12!
Then,
e ≈ 2 + 0.5 + 0.1666667 + 0.04166667 + 0.00833333 + 0.00138889
+ 0.00019841 + 0.00002480 + 0.00000275 + 0.00000027
+ 0.00000003 + 0.00000000 ≈ 2.71828182
Synthesis
By putting x = 1 in the development of e , we can easily estimate
the value of the number e to desired decimal places.

Application Activity 3.58

1. e ≈ 2.71 2. e ≈ 2.7182
3. e ≈ 2.718281 4. e ≈ 2.7182818284

Lesson 3.9. Estimation of the number π

Learning objectives
Given number π and by using Maclaurin series of arctan x ,
learners should be able to estimate this number to some decimal
places perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series of arctan x .
• Change degrees to radians.
• Find trigonometric number of an angle.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 3.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication

150
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. Let f ( x ) = arctan x
1
f '( x) = 2
⇒ f ' ( 0) = 1
x +1
−2 x
f '' ( x=) ⇒ f '' ( 0=) 0
( )2 2
x + 1
6 x2 − 2
f ''' ( x ) = 3 ⇒ f ''' ( 0 ) =
−2
( )
x 2
+ 1
−24 x3 + 24 x
( x)
( 4)
f = ( 0) 0
⇒ f ( 4)=
( x + 1)
2 4

120 x 4 − 240 x 2 + 24
f ( x)
= ( 5)
⇒ f (5) ( 0 ) 24
=
(x + 1)
2 5

−720 x5 + 2400 x3 − 720 x

=f ( 6) ( x ) = ⇒ f ( 6) ( 0 ) 0
( x + 1)
2 6

5040 x 6 − 25200 x 4 + 15120 x 2 − 720

f (7) ( x ) = ⇒ f (7) ( 0 ) =
−720
( )2 7
x + 1
2 3 24 5 720 7
Then, arctan x =
x− x + x − x + ...
3! 5! 7!
Or
2 n +1
1 1 1 n x
arctan x = x − x 3 + x 5 − x 7 + ... + ( −1) + ...
3 5 7 2n + 1
2 n +1
n x
The general term is ( −1)
2n + 1

151
 3 3 π
2. tan x= ⇒ x= arctan ⇒ x=
3 3 6
Synthesis
By using the series
2 n +1
1 1 1 n x
arctan x = x − x 3 + x 5 − x 7 + ... + ( −1) + ... ,
3 5 7 2n + 1
π
and x = ⇒ π = 6x we get that
6
 3
 3  3
 3
5 7
 3
2 n +1

        
 3  3   3 
 3  n  3  
π 6 −
= + − +  + ( −1) + 
 3 3 5 7 2n + 1 
 
 
3 5 7 2 n +1
 3  3  3  3
       
3  3   3   3   3 
+ ... + ( −1) 6
n
π 6
= −6 +6 −6 + ...
or 3 3 5 7 2n + 1
we can easily estimate the number π .

Application Activity 3.59

1. π ≈ 3.141 2. π ≈ 3.14159
3. π ≈ 3.1415926 4. π ≈ 3.141592653

Lesson 3.10. Estimation of trigonometric number of

an angle
Learning objectives
Given an angle and by using Maclaurin series of trigonometric
functions, learners should be able to estimate the trigonometric
number of that angle accurately.
Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series of trigonometric functions
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

152
 Activity 3.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x3 x5 x 7 x 2 n +1
+ − + ... + ( −1)
n
1. sin x = x − + ...
3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
π
2. If x = , we get
4
3 5 7 2 n +1
π  π  π  π 
  
π π 4 4 4     
n  4 
sin = − + − + ... + ( −1) + ...
4 4 3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
π
Since we need sin to 4 decimal places, we will
4 −4
stop when we reach the decimal term less than 10 .
7 7
π  π 
   
4 4
Here,   =3 ×10−5 < 10−4 , so we will stop at
7! 7!
Then,
3 5 7
π  π  π 
π π  4   4   4 
sin =− + −
4 4 3! 5! 7!
= 0.7854 − 0.0807 + 0.0024 − 0.0000
= 0.7071

Remember that on the right hand side π is replaced

by 3.1415... not 180
0

153
 Synthesis
x being expressed in radian, we can approximate the value
of any trigonometric number using the series of trigonometric
functions.

Application Activity 3.60

1. 0.866 2. 0.017452
3. 0.4226 4. −0.70711

Lesson 3.11. Estimation of an irrational number

Learning objectives
Given an irrational number and by using Maclaurin series of
(1 + x ) , learners should be able to estimate correctly that irrational
m

number to some decimal places accurately.

Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series of (1 + x ) .
m

Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 3.11
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. 1, 4,9,16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121,...
2. 2,8,18,32, 50, 72, 98, 128, 162, 200, 242,...

154
 3. Take 49 and 50. Their ratio is 0.98, closed to 1. We can
also take 121 and 128. If we extend the sequence,
we can get other two numbers, 289 and 288. Their
ratio is 1.003.
4. Now take 289 and 288, try to transform 2 . Knowing
that 288= 2 × 144 , we have

289 × 2 ×144 17 2 ×144 17 288 17 1

=2 = = = 1−
289 ×144 12 289 12 289 12 289

Synthesis
Using the Maclaurin series of (1 + x ) for x < 1 , we can estimate
m

any irrational number like 2, 3, 3

5, ...

Procedure:
Suppose that we need to estimate the value of n
a to 6 decimal
places.
1. Write down a sequence of natural numbers to the
power n (as we need nth root).
2. Multiply each term in obtained sequence from 1)
by the radicand (here radicand is a).
3. Take two numbers from sequence in 1) and
another from sequence in 2) such that their ratio
is closed to 1.
Using the obtained numbers from 3), transform the radicand
so that it differs little from 1, then use expansion of (1 + x ) to
n

get n
a.

Application Activity 3.61

1. 3 ≈ 1.732 2. 5 ≈ 2.2361
3. 3
2 = 1.259921 4.
3
4 = 1.587401

155
Lesson 3.12. Estimation of roots of equations
Learning objectives
Given an equation and by using Maclaurin series, learners should
be able to estimate the roots of that equations accurately.
Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series of transcendental functions
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 3.12

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x2
1. ln (1 + x ) =x −
2
x2
2. The equation ln (1 + x ) + x =0 becomes x − +x=0
2
x2
or 2 x − 0
=
2
x2  x
3. 2 x − =0 ⇒ x  2 −  =0
2  2
x
x = 0 or 2 − = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 4
2
4. If x = 0 , ln (1 + 0 ) + 0 = 0 ⇔ 0 = 0 TRUE

If x = 4 , ln (1 + 4 ) + 0 = 0 ⇔ ln 5 = 0 FALSE
Hence, S = {0}

156
 Synthesis
The nth order Maclaurin polynomial is helpful to estimate the
roots of a given equation involving transcendental functions.

Application Activity 3.62

 10 10  1 
S = 
1. S = − ,  2.
 5 5  2
 4
3. S = 0, 
 7

3.6. Summary of the unit

1. Generalities on series
࿌ Definitions
A finite series is an expression of the form u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un or in
n

sigma notation ∑u
k =1
k ,
where the index of summation, k , takes consecutive integer
values from the lower limit, 1, to the upper limit, n . The terms
u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un are called terms of the series and the term un is the
general term.
n

To obtain ∑u
k =1
k , the method of difference is usually used i.e.
n

∑u n = f (1) − f ( n + 1) where uk = f ( k ) − f ( k + 1) , with

k =1

f ( k ) a function of k .
࿌ Convergence and divergence of a series
+∞
Let {sn } be the sequence of partial sums of the series ∑u k =1
k . If the
sequence {sn } converges to a limit S , then

157
the series is said to converge and S is called the sum of the series.
+∞
We denote this by writing S = ∑ uk .
k =1

If the sequence of partial sums of a series diverges, then the series

is said to diverge. A divergent series has no sum.

Comparison test
∞
Let ∑a
n =1
n
be a series with positive terms.
∞
a) ∑a
n =1
n converges if there exists a convergent series
∞

∑b
n =1
such that an ≤ bn for all n > N , where N is some
n

positive integer.
∞ ∞

b) ∑ an diverges if there exists a divergent series ∑c

n =1
n
n =1

such that an ≥ cn for all n > N , where N is some positive

integer.

Limit comparison test

∞ ∞
If the series ∑a n and ∑b
n =1
n are two series with positive
n =1

an
terms, and lim is finite, both series converge or diverge.
n →∞ b
n
The ratio test
∞
Let ∑u
n =1
n
be a series with positive terms and let

un +1
lim = L , then,
n →∞ un
a) the series converges if L < 1 ,
b) the series diverges if L > 1 ,
c) the series may or may not converge if L = 1 (i.e., the test is
inconclusive).

158
The nth root test
∞

Let ∑u
n =1
n be a series with positive terms and let

lim n un = L , then,
n →∞

a) the series converges if L < 1 ,

b) the series diverges if L > 1 ,
c) the test is inconclusive L = 1 .

2. Power series
Power series is like an infinite polynomial. It has the form
∞

∑ a ( x − c) = a0 + a1 ( x − c ) + a2 ( x − c ) + ... + an ( x − c ) + ...
n 2 n
n
n =0
Here, c is any real number and a series of this form is called a
power series centred at c .
∞
f ( x) ∑ a ( x − c)
n
Let= n be the function defined by this power
n =0

series. f ( x ) is only defined if the power series converges, so

we will consider the domain of the function f to be the set of x
values for which the series converges. There are three possible
cases:
࿌ The power series converges at x = c . Here, the radius of
convergence is zero.

࿌ The power series converges for all x , i.e ]−∞, +∞[ . Here, the
radius of convergence is infinity.
࿌ There is a number R called the radius of convergence such
that the series converges for all c − R < x < c + R and the
series diverges outside this interval.

3. Taylor and Maclaurin series

If f ( x ) is a function defined on the open interval ( a, b ) ,

159
 and which can be differentiated ( n + 1) times on ( a, b ) , then the
equality
∞
f(
n)
( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 ) + Rn +1 ( x )
n
=
n =0 n!
for any values of x and x0 in ( a, b ) is called Taylor’s formula
Rn +1 ( x ) is called the remainder function.
The resulting function (without Rn +1 ( x ) ) is called the Taylor
expansion of f ( x ) with respect to about the point x = x0 of order
n.
One of the most common forms of the remainder function is the
Lagrange form:

( x − x0 ) f ( n+1) x + θ x − x
n +1

=Rn +1 ( x ) ( 0 ( 0 )) where 0 < θ < 10 .

( n + 1)!
If lim Rn +1 ( x ) = 0 for some terms in
n →∞

∞
f(
n)
( x0 )
f ( x) ∑ ( x − x0 ) + Rn +1 ( x ) , then the infinite
n
=
n =0 n!
series
∞
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x0 ) + ∑
f ( x) = ( x − x0 )
n

n =1 n!
is called the Taylor series for f ( x ) .
A Maclaurin series is a Taylor series with x0 = 0

Note that if f ( x ) is a polynomial of degree, then it will have utmost

only n non-zero derivatives; all other higher-order derivatives will
be identically equal to zero.
The following series are very important. All of them are Maclaurin
series ( x0 = 0 ) and, it is possible to find the Taylor series for other
functions by using these formulae without necessarily using
Taylor’s formula.

160
 x 2 x3 xn
a) e =1 + x +
x
+ + + +
2! 3! n!
3 5
x x x 2 n −1
b) sin x = x − + +  + ( −1)
n −1
+
3! 5! ( 2n − 1)!
x2 x4 n x
2n

c) cos x = 1 − + +  + ( −1)
2! 4! ( 2n ) !
d) If −1 < x < 1 , then

m ( m − 1) m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) x 3 m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) ( m − n
(1 + x )
m
=1 + mx + x2 + + +
2! 3! n!
m − 1) m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) x 3
m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) ( m − n + 1) x n

x2 + + + +
2! 3! n!

Particularly, if x < 1 , then

1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 +  + ( −1) x n + 
n

1+ x
( −1) x n + 
n −1
x 2 x3
ln (1 + x ) =x − + +  +
If −1 < x ≤ 1 , then 2 3 n

3.7. End of Unit Assessment

1 3 5 2 13 1 4 5 3 37 2
1. a) n + n + n b) n + n + n + 15n
3 2 6 4 2 4
1 1 1 1 37 
c) −  + + − 
3  n + 4 n + 5 n + 6 60 
1 3 3 2 7 1 1 1 1
d) n + n + n e) −  − − 
3 2 6 2  n +1 n + 2 2 
233 50 11
2. a) b) c)
990 99 999
7 1 b) −1 < x < 1, r =1
3. a) − < x < ,r = 2
2 2
c) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, r =1 d) −2 < x < 2, r =2

e) −2 ≤ x < 2, r =2 f) − 3 < x < 3 , r =3

2 2 2

161
 ( x − 1) ( x − 1) ( x − 1)
2 3 4

4. a) ( x − 1) − + − + ...
2 3 2
b) 1 − ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) + ...
2 3

 
2
π  π
3

  x−  x−  
2  π  4  4
c) 1+  x −  − − − ...
2   4 2 6 
 
 
2 4
 1  1
x−  x− 
2 2
5. 1− π 2  +π 4  + ...
2! 4!
5 ( x − 1) + 6 ( x − 1) + 4 ( x − 1) + ( x − 1)
2 3 4
6.

( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3 4

( x − 1) e + ( x − 1)
2
7. e+ e+ e
2 6
x4 2 x6 x3 3x5
b) x + +
2
8. a) x − +
3 45 2 8
3
2 x
c) x − x +
3 6
d) x − x + x
2
x 2
x 3  x3 x5  ∞
x 2 n −1
9. x − + − ... ; 2  x + + + ...  = 2∑
2 3  3 5  n =1 2n − 1

x 2 x 3 . The absolute value

10. ln (1 + x ) =x −+
2 3
of the remainder term in Lagrange form is
6x4 x4
= where 0 < c < x . The maximum
(1 + c ) 4 (1 + c )
4 4
4!
value of the remainder term is obtained where c = 0
x 4 . We must then have x 4
and so, equals < 5 ×10−4
4 4
and so x < 0.211 .
11. a) sin π = 0 b) cos e

2 x4 x6
12. x − + − ...
3! 5!

162
 1
− 2
1  v  2 2
1 v2 3  v2 
13. γ= = 1 − 2  1+
= +   + ...
v 2
 c  2 c2 8  c2 
1− 2
c
And so
 1 v 2 3  v 2 2  1 2 3 2  v2 
2
2
K = 1 + + + ... − 1 mc = mv + mv  2  + ...
 2 c 2 8  c 2   2 8 c 
 
1 2
This is approximately K = mv if v << c since the
2
neglected terms are small.
x2 5x4 1
14. 1− + + ... ;
2 24 2
x3 x5 1
15. x− + + ... ;
3 10 3
16. −1 + 2

x 2 x3 x 4 x x 2 x3
17. x− + − + ... and 1 − + − + ...
2 3 4 2 3 4
x 3x 2
18. 1− + + ...
2 8
19. 1 + x 2 + x 4 + ...

20. 1 11x 49 x 2 179 x 3

+ + + + ...
6 36 216 1296
7 x 3 27 x 5 7
21. x− + + ... , limit is −
6 40 6
2 4
x x
22. 1 + x + − + ...
2 8
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
23. eiθ =1 + iθ − −i + +i + ... ,
2! 3! 4! 5!
θ2 θ4  θ3 θ5 
eiθ =1 − + ... + i  θ − + + ... 
+
2! 4!  3! 5! 
Substituting θ = π gives
eiπ =cos π + i sin π =−1 ⇒ eiπ + 1 =0

x 2x2
24. a) 1 + − + ...
3 9

163
 3 1 1
b) n3 + 1= n 3 1 + 3
. In a) put x = 3 ,
n n

3 1  1 2 
n3 + 1= n 3 1 + 3
= n 1 + 3 − 6 + ... 
n  3n 9n 
1 2
n
=+ 2
− 5 + ...
3n 9n
and,
3 1 2
n3 + 1 − n = n +2
− 5 + ... − n
3n 9n
1 2
= 2 − 5 + ...
3n 9n
1
≈ 2 when n is large
3n
1
c) Use the limit comparison test with the series
3n 2

164
 Unit 4 Integration

4.1. Key unit competence

Use integration as the inverse of differentiation and as the limit
of a sum then apply it to find area of plane surfaces, volumes of
solid of revolution, lengths of curved lines.

4.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Primitive function of function f ( x ) : Is a function
F ( x ) such that F ' ( x ) = f ( x ) .
Integration: Process of finding primitive functions (or
anti derivative functions).
Indefinite integrals: Primitive functions.
Definite integrals: Primitive functions evaluated at a
given closed interval.
Improper integrals: Definite integrals involving
infinity limits or a discontinuous point in
the interval of integration.
Volume of revolution: Volume obtained when a curve
of a function or a surface between two
curves is revolved around an axis.

4.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, then assign them to do the
introductory activity from the student’s book. As they are
working, move around to each group and ask them probing
questions leading them to the right way. After a while, invite
some group to present their findings in a whole class discussion.
Guide students to harmonize their answers and arouse their
curiosity to the content of this unit.

165
4.4. List of lessons
No Lesson title Number of
periods
1 Differentials 2
2 Definition of indefinite integrals 1
3 Properties of integrals 1
4 Integration by substitution 1
5 Integration of rational function where 2
numerator is expressed in terms of
derivative of denominator
6 Integration of rational function where 2
degree of numerator is greater or equal
to the degree of denominator
7 Integration of rational function where 2
denominator is factorised into linear
factors
8 Integration of rational function where 2
denominator is a quadratic factor
9 Integral of the form 2
∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx
10
∫ sin 2
m
Integral of the form x cos n x dx

11
∫ tan 2
m
Integral of the form x sec n x dx
Integral containing sin x, cos x, tan x on
12 2
denominator
Integral containing sin 2 x, cos 2 x on
13 2
denominator
14 Integral containing n
ax + b 2

15 Integral containing ax 2 + bx + c 2
16 Integration by parts 2
17 Integration by reduction formulae 2
18 Integration by Maclaurin series 1
19 Definition of definite integrals 1

166
20 Properties of definite integrals 1
21 Improper integrals: Infinite limits of 1
integration
22 Discontinuous integrand 1
23 Calculation of area of plane surface 2
24 Calculation of volume of solid of 2
revolution
25 Calculation of arc length of curved lines 2
Total periods 42

4.5. Lesson development

Lesson 4.1. Differentials

Learning objectives
Given a function, learners should be able to find differential of that
function and the percentage error perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Differentiation of a function
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

167
 Answers

π
a) If y= sin x, x= , ∆x= 0.006 then,
3
π  1
=dy cos= xdx cos =  dx ( 0.006
= ) 0.003
3 2
Thus, the change in the value of sin x is approximately
0.003 .
π  π 3
b) sin  + 0.006  ≈ sin + 0.003 = + 0.003 =0.869
3  3 2
Synthesis
As conclusion,

Differential dy is given by dy = f ' ( x ) dx for y = f ( x )

Whenever one makes an approximation, it is wise to try and
∆x
estimate how big the error might be. Relative change in x is
x
∆x
and percentage change in x is 100 × .
x

Application Activity 4.63

4
df
1. a) = ( 2 x − 3) dx b) df = − 2
dx
x + 4x + 4
3
c) df = − dx
8 2− x
2. +2 3. 1.75% 4. ±10

Lesson 4.2. Definition of indefinite integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define indefinite
integrals rightfully.
Prerequisites
• Derivative of a function
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

168
 Activity 4.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x2
a) x 3 + c, c∈ b) + c, c ∈ 
2
1
c) 2 x, c∈ d) + c, c ∈ 
x
Synthesis
As conclusion, the function F ( x ) is an indefinite integral of
f ( x ) if F ' ( x ) = f ( x ) .

Application Activity 4.64

1. 2 x 2 − 5 x + c 2. 2 x3 + 2 x 2 + 3x + c
1 4 1 3 1 2
3. x + x + x +c 4. 3 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 16 x + c
4 3 2
8
5. 5x + c 6. − x3 + 9 x 2 − 9 x + c
3
2 5 4 5 4 3
7. x − x3 − 5 x + c 8. x − x + x+c
5 5 3
1 4
9. x − 2 x3 + 6 x 2 − 8 x + c
4

Lesson 4.3. Properties of integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to use properties of
indefinite integrals accurately.

169
Prerequisites
Integrals of simple functions.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 4.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Self confidence
• Communication
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. ∫ f (=
x ) dx ∫ cos
= xdx sin ( x ) + c

d ∫ f ( x ) dx d sin ( x ) + c 
= = cos x
dx dx
d
f ( x ) dx = f ( x )
dx ∫
Observation:

2. Differential of f ( x ) is df = cos xdx

∫=
df ∫ cos =
xdx sin x + c

( x) f ( x) + c
Observation: ∫ df=
3x 2
3. ∫ 3x=
dx
2
+ c and

 x2  3x 2 3x 2
3∫ x dx = 3  + k  = + 3k = +c
 2  2 2

170
 Observation: ∫ k f ( x ) dx = k ∫ f ( x ) dx , k ∈ 
∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ g ( x ) dx= ∫ ( x + 3x − 1) dx + ∫ ( x + 2 x + 2 )
3 2
4.
x 4 3x 2 x3
= + − x + + x2 + 2x + c
4 2 3
4 3 2
x x 5x
= + + + x+c
4 3 2
= ∫ ( x + 3 x − 1 + x + 2 x + 2 )dx
∫  f ( x ) + g ( x ) dx
3 2

= ∫ ( x + x + 5 x + 1)dx
3 2

x 4 x3 5 x 2
= + + + x+c
4 3 2
Observation:

∫  f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
d
5. cos ( 2 x + 3) = − ( 2 x + 3) 'sin ( 2 x + 3) =−2sin ( 2 x + 3)
dx
1
∫ − sin ( 2 x + 3=
)  dx cos ( 2 x + 3) + c
2
6. Hence;
1
∫ f ( ax + b=
) dx
a
F ( ax + b ) + c a , b, c ∈  , a ≠ 0

Synthesis
1. The derivative of the indefinite integral is equal to
the function to be integrated.
d
f ( x ) dx = f ( x )
dx ∫
2. The integral of differential of a function is equal to
the sum of that function and an arbitrary constant.

( x)
∫ df= f ( x) + c

3. Each constant function may be pulled out of integral

sign.

∫ k f ( x ) dx k ∫ f ( x ) dx, k ∈ 
=

171
 4. The indefinite integral of the algebraic sum of two functions
is equal to the algebraic sum of the indefinite integrals of
those functions.

∫  f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
5. If F ( x ) is a primitive function of f ( x ) , then, the integral
1
∫ f ( ax + b=
) dx
a
F ( ax + b ) + c a , b, c ∈  , a ≠ 0

Application Activity 4.65

( )
1. 4 ∫ f ( x ) dx = 4 x + 2 x + c = 4 x + 8 x + k Where
2 2

4c = k Which is constant.
2 2
∫  g ( x ) − = g ( x ) dx − ∫ 6dx 
5 ∫
2. 6  dx
5 
2
g ( x ) dx − 6 ∫ dx 
5 ∫
=

2 3
=
5
( x − 3x 2 − 4 x + k − 6 x )
2 3
=
5
( x − 3 x 2 − 10 x + k )
2 3 6 2 2
= x − x − 4x + k
5 5 5
2 3 6 2
= x − x − 4x + c
5 5
3. ∫  f ( x ) + 3g ( x ) dx =∫ f ( x ) dx + 3∫ g ( x ) dx
= x 2 + 2 x + c + 3 ( x3 − 3x 2 − 4 x + k )
= x 2 + 2 x + c + 3 x 3 − 9 x 2 − 12 x + 3k
= 3 x 3 − 8 x 2 − 10 x + d
where d is a constant.
d
 2 f ( x ) − 3 g ( x )  dx =
2 f ( x ) − 3g ( x )
dx ∫ 
4.

(
= 2 ( 2 x + 2 ) − 3 3x 2 − 6 x − 4 )
= 4 x + 4 − 9 x 2 + 18 x + 12
−9 x 2 + 22 x + 16
=

172
Lesson 4.4. Integration by substitution
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to find integrals by
substitution method correctly.
Prerequisites
• Differentiation of a function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.4

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
u = 5 x + 2 ⇒ du = 5dx
du 1 u
∫e dx = ∫ eu
5 x+2
=e +c
5 5
1 u 1 5 x+2
5∫
= e du = e +c
5

Synthesis
Integration by substitution is based on rule for differentiating
composite functions. Substitution means to let f ( x ) be a
function of another function.
In ∫ f ( x ) dx , let x be x ( t ) ; thus, dx = x ' ( t ) dt and then we get
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ( t ) ) x ' ( t ) dt that is a formula of integration by
substitution.

173
 Application Activity 4.66
x e +1 1 x3
1. a) ex − +c b) e +c
e +1 3
1
1 2x 1 2
c) e + 2e x + x + c d) − ex + c
2 2
x
( )
e) sin e + c f) 1. f ) ∫ e3cos 2 x sin 2 xdx

et 1
by letting t = 3cos 2 x to get ∫− 6
dt =− et + c =
6
1
− e3cos 2 x + c
6
1
g) sin ( ln x ) + c ( 4 x3 − 12 ) + c
3
h)
36
2. 100 m

Lesson 4.5. Integration of rational functions where

numerator is expressed in terms of
derivative of denominator
Learning objectives
Given a rational function where numerator is expressed in terms
of derivative of denominator, learners should be able to find
primitive function moderately.
Prerequisites
• Derivative of ln  g ( x )  .
• Derivative of arctan  g ( x )  .
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 4.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-cutting
issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

174
Answers

1
1. We see that 1 − x 2 ' = (
−2 x ⇒ x = )
− 1 − x 2 ' . So, we can
2
( )
write
1
x
−
2
(1 − x2 ) '
∫ dx = ∫ dx
(1 − x )2 2
(1 − x2 )
2

1 (1 − x ) '
2

= − ∫ dx
2 (1 − x 2 )2
/
1  1 g'
= +c since   =− 2
2 (1 − x )
2
 g g
2. We see that
1 2
( 3x 2
− 3x + 1) ' = 6 x − 3 = 3 ( 2 x − 1) ⇒ 2 x − 1 =
3
( 3x − 3x + 1) '
So, we can write
1 2
2x −1 3
( 3x − 3x + 1) '
∫ 3x2 − 3x + 1 dx = ∫ 3x 2 − 3x + 1 dx
1 ( 3x − 3x + 1) '
2

= ∫ dx
3 3x 2 − 3x + 1
1 u'
= ln 3x 2 − 3x + 1 + c since ( ln
= u)'
3 u
Synthesis
The following basic integration formulae are most helpful:
u' u' 1 u'
, ∫ 2 dx = and ∫ 2= dx arctan u + c
∫u= dx ln u + c
u
−
u
+ c
u +1

Application Activity 4.67

1 1
1. − +c 2. +c
2 ( x + 2 x + 3)
2
2 (1 − x 2 )
1 1
3. − +c 4. − +c
6 ( 2 x3 + 5) 4 ( x 2 + 2 x + 5)
2

175
Lesson 4.6. Integration of rational functions where
degree of numerator is greater or
equal to the degree of denominator
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where degree of numerator is greater
or equal to the degree of denominator, learners should be able to
find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
• Long division of polynomials.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 4.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. 2x + 4 2 26 ; 2 26
= + x + ln 5 x − 3 + c
5 x − 3 5 25 x − 15 5 25
2
1 − 3 x ; x − 3 ln x 2 + 1 − arctan x + 1 + c
2. x − 3x + 2
2
= 1+ 2
2
( )
x +1 x +1

3.
x2 + 1 2 ; x2
= x +1+ + x + 2 ln x − 1 + c
x −1 x −1 2
x3 + 2 x − 4 4 x2 2x
4. 2
= x − 2
; − 2 2 arctan +c
x +2 x +2 2 2
Synthesis
f ( x)
If we want to find∫ g ( x ) dx when the degree of f ( x ) is
greater than the degree of g ( x ) , we proceed by long division

176
 f ( x) r ( x)
to find ∫= dx ∫ q ( x ) dx + ∫ dx where
g ( x) g ( x)
q ( x ) is the quotient, r ( x ) the remainder and then integrate
the new expression on the right hand side.

Application Activity 4.68

1 2 1
1. x − ln ( x 2 + 1) − 2 arctan x + c
2 2
1 2
2. − ln x − 1 − ln x + 2 + x + c
3 3
1 13 1
3. ln x − ln 3 x − 2 − x + c
6 54 9
1 3
4.
3
( )
x + a 3 ln x3 − a 3 + c

5.
1 2
x − 26 ln x + 3 + 63ln x + 4 − 7 x + c
2

Lesson 4.7. Integration of rational functions where

denominator is factorised into linear
factors
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where denominator is factorised into
linear factors, learners should be able to find primitive function
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Factorise completely a polynomial.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 4.7
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

177
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. x2 + 2x = x ( x + 2)
x−2 A B A ( x + 2 ) + Bx
=+ =
x2 + 2 x x x + 2 x2 + 2 x
x − 2= A ( x + 2 ) + Bx
Solving, we get
 A = −1

B = 2
Then,
x−2 1 2
2
=− +
x + 2x x x+2
x−2 dx 2
And ∫x
2
+ 2x
dx = −∫ + ∫
x x+2
dx

=− ln x + 2 ln x + 2 + c
( x + 2)
2

= ln x + ln ( x + 2 ) + =
2
c ln +c
x
2. x 2 + 3x + 2 = ( x + 1)( x + 2 )
x A B A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)
2
= + =
x + 3x + 2 x + 1 x + 2 x 2 + 3x + 2
x= A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1)
Solving we get,
 A = −1

B = 2
Then,
x 1 2
2
=
− +
x + 3x + 2 x +1 x + 2

178
 Therefore;
x dx 2
∫x 2
+ 3x + 2
−∫
dx =
x +1
+∫
x+2
dx

=− ln x + 1 + 2 ln x + 2 + c
( x + 2)
2

= ln x + 1 + ln ( x + 2 ) + c=
2
ln +c
x +1

3. 2 A B
=
2
+
x −1 x −1 x +1
2 A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 1)
=
x2 −1 x2 −1
2= A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 1)
Solving, we get
A =1 2 1 1
 = −
 B = −1
2
x −1 x −1 x +1
2 dx dx
Then, ∫ 2 = dx ∫ −∫
x −1 x −1 x +1
x −1
= ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 + c= ln +c
x +1

4. 2x − 3
2
x −x−2
x2 − x − 2 = ( x − 2 )( x + 1)
2x − 3 A B A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 2 )
2
= + =
x − x − 2 x − 2 x +1 x2 − x − 2
3 A ( x + 1) + B ( x − 2 )
2x − =
Solving, we get

 1
 A = 3 2x − 3 1 5
 = +
x − x − 2 3 ( x − 2 ) 3 ( x + 1)
2
B = 5
 3
Finally,
2x − 3 dx 5
∫x 2
=
−x−2
dx ∫ 3 ( x − 2 ) + ∫ 3 ( x + 1) dx

179
 1 5 1
ln ( x − 2 )( x + 1) + c
5
= ln x − 2 + ln x + 1 +=
c
3 3 3
Synthesis
For integration of rational function where denominator is factorised
into linear factors, before integrating, note that to each factor ax + b
occurring once in the denominator of a proper rational fraction, there
A
corresponds a single partial fraction of the form where A is a
constant ax + b
to be found, but to each factor ax + b occurring n times in the
denominator of a proper rational fraction, there corresponds a sum
A A A
of n partial fractions 1
+ 2
+ ... + n
where An are
( ) ( )
2 n
constants
ax + b ax + b ax + b

to be found, and then integrate the new expression.

Application Activity 4.69

( x + 2)
2
x −1
1. ln +c 2. ln +c
x +1 x +1
x−2 1
3. ln
x3
+c (
4. ln x + 1 + ) x +1
+ c, c ∈ 

3x 3x
5.5. ∫ x 2 − 4 x + 4 dx = ∫ dx ; =
t ( x − 1) let ; then
( x − 2)
2

6
= 3ln ( x − 2 ) − +c
x−2
8 x 2 − 19 x  3 5 2 
6. 6. ∫ dx= ∫  x + 1 + x − 2 − ( x − 2 )  dx
x3 − 3x 2 + 4 2

 
2
= 3ln ( x + 1 ) + 5ln ( x − 2 ) + + c, c ∈ 
x−2

180
Lesson 4.8. Integration of rational functions where
denominator is a quadratic factor
Learning objectives
Given an irrational function where denominator is a quadratic
factor, learners should be able to find primitive function correctly.
Prerequisites  b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
2
Use of the relation ax + bx +=
c a  x +  − .
 2a  4a 2 
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 4.8
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-cutting
issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
 b  b 2 − 4ac 
2

1. Relation to be used; ax 2 + bx +=
c a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
dx
∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 ,=a 1,=b 3,=c 2
dx dx
∫x 2
+ 3x + 2
=∫
 3 1
2

x+  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫ x 2 + 3x + 2 = ∫  3 2 1 Let u = x + 3 ⇒ du = dx
x+  − 2
 2 4
dx du du
∫ x 2 +=
3x + 2 ∫= ∫
1 1
2
u2 − u 2
−
4  
2
dx 1 x−k
∫ 2 2
Using the formula=
x −k
ln
2k x + k
+ d , we have

181
 1
u−
dx du 1 2 +d
∫=2
x + 3x + 2 ∫= 1
2
1
ln
1
u2 −   2× u+
2 2 2
3 1
x+ −
2 2= x +1
= ln + d ln +d
3 1 x+2
x+ +
2 2
dx , a= 1, b = −4, c =
4
2.
∫x 2
− 4x + 4
 4  ( −4 ) − 4 × 4
2 2

= ( x − 2)
2 2
x − 4x + 4 =  x −  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫ x 2 − 4 x + 4 = ∫ ( x − 2 )2
Let u = x − 2 ⇒ du = dx
dx du
∫ x2 − 4 x + 4 = ∫ u 2
u' 1
Using the formula ∫u 2
du =− + d , we have
u
dx du 1 1
∫x 2
− 4x + 4
=∫ 2 =− + d =−
u u x−2
+d
dx , a= 1, b =
−6, c = 18
3.
∫x 2
− 6 x + 18
6  ( −6 ) − 4 ×18
2 2

= ( x − 3) + 9
2 2
x − 6 x + 18 =  x −  −
 2 4
dx dx
∫x 2
− 6 x + 18
=∫
( x − 3) + 9
2

Let u = x − 3 ⇒ du = dx
dx du du
∫x 2
=
+ 3x + 2 ∫=
u +9 ∫ u
2 2
+ 32
dx 1 x
Using the formula =∫ x 2 + k 2 k arctan k + d , we have
dx du 1 u 1 x −3
∫ x 2 + 3=
x+2 ∫ =
2
u +3 2
3
arctan =
3
+d
3
arctan
3
+d

182
Synthesis
dx
For the integral of the form
2
∫ ax 2
+ bx + c
,
• If b − 4ac =
0 , then,
dx 1 dx b
∫ ax 2
= ∫
+ bx + c a  b 
2 and we let u= x +
2a
x+ 
 2a 
2
• If b − 4ac > 0 , then,
dx 1 dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c = a ∫  b 2 b2 − 4ac . We let
x+  +
 2a  4a 2
b 2 b 2 − 4ac
u=
x+ , k =2
2a 4a
and use the standard integral
dx 1 x−k
∫ x 2 − k 2 2k ln x + k + d
=

• If b 2 − 4ac < 0 , then,

dx 1 dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c = a ∫  b 2 b2 − 4ac . We let
x+  −
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac and use the standard
u =x + , − k2 =
2a 4a 2
dx 1 x
integral = ∫ x 2 + k 2 k arctan k + d
Application Activity 4.70

1. = 1 1
1.∫ 2 dx ∫= dx
x +x+2 1 7
x2 + x + +
4 4
 
1 1 1  t 
∫ =2
1 7
dx ∫=7
dt
7
arctan 
 7
+c
t2 +
x+  + 4 4
 
 2 4  4

183
  1
 x+  2  2x +1 
1 2 +c
= arctan
=  arctan  +c
7  7  7  7 
 
4  4 
1 1
2. − arctan ( 3 x + 1) + ln ( 9 x 2 + 6 x + 2 ) + c
9 18
2
3. −
2
arctan ( )
2 x + 3ln x − 2 + c

1
4. ln ( x 2 + 2 ) − ln 2 x + 1 + c
2

Lesson 4.9. Integrals of the form

∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx
Learning objectives
Given integrals of the form
∫ sin mx cos nx dx, ∫ cos mx cos nx dx, ∫ sin mx sin nx dx , learners
should be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
• Identities:
1
sin A cos
= B sin ( A − B ) + sin ( A + B ) 
2
1
sin A sin
= B cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B ) 
2
1
cos A cos
= B cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B ) 
2
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.9
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence

184
 • Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1 1 1
1. sin 2 x cos x = ( sin x + sin 3x ) = sin x + sin 3x
2 2 2
1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ sin 2 x cos xdx = ∫  2 sin x + 2 sin 3x dx =− cos x − cos3x + c
2 6
1 1 1
2. sin x sin 5 x = ( cos 4 x − cos 6 x ) = cos 4 x − cos 6 x
2 2 2
1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ sin x sin 5 xdx =∫  cos 4 x − cos 6 x dx = sin 4 x − sin 6 x + c
2 2  8 12
1 1 1
3. cos 2 x cos 3 x = ( cos x + cos 5 x ) = cos x + cos 5 x
2 2 2
 1 1  1 1
⇒ ∫ cos 2 x cos3xdx =∫  cos x + cos5 x dx = sin x + sin 5 x + c
2 2  2 10
1 1 1
4. sin x sin 3= x cos ( −2 x ) − cos 4 = x  cos 2 x − cos 4 x
2 2 2
1 1
sin =
x sin 3 x sin 4 x cos 2 x sin 4 x − cos 4 x sin 4 x
2 2
1 1 1 1
=  ( sin 2 x + sin 6 x ) −  ( sin 0 + sin 8 x )
2 2  2 2 
1 1 1
= sin 2 x + sin 6 x − sin 8 x
4 4 4
1 1 1 
⇒ ∫ sin x sin 3 x sin 4 x dx= ∫  sin 2 x + sin 6 x − sin 8 x  dx
4 4 4 
1 1 1
= − cos 2 x + cos8 x − cos 6 x + c
8 32 24
Synthesis

To evaluate the integral of the form ∫ sin mx cos nxdx or

∫ cos mx cos nxdx or ∫ sin mx sin nxdx , we express the product
into sum by using the corresponding identities:

185
 1
sin A cos
= B sin ( A − B ) + sin ( A + B ) 
2
1
sin A sin
= B cos ( A − B ) − cos ( A + B ) 
2
1
cos A cos
= B cos ( A − B ) + cos ( A + B ) 
2
And then integrate the new expression.

Application Activity 4.71

1 1 1 1
1. − cos x − cos 5 x + c 2. cos x − cos 5 x + c
2 10 2 10
1 1 1 2
3. − sin 6 x + x + c 4. sin x + c
12 2 2
1 1 1 1
5. sin 6 x + x + c 6. sin 6 x + sin 8 x + c
12 2 12 16

Lesson 4.10. Integrals of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx

Learning objectives
Given an integral of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx , learners should be
able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
• Derivative of cos x and sin x .
• Identity cos 2 x + sin 2 x =
1.
• Identity cos
= 2 x cos x − sin 2 x .
2

• Identity sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x .

Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 4.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education

186
 • Inclusive education

Answers

1. cos x ⇒ du =
u= − sin xdx

u3 cos3 x
∫ sin x cos xdx =∫ cos x sin xdx =−∫ u du =− 3 + c =− 3 + c
2 2 2

1 1
∫ sin ∫ 2 (1 − cos 2 x ) 2 (1 + cos 2 x )dx
2
2. x cos 2 xdx =
1
= ∫ (1 + cos 2 x − cos 2 x − cos 2 2 x )dx
4
1
=
4 ∫ (1 − cos 2 2 x )dx

1  1  1
= ∫ 1 − (1 + cos 4 x ) dx, since cos 2 x = (1 + cos 2 x ) ⇒ c
4  2  2
1  1  1 1
∫ 1 − (1 + cos 4 x ) dx, since cos x = (1 + cos 2 x ) ⇒ cos 2 x = (1 + cos 4 x )
2 2
=
4  2  2 2
1  1 1 
= ∫ 1 − − cos 4 x dx
4  2 2 
1 1 1  1 1
= ∫  − cos 4 x dx =
4 2 2 
x − sin 4 x + c
8 32

Synthesis
To integrate an integral of the form ∫ sin m x cos n x dx , we have
two cases:
a) If m or n is odd, save one cosine factor (or one sine
2 2
factor) and use the relation cos x = 1 − sin x (or
sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x ). Let u = sin x ⇒ du = cos xdx (or
let u = cos x ⇒ du = − sin xdx ).
b) If m and n are even, we use the identities:
1 1
2
sin= x (1 − cos 2 x ) and cos=
2
x (1 + cos 2 x ) .
2 2

187
 Application Activity 4.72

1 1
1. − cos 4 x + c 2. sin 5 2 x + c
4 10
1 1 1
3. cos3 x − cos x + c 4. − sin 3 4 x + sin 4 x + c
3 12 4
1 1
5. cos 6 x − cos 4 x + c
6 4
1 1 1
6. − cos8 2 x + cos 6 2 x − cos 4 2 x + c
16 6 8

Lesson 4.11. Integrals of the form ∫ tan m x secn x dx

Learning objectives
Given an integral of the form ∫ tan x sec x dx , learners should be
m n

able to find primitive function accurately.

Prerequisites
• Derivative of sec x .
• Identity sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x .
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 4.11
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers

1. u =tan x ⇒ du =(1 + tan 2 x ) dx =(1 + u 2 ) dx

du
⇒ dx = 2
1+ u

188
 u2
∫ tan xdx = ∫
2
du
1+ u2
 1 
= ∫ 1 − 2 
du
 1+ u 
=u − arctan u + c
tan x − arctan ( tan x ) + c
=
= tan x − x + c
2. u= sec x ⇒ du= sec x tan xdx
du du
= dx =
sec x tan x u tan x
tan x tan xdx ∫ ( tan x )
2
∫ tan xdx ∫=
5 4 2
= tan xdx

∫ ( sec x − 1) tan xdx

2 2
=

∫ ( sec x − 2sec 2 x + 1) tan xdx

4
=
du
∫ (u − 2u 2 + 1) tan x
4
=
u tan x
u 4 − 2u 2 + 1
=∫ du
u
 1
= ∫  u 3 − 2u +  du
 u
u4 2 sec4 x
= − u + ln u + c = − sec2 x + ln sec x + c
4 4
Synthesis
∫ tan
m
Integration of the form x sec n x dx , is in two types:
2
a) If the power of secant is even, save a factor of sec x
and use sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x to express the remaining
factors in term of tan x . Then substitute u = tan x .
b) If the power of tangent is odd, save a factor of
2
sec x tan x and use tan
= x sec 2 x − 1 to express the
remaining factors in terms of sec x . Then substitute
u = sec x .

189
 Application Activity 4.73

1 1  1 − sin x  1
1. sec 2 x + c 2. ln   + sec x tan x + c
2 4  1 + sin x  2
1 3 1 1
3. sec x + c 4. − sec3 x + sec5 x + c
3 3 5
1 3 1 5 1
5. tan x + c 6. tan x + tan 3 x + c
3 5 3

Lesson 4.12. Integrals containing sin x, cos x, tan x

on denominator
Learning objectives
Given a function containing sin x, cos x, tan x on denominator,
learners should be able to find primitive function moderately.
Prerequisites
• Identities
x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan
= sin x = 2 , cos x = 2 , tan x 2
x x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 − tan 2
2 2 2
from double angle formulae.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.12

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

190
 Answers

x x x x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan + 1 − tan 2 + 1 + tan 2 2 tan + 2
sin x + cos
= x +1 2 + = 2 +1 2 2 = 2 2
2 x 2 x 2 x x
1 + tan 1 + tan 1 + tan 1 + tan 2
2 2 2 2
x 2 x x 2 x 2 x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 tan + 1 − tan + 1 + tan 2 tan + 2
sin x + cos
= x +1 2 + = 2 +1 2 2 = 2 2
x x x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2
2 2 2 2
x
1 + tan 2
1 2
=
sin x + cos x + 1 2 tan x + 2
2
x x du dx 2du
Let u =tan ⇒ arctan u = ⇒ 2
= ⇒ dx =
2 2 1+ u 2 1+ u2
1 1+ u2 2du
∫ sin x + cos x + 1 ∫ 2u + 2 × 1 + u 2
= dx

du
=∫
u +1
= ln u + 1 + c
x
= ln tan + 1 + c
2

Synthesis
To find an integral containing sin x, cos x, tan x on
denominator, use the formulae
x x x
2 tan 1 − tan 2 2 tan
=sin x = 2 , cos x = 2 , tan x 2
x x x
1 + tan 2 1 + tan 2 1 − tan 2
2 2 2
x x
tan
and let u = ⇒ arctan u =
2 2

191
 Application Activity 4.74

 x 
2  1 x  2  3 tan 2 − 2 
1. arctan  tan  + c 2. arctan  +c
3  3 2 5  5 
 
1 x
3. 1 arctan  2 tan x + 1  + c 4. arctan  2 tan  + c
3  3  2  2

 x 
 3 tan + 4  1
2 2
5. arctan  +c 6. − +c
11 11 x
  tan − 2
  2

2 2
Lesson 4.13. Integrals containing sin x, cos x on
denominator
Learning objectives
Given an integral containing sin 2 x, cos 2 x on denominator,
learners should be able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
1 tan x
• Identities cos x = and sin x = .
2
1 + tan x 1 + tan 2 x
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.13

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

192
 Answers

We know that sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x or sec x =± 1 + tan 2 x . Then,

1 tan x
cos x = ± and sin x = ±
1 + tan 2 x 1 + tan 2 x
1 1 1
Now, = = = 1 + tan 2 x
2
cos x  1 
2
1
± 2
 1 + tan 2 x
 1 + tan x 
1
= ∫ (1 + tan 2 x ) dx
∫ cos2 x dx
du
u tan x ⇒ =
Let = x arctan u ⇒ dx =
1+ u2
1 du
∫ cos dx = ∫ (1 + u 2 )
1+ u2 ∫
2
= du = u + c = tan x + c
x
Synthesis
2 2
To integrate an integral containing sin x, cos x on
1
denominator, use identities cos x = and
1 + tan 2 x
tan x
sin x = u tan x ⇒ =
and let = x arctan u
1 + tan 2 x

Application Activity 4.75

1 3 1 5 2
1) tan x + tan x + c 2) tan x + tan 3 x + tan x + c
3 5 3
2 1 1 7 3 5
3) − cot x − cot 3 x − cot 5 x + c 4) tan x + tan x + tan 3 x + tan x + c
3 5 7 5

Lesson 4.14. Integrals containing n

ax + b
Learning objectives
Given an integral containing n ax + b , learners should be able to
find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites
• Properties of radicals.

193
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.14
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
u 2 = 3x − 1 ⇒ u =3x − 1
2udu
⇒ 2udu = 3dx ⇒ dx =
3
2udu 2
∫ 3x − 1=
dx ∫ u = ∫ u 2 du
3 3
3
2u 2
( )
3
= + c= 3x − 1 + c
9 9
2 2
( )
2
= 3x − 1 3x − 1 += c ( 3x − 1) 3x − 1 + c
9 9
Synthesis
n
For integral containing n
ax + b , a ≠ 0 , let u= ax + b

Application Activity 4.76

1 2
(5x − 2) 5x − 2 + c
2
1. ( 2 x + 1) 6 x + 3 + c 2.
3 25
3 3 2
(8 x + 1) + c
2
3. 4. +c
16 3 2 − 3x
1 1
5. ( 2 x + 5)
3
+c 6. ( 3x − 8) 3 3x − 8 + c
3 4

7. 4 2 x + 3 + c 8. 4
+c
3 1 − 3x

194
Lesson 4.15. Integrals containing ax 2 + bx + c

Learning objectives
Given an integral containing ax 2 + bx + c , learners should be
able to find primitive function accurately.
Prerequisites  b  b 2 − 4ac 
2
2
• Use of the relation ax + bx +=c a  x +  − .
 2a  4a 2 
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.15

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
The relation to be used is

2
 b  b 2 − 4ac 
2

ax + bx += c a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
dx
1.
∫ x2 − 2x + 1
( −2 ) − 4 ×1 =
2

x 2 − 2 x + 1 = ( x − 1) − ( x − 1)
2 2

4
Let u = x − 1 ⇒ du = dx
dx du du
∫ 2
=
x − 2x +1
∫=
u
∫ 2 u
u'
Using formula ∫ u=
du ln u + d , we have
dx du
∫ 2
=
x − 2x +1
∫ u= ln u + d= ln x − 1 + d

195
 dx
2. ∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
5  ( −5 ) − 4 × 6 
2 2 2
2  5 1
x − 5 x + 6 = x −  − = x −  −
 2 4  2 4
5
Let u = x − ⇒ du = dx
2
dx du
∫ x2 − 5x + 6 = ∫ 2 1
u −
4
dx
Using formula ∫ x ±k2 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d ,
we have
dx du
∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
=∫
1
u2 −
4
2
1 5  5 1
= ln u + u 2 − + d = ln x − +  x −  − + d
4 2  2 4

2 x − 5 + 2 x2 − 5x + 6
= ln +d
2

= ln 2 x − 5 + 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 + e

dx
3. ∫ 2
x − 6 x + 18
( −6 )
2
− 4 ×16
x − 6 x + 18 = ( x − 3)
2 2
−
4
=( x − 3) + 9
2

Let u = x − 3 ⇒ du = dx
dx du
∫ 2
x − 5x + 6
=∫
u2 + 9

196
 dx
Using formula
∫ 2
x ±k 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d ,

we have
dx du
∫ 2
x − 6 x + 18
=∫
u2 + 9
= ln u + u 2 + 9 + d

( x − 3)
2
= ln x − 3 + +9 +d

= ln x − 3 + x 2 − 6 x + 18 + d

Synthesis
dx
For the integrals of the form
ax 2 + bx + c
, ∫
2  b  b 2 − 4ac 
2

first, transform ax + bx + c in the form a  x +  − 


  2a  4a 2 
and then;

2
• If b − 4ac =
0 , then
dx 1 dx b
∫ = ∫ b and we let u= x +
ax 2 + bx + c a 2a
x+
2a

• If b 2 − 4ac > 0 , then

dx 1 dx
∫ 2
ax + bx + c
=
a
∫ 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
x+  +
 2a  4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac
x + , k 2 =2
We let u = finally, use the integral
2a 4a
dx
∫ 2
x ±k 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d

• If b 2 − 4ac < 0 , then

dx 1 dx
∫ 2
ax + bx + c
=
a
∫ 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
x+  −
 2a  4a 2

197
 b b 2 − 4ac
We let u =
x+ , k2 =
− 2
and use the integral
2a 4a
dx
∫ 2
x ±k 2
= ln x + x 2 ± k 2 + d

Application Activity 4.77

2 x +1
1. ln x + 1 + x + 2 x + 5 + c 2. arcsin +c
5
x −3
3. ln x + 2 + x 2 + 4 x + 2 + c 4. arcsin +c
2
5. 2 x − 1 x − x 2 + 1 arcsin ( 2 x − 1) + c
4 8

Lesson 4.16. Integration by parts

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to integrate by parts
accurately.
Prerequisites
Product rule differentiation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.16

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

198
Answers
d d d
1. ( x ) e x ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) e x
f=
dx dx dx
= e x + ( x − 1) e x = xe x

∫ xe dx =( x − 1) e
x x
2. From 1), +c
,v e ,
u x=
3. Let=
x

∫ udx ∫ vdx = ∫ xdx ∫ e dx

x
∫ ∫
Thus, uvdx = xe x dx while
From 2) we have

∫ uvdx = ∫ xe dx =( x − 1) e
x x
+c
Let us find ∫ udx ∫ vdx :
x2 x
∫ udx ∫ vdx = ∫ xdx ∫ e=
x
dx e +c
2
Therefore, ∫ uvdx ≠ ∫ udx ∫ vdx

Synthesis
Integration by parts use the formula udv ∫
= uv − vdu ∫
The following table can be used:
u v'
Logarithmic function Polynomial function
Polynomial function Exponential function
Polynomial function Trigonometric function
Exponential function Trigonometric function
Trigonometric function Exponential function
Inverse trigonometric Polynomial function
function

Application Activity 4.78

1 1 1
1. x sin 2 x + cos 2 x + c 2. ( 3x − 1) e3 x + c
2 4 9
1 1 1 3
3. sin 4 x − x cos 4 x + c 4. x ( 3ln x − 1) + c
16 4 9
1
5. ( x + 1) e2 x + c 6. − ( 2 x + 1) e −2 x + c
4

199
 Lesson 4.17. Integration by reduction formulae
Learning objectives
Given integral I m and by using integration by parts, learners
should be able to find a reduction formula for I m rightfully.
Prerequisites
• Integration by parts.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.17

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers

∫=
x cos bx dx, J ∫x
m m
=Im m sin bx dx

For J m = ∫ x sin bx dx , let u = x ⇒ du = mx dx

m m m −1

1
dv =sin bx dx ⇒ v =− cos bx
b
x m cos bx  1 
Jm =− − ∫  − cos bx  mx m −1dx
b  b 
x m cos bx m
⇒ Jm =
− + ∫ cos bxx m −1dx
b b   
I m−1

x cos bx m
m
⇒ Jm =
− + I m −1
b b
− x m cos bx
− x m cos bx + mI m −1 ⇒ bJ m − mI m −1 =
⇒ bJ m =

200
 Synthesis
Knowing integral I m , we can establish a general relation,
integration by parts, which will help us to reduce the power
and find I m −1 , I m − 2 , I m −3 , ..., I 0 .

Application Activity 4.79

1.
1 n ax n
x e − I n −1
a a
tan n −1 x
2. I n
= − I n − 2 and
n −1
tan 4 x tan 2 x
∫
5
tan x dx = I 5 = − + ln sec x + c
4 2
1 n −1
3. I n = − sin n −1 x cos x + I n−2
n n
1 n −1
4. I n
= cos n −1 x sin x + I n−2
n n
5. I n x ( ln x ) − nI n −1
n
=

Lesson 4.18. Integration by Maclaurin series

Learning objectives
Using Maclaurin series, learners should be able to find primitive
functions of some functions accurately.
Prerequisites
• Maclaurin series of a function.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.18

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills

201
 • Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1 2 1 3 1 4
1. ln (1 + x ) =
x− x + x − x + ...
2 3 4
 1 2 1 3 1 4 
2. ∫ ln (1 + x ) dx = ∫  x − x + x − x + ...  dx
 2 3 4 
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
= x − x + x − x + ... + c
2 6 12 20

Synthesis
For some integrals, we proceed also by Maclaurin series of the
function to be integrated.

Application Activity 4.80

 9 9  3 3 9
∫e dx = ∫ 1 − 3x + x 2 − x3 + ...  dx = x − x 2 + x3 − x 4 + ... + c
−3 x
1.
 2 2  2 2 8
 1 3 1 5  1 1 1 6
2. ∫ sin xdx= ∫  x − x + x + ...  dx= x 2 − x 4 + x + ... + c
 6 120  2 24 720
 1 1 4 1 6  1 1 1 7
∫ cos xdx = ∫ 1 − 2 x
2
3. + x − x + ...  dx = x − x3 + x5 − x + ... + c
24 720  6 120 5040
 1 2 5  1 2 1 4 1 6
∫ tan xdx= ∫  x + 3 x
3
4. + x + ...  dx= x + x + x + ... + c
15  2 12 45
 1 1 1  1 1 1
5. ∫ 1 + x dx = ∫ 1 + x − x 2 + x3 + ...  dx = x + x 2 − x3 + x 4 + ... + c
 2 8 16  4 24 64

Lesson 4.19. Definite integrals

Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to define definite
integrals.
Prerequisites
• Indefinite integrals.

202
 Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 4.19

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
1 3
1. F ( x )= ∫(x − 2 x + 3) dx =
2
x − x 2 + 3x + c
3
1 3  1 
2. F (1) − F (=
−1)  (1) − (1) + 3 (1) + c  −  ( −1) − ( −1) + 3 ( −1) + c 
2 3 2

3  3 
1 3  1 
F (1) − F (=
−1)  (1) − (1) + 3 (1) + c  −  ( −1) − ( −1) + 3 ( −1) + c 
2 3 2

3  3 
1   1 
=  −1 + 3 + c  −  − −1 − 3 + c 
3   3 
1 1
= +2+c+ +4−c
3 3
20
=
3
Synthesis
The area Si of the strip between xi −1 and xi is approximately
equal to the area of a rectangle with width l = ∆x and length
L = f ( xi ) i.e. as illustrated in figure 4.1.
n n n
The total area A is
= ∑ Si
=i 1
∑ i −1
f ( xi=
) ⋅ ∆x or A lim ∑ f ( xi ) ⋅ ∆x
n →∞
i =1
; this is known as Sum of Riemann.

203
 Figure 4.1: Definite integral of the function

We define the definite integrals of the function f ( x ) with

respect to x from a to b to be
b
b
∫ f ( x ) dx =  F ( x=
a
)
a
F ( b ) − F ( a ) .Where F ( x ) is the
anti-derivative of f ( x ) .

Application Activity 4.81

9 3
1. 2. 5 3. −2 4.
2 6 4
46
5. 3 6. 4 7. 25 8. 145

Lesson 4.20. Properties of definite integrals

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to use properties of
definite integrals accurately.
Prerequisites
• Definition of definite integrals.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

204
 Activity 4.20

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
0
0  x3 
0
1. ∫ f (=
x ) dx ∫ = x dx = 
2
9
−3 −3
 3  −3
−3
−3 −3  x3 
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫
2
x dx =   = −9
0 0
 3 0
0 −3
Observation:
∫ f ( x ) = −∫
−3 0
f ( x ) dx
2
2 1  8 8 16
2. ∫ x dx =  x 3  = + =
2
−2
 3  −2 3 3 3
0 2
0 2 1 3  1 3  8 8 16
∫−2 x dx + ∫0 x dx =  3 x  −2 +  3 x  0 = 0 + 3 + 3 − 0 = 8
2 2

Observation:
2 0 2
∫=
x dx ∫ x 2 dx + ∫ x 2 dx
2
−2 −2 0

Synthesis
• Permutation of bounds: If f ( x ) is defined on ( a, b )
except may be at a finite number of points, then
b a
∫a
f ( x)dx = − ∫ f ( x)dx
b

• Chasles relation: For any arbitrary numbers a and b and

any c ∈ [ a, b ]
b c b
∫=
f ( x)dx ∫
a a
f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
c

205
 • Positivity: Let f be a continuous function on interval
I = [ a, b ] the elements of I
b
If f ≥ 0 on I and if a ≤ b then ∫a
f ( x) dx ≥ 0
Also, if f ( x) ≤ g ( x) on [ a, b ] , then,
b b
∫a
f ( x)dx ≤ ∫ g ( x)dx
a

Application Activity 4.82

7 1 2 1
1. 4 2. 3. π 4. π −1
3 32 2

Lesson 4.21. Improper integrals, Infinite limits of

integration
Learning objectives
Given an improper integral with infinite limits, learners should be
able to determine whether it converges or diverges correctly.
Prerequisites
• Limits concepts.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 4.21

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
n
n dx 1  1 
1. lim
n →+∞ 0∫ 2
x +4
= lim  arctan  x  
n →+∞
2  2 0

206
 1  1 
= lim  arctan  n  
n →+∞ 2
  2 
1
= π
4
−4
xdx
−4 1 
2. lim ∫= lim 3x 2 + 1
n →−∞  3
n →−∞ n
1 + 3x 2
 n

− 3n 2 + 1 + 7
= lim
n →−∞ 3
= −∞
Synthesis
+∞ n
We define the improper integral as ∫a
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
n →+∞ a
b b
or ∫
−∞
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
n →−∞ n

If the limit exists, we say that the integral converges,

otherwise it diverges.

Application Activity 4.83

1
1) Convergent to π 2) Convergent to
2
1 1
3) Convergent to π 4) Convergent to
4 2
5) divergent 6) Convergent to 0

Lesson 4.22. Discontinuous integrand

Learning objectives
Given an improper integral with discontinuous integrand, learners
should be able to determine whether it converges or diverges
correctly.
Prerequisites
• Limits concepts.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

207
 Activity 4.22

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. Since this function is a rational function, the denominator

cannot be zero. Then, x − 1 ≠ 0 or x ≠ 1. Thus, considering
the given interval, the given function is discontinuous at
x =1.
2. Since this function is a rational function, the denominator
2
cannot be zero. Then, x − 3 x − 10 ≠ 0 or x ≠ −2 and x ≠ 5
. Thus, considering the given interval, the given function is
discontinuous at x = −2 .
3. Since there is natural logarithm, then, x > 0 also ln x ≠ 0
or x ≠ 1 . Thus, considering the given interval, the given
function is discontinuous at x = 1 .

Synthesis
For a function f ( x) which is continuous on the interval [ a, b[ ,
b t
we define the improper integral as ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx .
t →b
a a
Also, if f ( x) is continuous on the interval ]a, b ] , we have the
b b
improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx .
t →a
a t
If f ( x) is a continuous function for all real numbers x in
the interval ]a, b[ , except for some point c ∈ ]a, b[ , then,
b c b
∫=
f ( x)dx
a ∫
a
f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( x)dx
c
t b
= lim ∫ f ( x)dx + lim ∫ f ( x)dx
t →c a t →c t

208
 Application Activity 4.84

1. Diverges
2. a) converges to 3 b) diverges
c) diverges d) converges to 5 + 5 5 2

Lesson 4.23. Calculation of area of plane surfaces

Learning objectives
Given two functions and by using integration, learners should
be able to find the area between two curves in a given interval
precisely.
Prerequisites
• Curve sketching.
• Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 4.23

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

209
 Answers
1. Curve
x 0 4

f ( x) 0 4
y
f ( x) = x
5

1
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

2. Curve with shaded region

210
 3. We see that the shaded region is a triangle whose
base is 4 units and height is 4 units. Then, we know
the area of a triangle with base B and height H is
B× H
A= . Then, the area of the shaded region
2
4× 4
=
is A = 8 sq. units .
2
4 4 2 4
4. ∫0 f ( x ) dx = ∫0 xdx =  x 
2
 0
42
=
2
=8
5. Results in 3) and 4) are the same.

Synthesis
Given function f ( x ) which lies above the x -axis, the area
enclosed by the curve of f ( x ) and x -axis in interval [ a, b ] is
given by;
b
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a

Figure 4.2: Area enclosed by a curve of a function and x-axis

The area between two functions f ( x) and

g ( x) where f ( x) ≤ g ( x) in [ a, b ] is given by
b b b
∫ [ g ( x) − f ( x)]dx = ∫
a a
g ( x)dx − ∫ f ( x)dx
a

211
 y

g ( x)
x
a 0 b

f ( x)

Figure 4.3: Area between two curves

Application Activity 4.85

2 1 sq. units 1
1. a) sq. units b) c) 33 sq. units
3 2 3
4
d) sq. units e) 9 sq. units
3
16 5 5
2) a sq. units 3) 143 sq. units
15 6
4) 3.75 sq. units 5) 4 2 sq. units
6) a) Graph

32
Area is sq. units
3

212
 b) Graph

355
Area is sq. units
6

Lesson 4.24. Calculation of volume of a solid of

revolution
Learning objectives
Given a function and by using integration, learners should be able
to find the volume of a solid obtained when a curve of a function
is revolved around an axis precisely.
Prerequisites
• Curve sketching.
• Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 4.24

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

213
 Answers

1. y = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
a) The region enclosed by the curve y = 2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
and x − axis
y
3

y=2
2

x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1

-2

0
b) The region for which the area in (a) is rotated 360 about
the x-axis

c) Solid of revolution obtained in (b) is a cylinder of radius

2 and height 3.
Volume of cylinder is
( 2 ) ( 3) 12π cubic units
2
π r 2 h π=
=
x =3 3

Volume V lim
d) = = π y 2δ x
δ x →0
∑
x =0
∫π y
2
dx
0
3 3
π ( 2 ) dx ∫ 4= π [ x ]0 12π cubic units
2
∫=
3
= π dx 4=
0 0

e) The results obtained in (c) and (d) are equal.

214
2. y = 2 x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
a) The region enclosed by the curve y = 2 x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
and x − axis

b) The region for which the area in (a) is rotated 3600

about the x-axis

c) Solid of revolution obtained in (b) is a cone of radius

10 and height 5.
Volume of cone is
1 2 1 500
π (10 ) ( 5 )
2
= πr h = π cubic units
3 3 3
x =5 5

Volume V lim
d) = = ∑ π y 2δ x
δ x →0
x =0
∫π y
2
dx
0
5 5
π ( 2 x ) dx
2
∫= ∫ 4π x
2
= dx
0 0

215
 5
 x3  500
= 4= π  π cubic units
 3 0 3
e) The results obtained in (c) and (d) are equal.

Synthesis
The volume of the solid of revolution bound by the curve
f ( x ) about the x − axis calculated from x = a to x = b , is
b
given V = π ∫a f ( x )dx .
2

y
f ( x)

Volume
x
0 a b

Figure 4.4: Volume of revolution

Application Activity 4.86

32π 373π
1. a) cubic units b) cubic units
5 14
1296π
c) cubic units
5
3π
2. a) cubic units b) 8π cubic units
5
c) 2π cubic units

216
 Application Activity 4.87

1
1)
243
( )
85 85 − 8 cubic units

2) 1 80 10 − 13 13 cubic units
( )
27
1
3) 17 cubic units
6
4)
27
( )
13 13 + 80 10 − 16 cubic units

Lesson 4.25. Calculation of arc length of a curved

surface
Learning objectives
Given a function and by using integration, learners should be able
to find arc length of a curve in a given interval precisely.
Prerequisites
• Curve sketching.
• Definite integrals.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 4.25

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

217
 Answers

Figure 4.5: Arc length of a curved line

( ∆l ) = ( ∆x ) + ( ∆y )
2 2 2
1.

( ∆x ) + ( ∆y )
2 2
∆l =

( ∆x ) + ( ∆y ) ( dx ) + ( dy )
2 2 2 2
2. ∆l = ⇒ dl =

( dx ) + ( dy )
2 2
=dl

 ( dy )2 
( dx ) 1 +
2
= 
( dx )
2

 
2
 dy 
1 +   dx
=
 dx 
We recognise the ratio inside the square root as the
dy
derivative, = f ' ( x ) , then we can rewrite this as
dx
2
dl
= 1 +  f ' ( x )  dx
3
3 1
But f ( x ) =( x − 1) 2 ⇒ f ' ( x ) = ( x − 1) 2 , then,
2

218
 2
3 1

dl =1 +  ( x − 1) 2  dx
2 
9
= 1+ ( x − 1) dx
4
4 + 9x − 9
= dx
4
9x − 5
= dx
4
5 9x − 5 5 9x − 5
3. ∫ dl = ∫ 2 4
dx ⇒ l =∫2 4
dx

1 5
2 ∫2
= 9 x − 5 dx
5
1 5 1 3

But ∫ =  ( 9 x − 5) 2 
9 x − 5 dx
2 2
 27 2
Then,
5
1  3

=l  ( 9 x − 5 ) 2

27  2

1  3 3

=  ( 45 − 5 ) 2 − (18 − 5 ) 2

27  
1  3 3

=  ( 40 ) 2 − (13 ) 2

27  
=
1
27 ( ( 40 ) − (13)
3 3
)
=
1
27 ( 40 × ( 40 ) − 13 × (13)
2 3
)
=
1
27 ( 4 ×10 × ( 40 ) − 13 × (13)
2 2
)
1
=
27
( )
80 10 − 13 13 units of length

Synthesis
Arc length of a curve of function f ( x ) in interval ]a, b[ is
b
1 + [ f '( x) ] dx .
2
=
given by L ∫a

219
 Application Activity 4.88
85 85 − 8
1) units of length
243
80 10 − 13 13
2) units of length
27
3) ln ( )
2 + 1 units of length
14
4) units of length
3

4.6. Summary of the unit

1. Differentials
∆y
The exact change, ∆y , in y is given by = f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) .
But if the change ∆x is small, then we can get a good approximation
dy
to ∆y by using the fact that ∆y is approximately the derivative
∆x dx
. Thus,
∆y dy
∆y= ∆x ≈ ∆x= f ' ( x ) ∆x
∆x dx
If we denote the change of x by dx instead of ∆x , then the
change ∆y in y is approximated by the differential dy , that is,
∆y ≈ dy =f ' ( x ) dx
Whenever one makes an approximation, it is wise to try and
estimate how big the error might be.
∆x
Relative change in x is
x
∆x
Percentage change in x is 100×
x

2. Indefinite integrals
Integration can be defined as the inverse process of
differentiation.

If y = f ( x ) then

220
dy dy
=f ' ( x ) ⇔ ∫ dx =f ( x ) + c
dx dx

Or equivalently
dy
∫ dx dx= y+c

This is called indefinite integration and c is the constant of

integration.

3. Basic integration formula

Exponential functions
x n +1
1. ∫ x =
dxn
+ c, n ≠ −1
n +1
∫ e dx=
x
2. ex + c

ax
3. ∫ a =
x
dx +c
ln a
Rational functions
1 dx 1 x
1. ∫ x=
dx ln x + c ∫ 2 2
2. =
a +x a
arctan + c
a
dx 1 x dx 1 x−a
3. − ∫
a +x a22
= arccot + c
a ∫ x2 − a 2 2a ln x + a + c
4.=

dx 1 a+x
∫ a 2 − x 2 2a ln a − x + c
5. =

Irrational functions
dx x
1.
∫ = arcsin + c
a2 − x2 a
dx x
2. − ∫ =arccos + c
2
a −x 2 a
dx x + x2 + a2
=
3. ∫ x2 + a2 ln
a
+c

dx x + x2 − a2
=
4. ∫ x 2 − a 2 ln a
+c

221
 dx 1 x
5. ∫ x=
x −a 2 2 a
arc sec + c
a
1
dx x
6. − ∫ = arc csc + c
x x2 − a2 a a
Trigonometric functions
1. ∫ sin x dx =
− cos x + c 2. ∫ cos x=
dx sin x + c

∫ sec x= ∫ csc x dx =
2
3.
2
dx tan x + c 4. − cot x + c
5. ∫ tan x dx = − ln cos x + c 6. ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + c
x π
7. ∫ sec=ln sec x + tan x=
xdx + c ln tan  + 
2 4
x
8. ∫ csc=
xdx ln csc x − cot x=
+ c ln tan
2
9. ∫ sec x tan x=dx sec x + c

10. ∫ csc x cot x dx =

− csc x + c

4. Non-basic integration
I) Integration by substitution
In evaluating ∫ f ( x ) dx when f ( x ) is not a basic function:
g '( x)
if f ( x ) = g ' ( x ) g ( x ) or f ( x ) = or
g ( x)
f ( x ) = h ( g ( x ) ) g ' ( x ) , you let u = g ( x ) .
II) Integration by parts
To integrate a product of functions, try the formula for integration
dv du
by parts ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx .
dx dx
dv
An effective strategy is to choose for the most complicated
dx
factor that can readily be integrated. Then we differentiate the

other part, u, to find

du .
dx
The following table can be used:

222
 u v′
Logarithmic function Polynomial function
Polynomial function Exponential function
Polynomial function Trigonometric function
Exponential function Trigonometric function
Trigonometric function Exponential function
Inverse trigonometric Polynomial function
function
Applying the method of integration by parts, the power of
integrand is reduced and the process is continued till we
get a power whose integral is known or which can be easily
integrated. This process is called Reduction formula.
III) Integration by partial fractions
Remember that:
P ( x)
A rational function is a function of the form f ( x ) = ,
Q ( x)
where P ( x ) and Q ( x ) are polynomials.
A proper rational function is a rational function in which the
degree of P ( x ) is strictly less than the degree of Q ( x ) .
The problem of integrating rational functions is really the
problem of integrating proper rational functions since
improper rational functions (i.e. those in which the degree of
P ( x ) is greater than or equal to the degree of Q ( x ) ) and can
always be rewritten as the sum of a polynomial and a proper
rational function.
The integrals of proper rational functions are found by partial
fraction expansion of the integrand into simple fractions.
There are 4 types of simple fractions:
A
a) Fractions of the type .
x−a
The integrals of such fractions are easily found:
A
∫ x − a=
dx A ln x − a + c

223
 A
b) Fractions of the type , where n is a natural
( x − a)
n

number greater than 1.

The integrals of such fractions are easily found:
A A
∫ ( x − a )n dx = A∫ ( x − a ) dx = 1 − n ( x − a ) + c
−n 1− n

Ax + B 2
c) Fractions of the type 2
, where p − 4q < 0
x + px + q
The integrals of such fractions are found by completing
the square in the denominator and subsequent
substitution which lead to rational integrals of the form
du du du
∫ u 2 + k 2 or ∫ u 2 − k 2 or ∫ k 2 + u 2 .
Ax + B
d) Fractions of the type n ,
(
x 2 + px + q )
where p − 4q < 0 and n is a natural number greater than 1.
2

Integration of this type of fraction will not be considered in this

course.
Expansion of proper rational functions in partial fractions is
achieved by first factoring the denominator and then writing the
type of partial fraction (with unknown coefficients in the numerator)
that corresponds to each term in the denominator:
(i) if the denominator contains ( x − a ) , then the partial fraction
A
expansion will contain ;
x−a
(ii) if the denominator contains ( x − a ) , then the partial fraction
n

expansion will contain

A B C Z
+ + + ... +
( x − a)
n
( x − a)
n −1
( x − a)
n−2
( x − a)

(
(iii) if the denominator contains x 2 + px + q where p 2 − 4q < 0 )
, then the partial fraction expansion will
Ax + B
contain 2 .
x + px + q

224
 The unknown coefficients (A, B, etc.) are then found by one
of two ways: by inserting concrete values of , or by using the
method of undetermined coefficients.

4. Integration of irrational functions

dx
a) Integrals of the form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
The integrals of such fractions are found by completing the square
in the denominator and subsequent substitution which leads to
irrational integrals of the form
du du du
∫ 2
u +k 2
or ∫
2
u −k 2
or ∫ k + u2
2

px + q
a) Integrals of the form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c
dx

The numerator is written as the sum of two parts. One part is the
derivative of radicand and the other part is a constant only, i.e.
d
px + q dx
( ax 2 + bx + c ) dx
∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx k1 ∫
=
2
ax + bx + c
dx + k2 ∫
2
ax + bx + c
px 2 + qx + r
a) Integrals of the form ∫
ax 2 + bx + c
dx

The numerator is written as the sum of three parts. One part is the
same as radicand, the second part is derivative of radicand and
the last part is a constant only, i.e.
d
2
px + qx + r 2
ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
dx
∫ k1 ∫
dx = dx + k2 ∫ dx dx + k3 ∫
2 2 2 2
ax + bx + c ax + bx + c ax + bx + c ax + bx + c

5. Integration of trigonometric functions

dx
a) Integrals of the form
∫ a sin x + b cos x + c
x
You can use t-formulae by letting t = tan .
2

225
 dx dx
b) Integrals of the form ∫ a + b cos
x 2 or
2
x ∫ a + b sin
Here also you can use t-formulae
In integrating the trigonometric functions containing
product or power, transforming product or power into sum
(or difference) leads to basic integration.

6. Definite integration
Remember that integrals containing an arbitrary constant c in their
results are called indefinite integrals since their precise value
cannot be determined without further information.
a) Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied.
b
If an expression is written as  F ( x )  , ‘b’ is called the upper
a
limit and ‘a’ the lower limit.
The operation of applying the limits is defined as:
b
 F ( x=
) a F ( b ) − F ( a )
For example the increase in the value of the integral f ( x ) as
3

x increases from 1 to 3 is written as ∫ f ( x ) dx .

1

The definite integral, from x = a to x = b, is defined as the

area under the curve between those two values.
b

This is written as ∫ f ( x ) dx
a

b) The mean value of a function y = f ( x ) over the range

]a, b[is the value the functions would have if it were
constant over the range but with the same area under the
graph. The mean value of y = f ( x ) over the range ]a, b[ is
b
1
f ( x) = f ( x ) dx .
b − a ∫a
c) The root mean square value (R.M.S. value) is the square root
of the mean value of the square of y.
The r.m.s. value from x = a to x = b is given by;

226
 b

∫ f ( x ) dx
2

R.M .S . = a

b−a
d) Improper integral
b
The definite integral ∫ f ( x)dx is called an improper integral
a
if one of two situations occurs:
• The limit a or b (or both bounds) are infinites.
• The function f ( x) has one or more points of
discontinuity in the interval [ a, b ] .
Let f ( x) be a continuous function on the interval [ a, +∞[ or ]−∞,b ]
+∞ n
We define the improper integral as ∫
a
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx
n →+∞ a
b b
Or ∫
−∞
f ( x)dx = lim ∫ f ( x)dx respectively.
n →−∞ n
If these limits exist and are finite, then we say that the improper
integrals are convergent, otherwise, the integrals are divergent.
Let f ( x) be a continuous function for all real numbers. By Chasles
+∞ c +∞
theorem ∫−∞
= f ( x)dx ∫ −∞
f ( x)dx + ∫
c
f ( x)dx
If for real number c , both integrals on the right side are convergent,
+∞
then we say that the integral ∫−∞
f ( x)dx is also convergent;
otherwise it is divergent.

7. Applications
Integration has many applications, some of which are listed below:
a) The area between two functions f ( x) and g ( x) where
f ( x) ≤ g ( x) in [ a, b ] is given by
b b b
∫ [ g ( x) − f ( x)]dx = ∫
a a
g ( x)dx − ∫ f ( x)dx
a

b) Volume
The volume of a solid of revolution can be found using one
of the following methods:
• disc method,
• washer method, and

227
 • shell method.
In any of the methods, when finding volume, it is necessary to
integrate along the axis of revolution; if the region is revolved
about a horizontal line, integrate by x , and if the region is revolved
about a vertical line, integrate with respect to y .
(i) Disc method
The volume of the solid of revolution bound by the curve
f ( x ) about the x − axis calculated from x = a to x = b , is
b

given by π ∫ y 2 dx .
a
Volume of the solid generated by revolution of the area
bound by the curve y = f ( x ) about the y − axis is given
b

by π ∫ x dy .
2

a
If the axis of revolution is the line parallel to x − axis (say
y = k ) , the volume will be
b
π ∫ ( y − k ) dx
2

(ii) Washer method

If the region bound by outer radius yU = g ( x) (on top) and
inner radius yL = f ( x) and then lines x = a , x = b is revolved
about x − axis , then the volume of revolution is given by:

([ g ( x)] − [ f ( x)] ) dx
b 2 2
=V π∫
a

(iii) Shell method

The volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
between the curve x − axis,=
y f ( x ) ≥ 0, L ≤ a ≤ x ≤ b , about
a vertical line x = L is
b
 shell   shell 
V = 2π ∫    dx
a  radius   height 

228
HINT for shell method:
Regardless of the position of the axis of revolution (horizontal
or vertical), the steps for implementing the shell method are the
following:

• Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it, parallel
to the axis of revolution. Label the segment’s height or length
(shell height) and distance from the axis of revolution (shell
radius).
• Find the limits of integration for the thickness variable.
 shell   shell 
• Integrate the product 2π    with respect
 radius   height 
to the thickness variable ( x or y ) to find the volume.

• Length of arc of the curve y = f ( x ) between the points whose

abscissas are a and b is
b 2
 dy 
=s ∫
a
1 +   dx
 dx 
• The work done by a variable force F ( x ) in the direction of
motion along the x − axis over the interval [ a, b ] is
b
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx .
a

Hook’s law says that the force required to hold a stretched or

compressed spring x units beyond its equilibrium position pulls
back with a force F ( x ) = kx where k is constant called spring
constant (or force constant).

4.7. End of Unit Assessment

2
1. a) x + 9 x + 125ln x − 5 − 64 ln x − 4 + c
2
3 2
b) x + x − 5 x + 18ln x + 3 + c

c) − 16 − 2 ln x − 2 + 5 ln x + 1 + c
x−2 3 3
1
(2
) −1
d) ln x − 1 − ln x + 1 + tan x + c
2

229
 3
2
2
( −1
)
e) 4 ln x + 2 − ln x + 2 x + 2 + tan ( x + 1) + c

1 3
f)
2
( )
ln x 2 + 1 − ln x + 1 −
x +1
+c

g) x sin x + cos x + c
5 4x  1
h) e x− +c
4  4
x2
i) ( 2 ln x − 1) + c
4
cos 3 x 2
j)
27
( 2 − 9 x 2 ) + x sin 3 x + c
9
e ax
k) ( b sin bx + a cos bx ) + c
a 2 + b2
e ax
l) ( a sin bx − a cos bx ) + c
a 2 + b2
2. a) 4 b) 10 c) ln 2
3 9

d) π e) 2 f) 1
4 2
5
3. To be proved 4. 20
6

5. 4 6. 16
3
7. 56π 8. 32π
27 3
9. 208π
15
π π π
10. a) b) c)
30 6 2
5π 11π 19π
d) e) f)
6 30 30
24π
11. a) 48π b)
5 5

230
 1
kt
12. a)= ln a − x − ln a + 3 x
2a
a ( e 2 akt − 1) a
b) x = c) x → ,t → ∞
3e 2 akt − 1 3
13. 0.632 N o
14. 7.26
15. 1.17J

16. 9
5
17. a) 30 N / m b) 60 J c) 1.5 m

18. a) 926, 640 b) 0.468

231
 Differential
Unit 5
Equations

5.1. Key unit competence

Use ordinary differential equations of first and second order
to model and solve related problems in Physics, Economics,
Chemistry, Biology.

5.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Differential equation (D.E): Equation that involves a
function and its derivatives.
First order differential equation: Differential equation
containing only first derivatives apart
from dependent variable.
Second order differential equation: Differential
equation containing second derivatives
(and possibly first derivative also).
Particular solution: A solution found at particular values.

5.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, and then assign them to do the
introductory activity from the student’s book. As they are working,
move around to each group and ask them probing questions
leading them to the right way. After a while, invite some group to
present their findings in a whole class discussion. Guide students
to harmonize their answers and arouse their curiosity to the
content of this unit.

5.4. List of lessons

No Lesson title Number of
periods
1 Definition and classification 1
2 Differential equations with separable 1
variables
3 Simple homogeneous equations 2
4 Linear equations 2
5 Particular solution 1
6 Second order differential equations: 1
Definition
7 Second order differential equations with 1
constant coefficient: two distinct real
roots
8 Characteristic equation has a double 1
root
9 Characteristic equation has complex 1
roots
10 Non-homogeneous linear differential 2
equations of the second order with
constant coefficients
Non-homogeneous linear differential
11 equations of the second order with the 2
right hand side r ( x ) = Pe
αx

12 Non-homogeneous linear 2
differential equations of the second
order with the right hand side
=r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x
13 Application: Newton’s law of cooling 2
14 Application: Electrical circuits 2
Total periods 21

5.5. Lesson development

Lesson 5.1. Definition and classification

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define and classify
given differential equations correctly.

233
Prerequisites
• Differentiation
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 5.1
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
dy
1. On differentiation; =A
dx
2
dy  dy 
The given equation becomes= y x + 
dx  dx 
Order of the highest derivative is 1.
dy
2. On differentiation; − A sin x + B cos x
=
dx
Again differentiating:
d2y
− ( A cos x + B sin x ) =
= −y
dx 2
d2y
Or +y=0
dx 2
Order of the highest derivative is 2.
dy
3. On differentiation 2 y= 2 Ax + B
dx
2
d2y  dy 
Again differentiating 2 y 2
+ 2  = 2A
dx  dx 
On differentiating again:
d 3 y dy d 2 y dy d 2 y
y + + 2 0
=
dx3 dx dx 2 dx dx 2

234
 d3y dy d 2 y
Or y + 3 0
=
dx 3 dx dx 2
Order of the highest derivative is 3.

Synthesis
An equation involving a differential coefficient i.e.
dy d 2 y dr
, , and so on is called a “differential equation”.
dx dx 2 dt
Order of the differential equation is the highest derivative of
function that appears in a differential equation and is said to be
the order of differential equation.
Given a function with arbitrary constants, you form differential
equation by eliminating its arbitrary constants using
differentiation.

Application Activity 5.89

2 2
 dy  dy 2 d 2 y  dy  dy
2
1. a) y   + 2 xy − y = 0 b) xy 2 + x   − y = 0
 dx  dx dx  dx  dx
d2y dy d2y dy
c) 2
− 4 + 3y = 0 d) − 2 + 2y =
0
dx dx dx 2
dx
dy
e) = − tan ( x + 3)
dx
2. a) This DE has order 2 (the highest derivative
appearing is the second derivative) and degree 1 (the
power of the highest derivative is 1).
b) This DE has order 1 (the highest derivative appearing
is the first derivative) and degree 4 (the power of the
highest derivative is 4).
c) This DE has order 2 (the highest derivative appearing is
the second derivative) and degree 3 (the power of the
highest derivative is 3).
d) order 2; degree 1
e) order 2; degree 1
f) order 3; degree 1
g) order 2; degree 1
h) order 2; degree 3

235
Lesson 5.2. Differential equations with separable
variables
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify and solve
differential equations with separable variables accurately.
Prerequisites
• Integration
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 5.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
dy x y 2 x2
1. = ⇒ ydy =
dx y
xdx ⇒ ∫ ydy ∫ ⇒ 2 = 2 +k
=xdx
2 2
Or y= x + 2k ⇒ y = x + c, c ∈ 
2 2

dy dy dy
2. = x 2 y 3 ⇒ 3 = x 2 dx ⇒ ∫ 3 =
∫ x 2 dx
dx y y

y −2 x3 1 x3
⇒ ∫ y −3dy =
∫ x dx ⇒
2
= + k ⇒ − 2= + k, k ∈ 
−2 3 2y 3

Synthesis
To solve the integral dy = g ( x ) h ( y ) , we write it in the
dx
dy
separated form = g ( x ) dx and integrate.
h( y)

236
 Application Activity 5.90

3 3
1. y = c x , c ∈  2. x − y =c , c∈
3. arctan y= x + c , c ∈ 
4. tan −1 y = x − ln 1 + x + c , c ∈ 

Lesson 5.3. Simple homogeneous equations

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify and solve
simple homogeneous equations accurately.
Prerequisites
• Integration
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 5.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

( tx ) + ( tx )( ty )
2
1. f (tx=
, ty )
ty ) t 2 x 2 + t 2 xy
f (tx,=

, ty ) t 2 ( x 2 + xy )
f (tx=
f (tx, ty ) = t 2 f ( x, y )
The value of n is 2.

237
 y
2. z= ⇒ y = zx
x
dy dz
= z+x
dx dx
dy dz
= f ( x, y ) becomes z + x f ( x, y )
=
dx dx
But f ( x, y ) = f (1, z )
3. f ( tx, ty ) = f ( x, y )
1  y
But t = , then f 1,  = f ( x, y ) ⇒ f (1, z ) = f ( x, y )
x  x
dz
Then, z + x = f (1, z )
dx
Separating variables, we have
dz dz dz dx
x
= f (1, z ) − z ⇒ x dx ⇒
= =
dx f (1, z ) − z f (1, z ) − z x

Synthesis
A function f ( x, y ) is called homogeneous of degree n if
f (tx, ty ) = t n f ( x, y ) for all suitably restricted x, y and t.
The differential equation M ( x, y ) dx + N ( x, y ) dy =
0 is said to
be homogeneous if M and N are homogeneous functions of
the same degree.
dy
This equation can be written in the form = f ( x, y ) .
dx
− M ( x, y )
Where f ( x, y ) = is clearly homogeneous of degree
N ( x, y )
y
0. We solve this equation by letting z = .
x

Application Activity 5.91

1. c , c ∈  2. x 2 + y 2 =
x2 − y 2 = cx , c ∈ 

3.= (
y 2 x 2 cx 2 − 4 , c ∈  )
( y − x) + 2 ( y − x) = 2x + c , c ∈ 
2
4.

238
Lesson 5.4. Linear differential equations
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify and solve
linear differential equations accurately.
Prerequisites
• Differentiation
• Integration
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 5.4

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. y = uv
dy dv du
= u +v
dx dx dx
dy dv du
2. Now, + py = q becomes u + v + p ( uv ) =
q
dx dx dx
dv du dv du
3. u +v + p ( uv ) =
q ⇒ u + p ( uv ) + v = q
dx dx dx dx
 dv  du
⇒ u  + pv  + v = q
 dx  dx
dv
If 0 , dv + pvdx =
+ pv = 0 ⇒ dv = − pvdx
dx
dv
Separating variables, we have = − pdx
v

239
 dv
Integrating both sides, we have
v ∫ ∫
= − pdx

− ∫ pdx + c ⇒ ln v= ln e ∫ + ln k
− pdx
ln v =

ln ke ∫ ke ∫
− pdx − pdx
⇒ ln v = ⇒v =
− ∫ pdx
Take v = e
 dv  du
4. Now, the equation u  + pv  + v q becomes
=
 dx  dx
− pdx du dv
e ∫ = q since + pv is assumed to zero.
dx dx
− pdx du du q
e ∫ =q ⇒ =
dx dx e − ∫ pdx
du
q e∫ q e ∫ dx
pdx pdx
⇒ = ⇒ du =
dx
Integrating both sides gives

∫ pdx dx ⇒ u =q e ∫ pdx dx
⇒ ∫ du =
∫ q e ∫
Synthesis
dy
The general solution to the equation + py = q where
dx
p and q are functions in x or constants, is y = uv where

u = ∫ q e∫ dx and v = e ∫ .
pdx − pdx

Short cut method:

dy
The solution of + py =
q is simply given by formula
dx
y = e ∫ ∫ qe ∫ dx .
− pdx pdx

Application Activity 5.92

x2
x c −
1. y= + 2. 2
y = x − 2 + ce 2
2 x
3. y =( x + 1) e x + c ( x + 1) 4.=y cos x + c cos 2 x

240
Lesson 5.5. Particular solution
Learning objectives
Given a differential equation and initial condition, learners should
be able to find a particular solution for that differential equation
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Integration
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 5.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
dy
1. = x+4
dx
⇒ dy = ( x + 4 ) dx ⇒ ∫ dy = ∫ ( x + 4 ) dx
x2
⇒y= + 4x + c
2
2. If x = 2 then y = 4
22
⇒ 4= + 4 × 2 + c ⇒ 4 =10 + c ⇒ c =−6
2
x2
New solution is y = + 4x − 6
2
Synthesis
If we want to determine a function, y ( x ) , such that the given
equation is satisfied for y ( x0 ) = y0 or y |x = x0 = y0 , this equation

241
 is referred to as an initial value problem for the obvious
reason that out of the totality of all solution of the differential
equation, we are looking for the one solution which initially (at,
x0 ) has the value y0 .

Application Activity 5.93

y cos x − 2 cos 2 x  π
1.= 2. y tan  tan −1 x + 
=
 4
1
3. y= 4. y2 =x 2 − 2 ln x + 3
2
1− x
1 2x 1
ey
5. = e +
2 2

Lesson 5.6. Second order differential equations:

Definition
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a second
order differential equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Differentiation
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 5.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

242
 Answers

Answer may vary; here are some.

1. Second order differential equation with degree greater
than 1 is of the form
n k
 d2y   dy 
 2  + p ( x)  + q ( x) y =
r ( x),
 dx   dx 
where p ( x) , q ( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone
(or perhaps constants) and n, k ∈  with n=1.
2. Second order differential equation with degree 1 is of
the form
k
 d2y   dy 
 2  + p ( x)  + q ( x) y =
r ( x),
 dx   dx 
where p ( x) , r ( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone (or
perhaps constants) and k ∈  .

Synthesis
The general second order linear differential equation is of the
d2y dy
form 2
+ p ( x) + q ( x) y = r ( x ) or more
dx dx
simply, y ''+ p ( x ) y '+ q ( x ) y =
r ( x) ;
where p ( x) , q ( x) and r ( x) are functions of x alone (or perhaps
constants).

Lesson 5.7. Second order differential equations

with constant coefficient: two distinct
real roots
Learning objectives
Given a second order differential equations with constant
coefficient where characteristic equation has two distinct real
roots, learners should be able to find its general solution perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Solving quadratic equation.

243
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 5.7

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

dy dy
1. y '+ ky =⇒
0 −ky ⇒
= −kdx
=
dx y
dy
⇒∫
y ∫
= −kdx ⇒ ln y =
−kx

⇒ ln y =
ln e − kx ⇒ y =
e − kx

2. y ''+ py '+ qy =
0

( −k )
2
e − kx ⇒ y ' =
But y = −ke − kx and y '' = e − kx
y ''+ py '+ qy =
0 becomes
( −k ) e − kx + p ( −ke − kx ) + qe − kx =
2
0

⇒ ( −k ) − kp + q  e − kx =
2
0
 
This relation is true if ( − k ) − kp + q =
2 − kx
0 since e
cannot be zero.

Then ( − k ) − kp + q =
2
0 . Putting m = −k , we have
m 2 + mp + q =0
Thus, the solution of y '+ ky =
0 is also a solution of
0 if m satisfy the auxiliary equation
y ''+ py '+ qy =
m 2 + mp + q =0 for m = −k .
mx
Therefore, the solution of the form e is the solution
of y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.

244
 Synthesis
In solving homogeneous linear equation of second order
y "+ py '+ qy =
0 , we first determine its characteristic equation
2
which is m + mp + q =0.
If m1 and m2 are solutions of the characteristic equation, then
the general solution of y "+ py '+ qy =
0=
is y c1e m1x + c2 e m2 x
− p ± p 2 − 4q
where m1 , m2 = .
2

Application Activity 5.94

1. =y c1e3 x + c2 e5 x 2.=y c1e −2 x + c2 e x

3. =y c1e5 x + c2 e −6 x 4.=y c1e −3 x + c2 e −7 x

Lesson 5.8. Characteristic equation with a double

root
Learning objectives
Given a second order differential equations with constant
coefficient where characteristic equation has one double root,
learners should be able to find its general solution correctly.
Prerequisites
• Solving quadratic equation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 5.8

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

245
 Answers

1. Characteristic equation:
m 2 + 2m + 1 =0
∆= 4− 4= 0
2
Thus, m1 =m2 =− = −1
2
d2y dy
One of solutions of 2
+2 + y =0 is y1 = e − x
dx dx
−x
2. y2 = xy1 ⇒ y2 = xe
−x
Since y2 = xe , then
dy2 d ( xe )
−x

= = e − x − xe − x
dx dx
d 2 y2 d ( e − xe )
−x −x

2
= = −e − x − e − x + xe − x =−2e − x + xe − x
dx dx
Substituting y by y2 = xe in
−x d2y dy
2
+2 + y = 0 yield
dx dx
( ) ( )
−2e − x + xe − x + 2 e − x − xe − x + xe − x = −2e − x + xe − x + 2e − x − 2 xe − x + xe − x = 0

xe − x ) + 2 ( e − x − xe − x ) + xe − x =
−2e − x + xe − x + 2e − x − 2 xe − x + xe − x = 0
−x
We note that y2 = xe is also a solution of
d2y dy
2
+2 + y =0
dx dx
y1 e− x 1
The ratio = = −x
is not constant, thus, y1 = e − x and
y2 xe x
y2 = xe − x are linearly independent and = y c1e − x + c2 xe − x is
d2y dy
the general solution of 2
+2 + y =0
dx dx
( c1 and c2 being arbitrary constants).

Synthesis
In solving homogeneous linear equation of second order
y "+ py '+ qy =
0 , if the characteristic equation m 2 + mp + q =0
has a double root equal to m , the general solution of equation
y ''+ py '+ qy =
0 will be
= y c1e mx + c2 xe mx .

246
 Application Activity 5.95

1. =y c1e3 x + c2 xe3 x 2.=y c1e −3 x + c2 xe −3 x

1
x
=
3. y e −4 x (c1 + c2 x) y
4. = ( c1 + xc2 ) e 6

Lesson 5.9. Characteristic equation with complex

roots
Learning objectives
Given a second order differential equations with constant
coefficient where the characteristic equation has complex roots,
learners should be able to find its general solution correctly.
Prerequisites
• Solving quadratic equation in complex numbers.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 5.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
2
1. Characteristic equation is m − 4m + 25 =
0
∆ = 16 − 100 = −64 ∆ = ±8i
4 + 8i 4 − 8i
m1= = 2 + 4i m2= = 2 − 4i
2 2
d2y dy
a) The basis of 2
− 4 + 25 y =
0 are
dx dx
y1 = c1e( 2+ 4i ) x and y2 = c2 e( 2− 4i ) x

247
 ( 2+ 4i ) x
b) =
Its general solution is y c1e + c2 e( 2− 4i ) x
( 2+ 4i ) x
2. y c1e
= + c2 e( 2− 4i ) x
⇔
= ⇔ y e 2 x ( c1e 4ix + c2 e −4ix )
y c1e 2 x + 4ix + c2 e 2 x − 4ix =
=⇔ y e 2 x c1 ( cos 4 x + i sin 4 x ) + c2 ( cos 4 x − i sin 4 x ) 
⇔
= y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x 
y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + e 2 x ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x
⇔=
⇔= y e 2 x ( c1 + c2 ) cos 4 x + ( c1 − c2 ) i sin 4 x 
2x
3. Real basis are y1 = Ae cos 4 x and y2 = Be 2 x sin 4 x
=
4. General solution is y e 2 x ( A cos 4 x + B sin 4 x )

Synthesis
If the characteristic equation has complex roots, α ± i β then,
is y e ( A cos β x + B sin β x ) , where α
αx
=
the general solution
and β are respectively ,real and imaginary part of root of
characteristic equation.

Application Activity 5.96

1. 1. y e −2 x ( A cos 3t + B sin 3t ) =
= 2.2. y e −2 x ( A cos x + B sin x )

3. 3. y e x ( A cos x + B sin x )
π −2 x
= 4. y = −e sin 3 x
2 2 x 2 − 52x
5.=y e − e
9 9

Lesson 5.10. Non- homogeneous linear differential

equations of the second order with
constant coefficients
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a non-
homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order
with constant coefficients and solve it where possible correctly.

248
Prerequisites
• Solving homogeneous differential equation of second
order.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 5.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
dy y
1. − = e x ( x + 1) is a linear differential
dx x + 1
equation of 1st order.
dy dv du
Let y= u ⋅ v , then = u +v .
dx dx dx
Substituting in the given equation, we get
dv du u ⋅ v
u +v − = e x ( x + 1)
dx dx x + 1
dv u ⋅ v du
Or u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
dx x + 1 dx
 dv v  du
⇔ u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
 dx x + 1  dx
dv v
Taking − = 0, you get = ln v ln ( x + 1) or v= x + 1 .
dx x + 1
dv v  dv v  du
As − = 0, u − +v = e x ( x + 1)
dx x + 1  dx x + 1  dx
du du
( x + 1) = e x ( x + 1) ⇔ = e x or u= e + c .
x

dx dx
The solution of the given equation is then,
( x + 1) ( e x + c ) or y =( x + 1) e + c ( x + 1)
x
y=

249
 2. d2y dy d2y dy
2
− 4 = 5 y ⇔ 2
− 4 − 5y = 0
dx dx dx dx
is homogeneous linear equation of second order.
Characteristic equation
m 2 − 4m − 5 = 0 ∆= 16 + 20= 36
4−6 4+6
m1 = = −1, m2 = = 5
2 2
=
General solution is y c1e − x + c2 e5 x
d2y dy
3. 2
− 4 − 5y = x is non-homogeneous
dx dx
linear equation of second order.
At this level, it is impossible for most learners to solve
this type of equation.
[General solution is given by y= y + y* .
=
From 1) Complementary solution is y c1e − x + c2 e5 x .
∗
Let y= Ax + B be particular solution of the given
equation.
∗ ''
Then y ∗ ' = A and y = 0 .
∗
Putting y= Ax + B and its derivatives in
d2y dy
2
− 4 − 5y =
x , gives
dx dx
0 − 4 A − 5 ( Ax + B ) =
x ⇔ −5 Ax − 4 A − 5 B =x
Identifying the coefficients, we get
−5 A =1 and − 4 A − 5 B = 0
1 4
Or A = − and B = .
5 25
∗ 1 4
Thus, particular solution is y = − x+
5 25
−x 5x 1 4
The general solution is y = c1e + c2 e − x +
5 25
Synthesis
The general solution of the second order non-homogeneous
linear equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) can be expressed in

250
 the form y= y + y* where y ∗ is any specific function that
satisfies the non-homogeneous equation, and =y c1 y1 + c1 y1
is a general solution of the corresponding homogeneous
equation y″ + py′ + qy = 0 .

Lesson 5.11. Differential equations of the second

order with the right hand side
r ( x ) = Peα x
Learning objectives
Given a differential equation of second order where the right
hand side is of the form r ( x ) = Peα x , learners should be able to
find its general solution correctly.
Prerequisites
• Solving homogeneous differential equation of second
order..
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen

Activity 5.11

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
2
1. Characteristic equation: m − 2m + 1 =0
∆= 4− 4= 0
2−0
m
=1 m=
2 = 1 y c1e x + c2 e x
=
2

251
 1x
2. The right hand side can be written as e = 1e .
x

P = 1 and α = 1
α = 1 , is double root of characteristic equation, so k = 2
y* = Ax 2 e x , Q ( x ) = A as P = 1 on right hand side, Q ( x )
has degree zero.
y*/ 2 Axe x + Ax 2 e x
3.=

y*/ / =2 Ae x + 2 Axe x + 2 Axe x + Ax 2 e x

⇒ 2 Ae x + 2 Axe x + 2 Axe x + Ax 2e x − 4 Axe x − 2 Ax 2e x + Ax 2e x =
ex
⇒ 2 A + 2 Ax + 2 Ax + Ax 2 − 4 Ax − 2 Ax 2 − Ax 2 = 1
⇒ −2 Ax 2 + 2 Ax 2 + x ( 2 A + 2 A − 4 A ) − 2 A =1
1
2 A =1 ⇒ A =
2
* 1 2 x
Thus, y = x e
2
Synthesis
If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) is
r ( x) = Peα x where P is a polynomial, we take the particular
solution to be
y* = x k Qn ( x)eα x , Qn = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ..... + an
Here, k- is the number of roots of the associated
homogeneous equation equal to α .
α ; coefficient of x in eα x on the right hand side,
n; degree of Q( x) , the same as degree of P ( x) on right hand
side.
3 cases arise
• If α is not a root of characteristic equation k = 0
• If α is a simple root of characteristic equation k = 1
• If α is a double root of characteristic equation k = 2
Note that the simple root or double root in the last 2 cases
must be real numbers.

252
 Application Activity 5.97
5e3 x e3 x
1. −3 x
y =c1e + c2 xe + −3 x
2. c1e x + c2 e 2 x +
36 2
1 1
3. y =c1e − x + c2 e −2 x + e 2 x 4. y =c1e x + c2 e 2 x + e3 x
4 2
x2
5. y= ( c1 + c2 x ) e3 x + e3 x
2

Lesson 5.12. Differential equations of the second

order with the right hand side
=r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x
Learning objectives
Given differential equations of second order where the right
hand side is of the form = r ( x ) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x ,
learners should be able to find its solution correctly.
Prerequisites
• Solving homogeneous differential equations of the second
order.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator and pen
Activity 5.12
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
2
1. Characteristic equation: m + 4 =0
m1 = 2i, m2 = −2i
=y c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x

253
 2. The right hand side of the given equation is written
=
as cos 2 x 1e0 x cos 2 x + 0e0 x sin 2 x
P 1,=
= Q 0,= α 0,= β 2,
α + β i =0 + 2i =2i is a root of characteristic
equation, so r = 1
Highest degree of P and Q is zero since=
P 1,=
Q 0
Then,= and y
, v B=
u A=
*
x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
y*/ A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + x ( −2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x )
3. =
= A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + 2 x ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x )
y*// =
−2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x − 2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x
=n 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x − 2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x + 2 x ( −2 A cos 2 x − 2 B sin 2 x )
=4 ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x )
⇒ 4 ( − A sin 2 x + B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x
+ B cos 2 x ) + 4 x ( − A cos 2 x − B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) =
cos 2 x
⇒ −4 A sin 2 x + 4 B cos 2 x − 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) =
+ 4 B cos 2 x − 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) + 4 x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) =
cos 2 x
⇒ −4 A sin 2 x + 4 B cos 2 x =
cos 2 x
A = 0
−4 A = 0 
 ⇒ 1
4 B = 1  B=
 4
 1  1
y* = x  0 cos 2 x + sin 2 x  = x sin 2 x
 4  4

Synthesis
If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
αx αx
is r ( x) Pe cos β x + Qe sin β x where P and Q are
=
polynomials, two cases arise:
• If α + i β is not a root of characteristic equation, the
particular solution is
=y* Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x

254
 • If α + i β is a root of characteristic equation, the
particular solution becomes,

=y* x Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x 

In all cases, U and V are polynomial for which their degree is

equal to the highest degree of P and Q.

Application Activity 5.98

1
1. y =c1e x + c2 xe x + ( x cos x + cos x − sin x )
2
2. y =c1e x + c2 xe x − e x ( x sin x + 2 cos x )
1 3 
3. y =c1e x + c2 e − x −  cos 3 x + x sin 3 x + 5cos x 
10  5 
4. y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − x cos x + sin x ln sin x

5. y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − cos x ln sec x + tan x

Lesson 5.13. Applications: Newton’s law of cooling

Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should be
able to use differential equations to solve problems involving
Newton’s law of cooling accurately.
Prerequisites
• Solving differential equations
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator, library or internet if available and pen

Activity 5.13

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills

255
 • Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
• Research

Answers
To formulate a model, we need to know something about how a
liquid cools.
Experimental evidence shows that the rate at which temperature
changes is proportional to the difference in temperature
between the liquid and the surrounding (ambient) air. If T is the
temperature of the liquid at time t then in this case;
dT
−k (T − 20 ) where k is the constant of proportionality
=
dt
and the negative sign shows that the temperature is reducing.
0
When coffee is made, its temperature is 900 C . So T = 90 C
when t = 0 .
In formulating this model, we assume that;
• The temperature throughout the coffee is uniform.
• The temperature of surrounding air is constant.
• The rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the
temperature of the body above that of the surrounding air.

Synthesis
Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which an object
cools is proportional to the difference between the temperature
at the surface of the body, and the ambient air temperature.
Thus, if T is the surface temperature at time t and Ta is the
dT
ambient temperature, then −λ (T − Ta ) where
=
dt
λ >0 is some experimentally determined constant of
proportionality, and T0 is the initial temperature.

256
Lesson 5.14. Applications: Electrical circuits
Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should
be able to use differential equations in solving electrical circuit
problems accurately.
Prerequisites
• Solving differential equations.
• Alternating current.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, calculator, library or internet if available and pen

Activity 5.14

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Research
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
 di 
a) Rearranging E − L  = Ri , gives di = E − Ri and separating
 dt  dt L
di dt
the variables, we get E − Ri = L

Integrating both sides gives:

di dt 1 t
∫ E − Ri= ∫ L ⇒ − R ln ( E − Ri )= L
+c

1
When t = 0 , i = 0 , thus − ln E =c
R
Thus, the particular solution is:
1 t 1
− ln ( E − Ri ) = − ln E
R L R

257
 Rearranging gives:
1 1 t
⇔− ln ( E − Ri ) + ln E =
R R L
1 E − Ri t
⇔ − ln =
R E L
1 E t E Rt
⇔ ln = ⇔ ln =
R E − Ri L E − Ri L
from which
Rt Rt
E E − Ri −
eL ⇔
= e L
=
E − Ri E
Rt Rt
− −
⇔ E − Ri =
Ee ⇒ Ri =E − Ee
L L

E −
Rt

=
Therefore, i  1 − e L

R 
E E
b) i = (1 − e ) ≈ 0.95
−3

R R
E E
c) i =
R
(1 − e − 2 ) ≈ 0.86 i.e. 86%
R
Synthesis
In the R−L series circuit shown in figure 5.1, the supply p.d., E, is
given by
di
= VR + VL , VR = iR and VL = L
E
dt
di di
Hence E= iR + L . From which E − L = iR
dt dt

Figure 5.1: R-L series

E −
Rt

The corresponding solution = is i 1 − e  which represents
L
R 
the law of growth of current in an inductive circuit as shown in
figure 5.2

258
 i
E
R

E −
Rt

=i  1 − e L

R 

0 Time t

Figure 5.2: Law of growth of current

The growth of the current in the RL circuit is the current’s steady-
L
state value. The number t = is the time constant of the circuit.
R
The current gets to within 5% of its steady-state value in 3 times
constant.

Application Activity 5.99

1. P indicates number of rabbits, t time in months.

Differential equation:
dP
= 0.7 P , P = 10 when t = 0
dt
2. To be proved
dT
3. a) = k (1 − 32.2 )
dt
T ( 0 ) 34.8,
= = T (1) 34.1
o
T is temperature in C , t is time hours after 2:30
a.m. and k is constant.
Assume that the rate of temperature change is
proportional to the difference between body
temperature and room temperature. Assume room
temperature is constant.
T 32.2 + 2.6e −0.31t
b)=
c) 0:33 a.m. ( t = −117 minutes )

259
 t
−
4. (a) Q = Qo e CR (b) 9.30C , 5.81C
5. 273.3 N , 2.31 rads

5.6. Summary of the unit

1. Definition and classification

An equation involving one or more differential coefficients i.e.
dy d 2 y dr
, , is called a differential equation.
dx dx 2 dt
Order of the highest derivative of function that appears in a
differential equation is said to be the order of differential
equation.
The general ordinary differential equation of the nth order is
 dy d 2 y dny 
F  x, y, , 2 ,......., n  = 0 , OR
 dx dx dx 
F ( x, y, y ', y '',......., y ( n ) ) = 0

2. First order differential equations

The general differential equation of the 1st order is
 dy  dy
F  x, y,  = 0 or = f ( x, y )
 dx  dx
The simplest is that in which the variables are separable:
dy
= g ( x) h ( y) .
dx
A homogeneous equation of degree 0 can be expressed as a
y
function of z = .
x
dy
The general solution to the equation + py = q where p
dx
and q are functions in x or constants, is y = uv where

u = ∫ q e∫
pdx
dx and v = e ∫ .
− pdx

260
 3. Second order differential equations
The general second order linear differential equation is of the
form
d2y dy
2
+ p ( x) + q ( x) y =
r ( x)
dx dx
Let y ''+ py '+ qy =
0 be a homogeneous linear equation of second
order (right hand side is equal to zero) where p and q are
constants.
2
The equation m + pm + q =0 is called the characteristic
auxiliary equation.
• If characteristic equation has two distinct real roots then,
=y c1e m1x + c2 e m2 x is the general solution of y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.
• If characteristic equation has a real double root then,
=y c1e mx + c2 xe mx is the general solution of y ''+ py '+ qy =
0.
• If characteristic equation has complex roots then,
=y e ax ( c1 cos bx + c2 sin bx ) is the general solution of
y ''+ py '+ qy = 0.
Let y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) be a non-homogeneous linear equation
of second order (right hand side is different from zero) where p
and q are real numbers.
• If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x)
αx
has the form r ( x) = Pe where P is a polynomial, then the
particular solution will be
y* = x k Qn ( x)eα x , Qn = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + ..... + an ,
where k - is the number of real roots of the associated
homogeneous equation that equals to α ;
α is the coefficient of x in eα x in the right hand side and n is
the degree of Q( x) that is the same as the degree of P ( x) for
r ( x) .

261
 • If the right hand side of the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) is of
form r ( x) Peα x cos β x + Qeα x sin β x where P and Q are
the =
polynomials, two cases arise:
α + i β is not a root of characteristic equation.
Here, the particular solution will be
=y* Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x
α + i β is a root of characteristic equation;
Then, the particular solution is
= y* x Ueα x cos β x + Veα x sin β x  .
In all cases, U and V are polynomials of degree that is equal to the
highest degree of P and Q.

Alternative method: Variation of parameters

We know that the general solution of the characteristic equation
associated with the equation y ''+ py '+ qy =
r ( x) is found to be
=y c1 y1 ( x) + c2 y2 ( x) .
y c1 y1 ( x ) + c2 y2 ( x ) , we can get particular solution y as
∗
=
From
follows:
• We determine W ( y1 , y2 ) known as Wronskian of two
functions y1 and y2 defined by
y1 y2
W (=
y1 , y2 ) '
≠ 0 , since y1 and y2 are linearly
y1 y2'
independent.
− y2 r ( x ) y1r ( x)
• We find out v1 = ∫ , and v2 = ∫
W ( y1 , y2 ) W ( y1 , y2 )
where r ( x) is the right hand side of the given equation.
Then, particular solution y ∗ is given by
=y* v1 ( x) y1 ( x) + v2 ( x) y2 ( x) .
Therefore, the general solution is y= y + y ∗
Or y = c1 y1 ( x) + c2 y2 ( x) + v1 ( x) y1 ( x) + v2 ( x) y2 ( x)

262
4. Applications
There are a number of well-known applications of first order
equations which provide classic prototypes for mathematical
dy
modeling. These mainly rely on the interpretation of as a rate
dt
of change of a function y with respect to time t . In everyday life,
there are many examples of the importance of rates of change –
speed of moving particles, growth and decay of populations and
materials, heat flow, fluid flow, and so on. In each case, we can
construct models of varying degrees of sophistication to describe
given situations.

5.7. End of unit assessment

x2 1 2 1
1. a)
2
+1 b)
2
( x + 1) + ln x c) − cos − x + 1
π
−x 1 2x x3 + c
d) ce + e
x −2 x
e) e + ce f)
3 x −1
x 2 −2 x
g) cx 2 − e
2
3 2x x −x
e3 y
2. a) = e +c b) y = cx e
2
(y − 1) = y x ( cx − 3)
2
c) 2
cx d)=

(2 y − x) = c( x + y)
2 2 4
e) x + y = kx f)
1 2x
g)=y
5
e + ce −3 x 2
h) y = 1 − x + c 1 − x
2
( )
(
2
)
3. a) ln x y = 2 x − y − 1 y x ( 2 − ln x )
b) =
=
c) y x 8x + 1 d)=y e x ( x − 1)
e)=y tan x + 2sec x =
f) y c1e −2 x + c2 e x

=
4. a) y c1e −2 x + c2 e x =b) y e −2 x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x )

c)=y c1e 2 x + c2 xe 2 x d) c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x

=
e) y c1e −3 x + c2 e3 x
1
−x −3 x
5. a) y = c1e + c2 e + (11 − 4 x )
8

263
 e2 x
b) y= c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x − ( x + 2)
4
14 12
y e − x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) −
c) = cos 3 x + sin 3 x
85 85
1 −x
d) y = c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x +e ( 2 cos x − sin x )
10
1 x
y c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x + e x − cos 2 x
e) =
5 4
1 3x 2 3 3x
f) y = c1e + c2 e + e ( x − x ) + e ( sin 2 x − cos 2 x )
x 3x

2 8
2  2x −  5x
π −2 x
6. a)  e − e 2  b) −e sin 3 x
9 
1 1 π 1 1
7. a) ( e x − e −3 x ) b) − cos 2 x − sin 2 x + x +
4 4 16 4 4
2 1 1 3 4
c) sin x − sin 2 x d) e3 x − e x + x +
3 3 6 2 3
4 5 x 10 2 x 1 2 x
e) y = e − e − xe + 2
3 3 3
3
− x 3 x
f) y = 2e 2
− 2e 2 x + e ( 3sin x − 7 cos x )
29
g) =y e x ( 3cos x + sin x ) − e x cos 2 x
8. m is mass and t is time.
dm
= −km, k is a constant.
dt
dP
=
9. kP (1,500 − P ) , k is a constant.
dt
dh
10. h is height in cm, t is time in days, = 0.25h, h = 2
dt
when t = 0 .
t
−
11. a) q ( t ) = EC + ( qo − EC ) e RC
b) EC
 0.01EC 
c) − RC ln  
 qo − EC 
12. 47.22o C
13. 77.90 C

264
 Intersection and
Unit 6
Sum of Subspaces

6.1. Key unit competence

Relate the sum and the intersection of subspaces of a vector
space by the dimension formula.

6.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Dimension: Number of vectors of the basis of a vector
space (or a subspace).
Grassmann’s formula: Relation connecting dimensions of
subspaces.

6.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, and then assign them to do the
introductory activity from the student’s book. As they are working,
move around to each group and ask them probing questions
leading them to the right way. After a while, invite some group to
present their findings in a whole class discussion. Guide students
to harmonize their answers and arouse their curiosity to the
content of this unit.

6.4. List of lessons

Number of
No Lesson title
periods
1 Definition of subspaces 4
2 Intersection of subspaces 2
3 Dimension of intersection of subspaces 2
4 Sum of subspaces 2
5 Dimension of sum of subspaces 2
6 Grassmann’s formula of dimension for subspaces 2
Total periods 14

265
 6.5. Lesson development

Lesson 6.1. Definition of subspaces

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to verify that a subset
n
V of  is a subspace of  n accurately.
Prerequisites
• Vector space
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 6.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. ( 2 x, 0,5 x ) = ( 0, 0, 0 )
2 x = 0
 ⇒x= 0
5 x = 0
Thus, the value of x is 0.
 
2. α=u + β v α ( 2a, 0,5a ) + β ( 2b, 0,5b )
( 2α a, 0,5α a ) + ( 2β b, 0,5β b ) =+
= ( 2α a 2β b, 0,5α a + 5β b )
=( 2 (α a + β b ) , 0,5 (α a + β b ) ) =( 2 x, 0,5 x ) for x =α a + β b
 
Hence, α u + β v ∈ V
3. From results in 1) and 2) and since V is a subset of  3 ,
we conclude that V is a sub-vector space.

266
 Synthesis
n
A subset V of  is called a sub-vector space, or just a
n
subspace of  if it has the following properties:
• The null vector belongs to V.
 
• V is closed under vector addition, i.e if u , v ∈ V then
 
u + v ∈V .

• V is closed under scalar multiplication, i.e if α ∈ , u ∈ V

, α u ∈V .

Application Activity 6.100

1. a) No, S is not closed under multiplication:

1 1  −1
1 ∈ S but − 1 =  −1 ∉ S
   
b) Yes, all properties are verified.
2. a) This is a subspace. It contains (1, 0, 0 ) and
( 2, 1, 0 ) .
b) This is a subspace. It contains ( 2, 1, 0 ) and
( 3, 0, −3) .
c) This is not a subspace. It doesn’t contain ( 0, 0, 0 ) .
3. From results in 1) and 2) and since V is a subset of  3 ,
we conclude that V is a sub-vector space.

Lesson 6.2. Intersection of subspaces

Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to find their
intersection and verify that this intersection is also a subspace
correctly.
Prerequisites
• Subspace properties
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

267
 Activity 6.2
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

2 x − y + 3 z =0

 x + y + z =0
4
3x + 4 z =0⇒ x = − z
3
 4  4 1
y =− x − z =−  − z  − z = − z = z
 3  3 3
Then,
 4 1  
H ∩ K =  − z , z , z  : z ∈   or
 3 3  
H ∩ K ={( −4 x, x,3 x ) : x ∈ }

Synthesis
Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The
intersection of U and W, written U ∩ W , consists of all vectors
  
u where u ∈ U and u ∈ W .
Any intersection of subspaces of a vector space V is a
subspace of V.
Properties:
• For any two subspaces U and W , U ∩ W = W ∩ U
• If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, then U ∩ W
is also a subspace of V.

268
 Application Activity 6.101

 a 0  
U ∩ W 
1. =  : a ∈ 
 0 0  
2. H ∩ K= { functions f on  : f ( 2=) ) 0}
f (1=
3. U ∩V ={( 0, 0 )}
4. U=
1∩ U {( 0, y, 0 ) : y ∈ }
2

5. U ∩U =
1 {( 0, 0, 0 )}
2

Lesson 6.3. Dimensions of intersection of

subspaces
Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to find their
intersection and the dimension of the intersection accurately.
Prerequisites
• Intersection of two subspaces.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 6.3
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
a) U ∩ W
x = x

y = y
0 = z


269
 U ∩W
b)= {( x, y, 0 ) : x, y ∈ }
U ∩W
= {( x, y, 0 ) : x, y ∈ }
( x=
, y, 0 ) ( x, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, y, 0 )
= x (1, 0, 0 ) + y ( 0,1, 0 )
The vectors (1, 0, 0 ) and ( 0,1, 0 ) are linearly
independent. Then basis of U ∩ W is {(1, 0, 0 ) , ( 0,1, 0 )}
and hence dim (U ∩ W ) =
2.

Synthesis
A finite set S of vectors in a vector space V is called a basis for
V provided that;
• The vectors in S are linearly independent.
• The vector in S span V (or S is a generating set of V).
The unique number of vectors in each basis for V is called the
dimension of V and is denoted by dim (V ) .
The dimension of U ∩ W is the number of vectors of the basis
for U ∩ W .

Application Activity 6.102

1. dim (U ∩ W ) =
1 2. dim (U ∩ W ) =
1
3. dim ( H ∩ K ) =
2

Lesson 6.4. Sum of subspaces

Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to find their sum
and verify if the sum is a subspace accurately.
Prerequisites
• Properties of subspaces
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

270
 Activity 6.4
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
For U
= {( a, 0, c ) : a, c ∈ = } and W {( 0, b, b ) : b ∈ }
U=
+W {( a, 0, c ) + ( 0, b, b ) : a, b, c ∈ }
={( a, b, c + b ) : a, b, c ∈ }
 
Clearly, ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∈ U + W . =Let u ( x, y,=
z), w ( x ', y ', z ') ∈U + W
and α , β ∈ U + W
 
αu +=β v α ( x, y, z ) + β ( x ', y ', z ')
= (α x, α y, α z ) + ( β x ', β y ', β z ')
=(α x + β x ', α y + β y ', α z + β z ')
= ( a , b, c ) ∈ U + W
α x + β x ', b =
for a = α y + β y ', c =
αz + βz'
3
Thus, U + W is a sub space of 

Synthesis
Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The sum of U
and W, written U + W , consists of all sums x + y where x ∈ U
and y ∈ W .
• The sum U + W of the subspaces U and V is also a
subspace of V .
• W1 and W2 are subspace of V , then W1 + W2 is the smallest
subspace that contains both W1 and W2 .

271
 Application Activity 6.103
     
1. Let v ∈ U + W . Then v= u + w, u ∈ U and w ∈ W . Since
 
{ i}
u generates U, u is a linear combination of ui ' s ; and
 
{ }
since w j generates W, w is a linear combination of

wj ' s .
Thus
        
v =u + w =a1 ui1 + a2 ui 2 + .... + an uin + b1 w j1 + b2 w j 2 + .... + bm w jm
 
{ }
and so ui , w j generates U + V .
 e b 
2. U + W 
=  : b, d , e ∈  
 d 0 
3. {( 2a − b,3a + 4b,5a + 3b ) : a, b ∈ }

Lesson 6.5. Dimension of sum of subspaces

Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to find their sum
and the dimension of the sum accurately.
Prerequisites
• Sum of subspaces.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 6.5

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

272
 Answers
1. U =
+W {( a, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈=
} {( a, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈ }
U +W
2.= {( a, b, 0 ) : a, b ∈ }
(=
a, b, 0 ) ( a, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, b, 0 )
= a (1, 0, 0 ) + b ( 0,1, 0 )
The vectors (1, 0, 0 ) and ( 0,1, 0 ) are linearly
independent. Then, basis of U + W is {(1, 0, 0 ) , ( 0,1, 0 )}
and hence dim (U + W ) =
2.

Synthesis
A finite set S of linearly independent vectors in the sum
U + V is called a basis for U + V and the number of vectors in
set S is the dimension of U + V .

Application Activity 6.104

1. dim ( H + K ) =
2 2. dim (U + V ) =
2
3. dim (U1 + U 2 ) =
2

Lesson 6.6. Grassmann’s formula of dimension for

subspaces
Learning objectives
Given two subspaces, learners should be able to use
Grassmann’s formula to find the dimension of the sum or
intersection correctly.
Prerequisites
• Sum of subspaces.
• Intersection of subspaces.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

273
 Activity 6.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. a) dim ( F ) = 2 and dim ( G ) = 2
b) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) = 2 + 2 = 4
F ∩G
c) = {( 0, 0, z ) : z ∈ } and dim ( F ∩ G ) =
1
d) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) = 4 − 1 = 3
e) F + G
= {( x, y, z ) : x, y, z ∈ } and dim ( F + G ) =
3
2. From results in d) and e),
dim ( F +=
G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G )

Synthesis
• If ( , F , + ) and ( , G, + ) are two sub-vector spaces of
( , E , + ) , we have,
dim ( F += G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) .
• If dim ( F ∩ G ) = 0 , then dim ( F += G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) .
In this case, F and G are said to be complementary
and the sum F + G is said to be a direct sum; and it is
denoted by F ⊕ G . Otherwise, F and G are said to be
supplementary.

274
 Application Activity 6.105

(V ) 3, dim=
1. dim= (W ) 2, dim (V ∩=
W) 1
dim (V + W ) = dim (V ) + dim (W ) − dim (V ∩ W ) = 3 + 2 − 1 = 4
3
2.  cannot be uniquely represented as a direct sum of
W1 and W2 .
3. = W1 + W2 is a direct sum. i.e, F= W1 ⊕ W2 .
F
4. No, since dim ( F ∩ G ) =3 ≠ 0 .
5. Since U is not equal to W, the basis for U must have
at least one vector linearly independent from U, so
dim (U + W ) is at least 4. But they are subspaces
of  4 , so dim (U + W ) =
4 . Using the fact that
dim (U + W
= ) dim (U ) + dim (W ) − dim (U ∩ W ) .
Then, 4 = 3 + 3 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 6 − 4 = 2 .

6.6. Summary of the unit

1. Definition
If ( , F , + ) is a subspace of ( , E , + ) , then
• F⊂E

• 0∈ F
   
• u , v ∈ F , α , β ∈ ; α u + β v ∈ F

2. Intersection and sum of two vector spaces

Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. The intersection
 
of U and W, written U ∩ W , consists of all vectors u where u ∈ U

and u ∈ W .
Any intersection of subspaces of a vector space V is a subspace
of V. W1 and W2 are subspaces of V , then W1 ∪ W2 is a subspace
⇔ W1 ⊆ W2 or W2 ⊆ W1 .

275
If F and G are two sub-vector spaces of E , then, the sum
of F and G is also a sub-vector space of E . It is denoted as
F + G = { x + y, x ∈ F , y ∈ G} .
Grassmann’s formula of dimensions.
If ( IR, F , + ) and ( , G, + ) are two sub-vector spaces of ( , E , + ) ,
we have,
dim ( F +=
G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) .
Remark
0 , then dim ( F +=
If dim ( F ∩ G ) = G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) . In this
case, F and G are said to be complementary and the sum F + G
is said to be a direct sum; and it is denoted by F ⊕ G .
Otherwise, F and G are said to be supplementary.

6.7. End of Unit Assessment

1.a)Yes, this is a plane through origin because x = y if and only

and y 0 , then we have null vector ( 0, 0 )

if x 0=
=
b) No, this does not contain the origin; because the line

(1 + t , 2t ,3t ) does not respect null vector. when t = 0 , we

have (1, 0, 0 )
c) Yes, this is just the zero point,; because the locus

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = x 0,=
0 it respect null vector if = y 0,=
z 0
and only if and also respect vector addition.

d) No, because this locus does x 2 + y 2 − z 2 =

0 not respect
vector space addition.

6. dim ( E ) = 1 , dim ( F ) = 2
7. dim (W ) = 3
8. Since U and W are distinct, U + W properly contains
U and W ; hence dim (U + W ) > 4 . Since dim (V ) = 6 ,
dim (U + W ) cannot be greater than 6.

276
 Hence, there are two possibilities:
a) dim (U + W ) = 5 ⇔ 5 = 4 + 4 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 3
b) dim (U + W ) = 6 ⇔ 6 = 4 + 4 − dim (U ∩ W ) ⇒ dim (U ∩ W ) = 2
9. a) dim (U + W ) =
3 b) dim (U ∩ W ) =
1
10. The set of the symmetric matrices W1 and the set of the
skew symmetric matrices W2 are both subspaces of M n×n .

A ∈ W1 ∩ W2 , A =At =− At ⇒ A = {0}
0 , ∴W1 ∩ W2 =
 1
= B 2
( A + At )
Let 
1
= C
 2
( A − At )
Then,
B ∈ W1 , C ∈ W2 , ∴ M n×n =
W1 ⊕ W2
11. Yes, since dim ( F ∩ G ) =
0.

277
 Transformation of
Unit 7
Matrices

7.1. Key unit competence

Transform matrices to an echelon form or to diagonal matrix
and use the results to solve simultaneous linear equations or to
calculate the nth power of a matrix.

7.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Elementary row/column operations: Operations performed
on row/column of a matrix (addition, scalar
multiplication, and interchanging rows/columns)
to obtain a new matrix.
Characteristic equation: Polynomial A − λ I = 0, λ ∈ 
where A is a given matrix and I is identity
matrix of the same order as A .
Eigenvalue: The real number λ that is a root in the
characteristic polynomial A − λ I = 0, λ ∈ 
  
Eigenvector: The vector u such that ( A − λ I ) u =
0.
Row echelon form: Matrix is in row echelon form when the first
non-zero element in each row (called the leading
entry) is 1 and this leading entry is in a column to
the right of the leading entry in the previous row.
Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below
rows having a non-zero element.
Reduced row echelon form: A matrix is in reduced row
echelon form when it is in row echelon form and
the leading entry in each row is the only non-
zero entry in its column.

7.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, and then assign them to do the
introductory activity from the student’s book. As they are working,
move around to each group and ask them probing questions
leading them to the right way. After a while, invite some group to
present their findings in a whole class discussion. Guide students
to harmonize their answers and arouse their curiosity to the
content of this unit.

7.4. List of lessons

No Lesson title Number of
periods
1 Kernel and range 4
2 Elementary row/column operations 3
3 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 4
4 Diagonalisation of a matrix 3
5 Echelon matrix 3
6 Inverse matrix 3
7 Rank of a matrix 3
8 Solving system of linear equations 3
9 Power of a matrix 3
Total periods 29

7.5. Lesson development

Lesson 7.1. Kernel and range
Learning objectives
By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to find kernel
and range of a linear transformation.
Prerequisites
• Operation on vectors.
• Operations on matrices.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen
Activity 7.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking

279
 • Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
( 3x + y + 2,3x − y + 1) =( 0, 0 )
3 x + y + 2 =0
⇒
3 x − y + 1 =0

3 x + y + 2 = 0  1
3 −  + y + 2 =0

3 x − y + 1 =0  2
1 3 1
6x + 3 =0 ⇒ x =− ⇒ y =−2 + =−
2 2 2
 1 1
Thus, ( x, y ) = − , − 
 2 2
Synthesis
࿌ The kernel of a linear mapping f : E → F denoted
Ker ( f ) is a subset of E whose image by f is 0-vector of
{v ∈ E : f ( v ) =
F. i.e, Ker ( f ) = 0} .
࿌ The nullity of f denoted n ( f ) is the dimension of
Ker ( f ) . i.e, n ( f ) = dim Ker ( f ) .
࿌ The image or range of a linear mapping f : E → F
is the set of vectors in F to which points in E are
mapped on. i.e, Im f= {u ∈ F : f ( v=) u}, v∈E .
࿌ The rank of f denoted rank ( f ) or r ( f ) is the
dimension of image of f. i.e, rank ( f ) = dim ( Im f ) .
࿌ If f :E →F, dim  Ker ( f )  + dim  range ( f )  =
dim ( E ) .

280
 Application Activity 7.106

1. 1.a)
a ) ImF
= {( x, y, z ) : =z 0=} xy − plane

b) KerF= {( x, y, z ) : x= 0, y= 0}= z − axis .

2. a) Basis is {(1, 0,1) , ( 0,1, −1)} and dimension is 2.
b) Basis is {( 3, −1,1)} and dimension is 1.
3. a) Basis is {(1,1,1) , ( 0,1, 2 )} and dimension is 2.
b) Basis is {( 2,1, −1, 0 ) , (1, 2, 0,1)} and dimension is 2.

Lesson 7.2. Elementary row/column operations

Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to use row/column
operations to transform correctly.
Prerequisites
• Adding row/column of a matrix.
• Multiplying a row/column of a matrix by a real number.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 7.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

281
 Answers
1 0 2 1 0 2 
 
1.  0 1 3  2.  0 1 3 
3 2 1  
   0 2 −5 
 
 2
1 2 0 1 2 − 3 
 
3.  0 3 1  4.  0 3 0 
 
 0 −5 2   11 
   0 −5 
 3 
Synthesis
Common row/column and their notations are;
Operation description Notation
Row operations
1. Interchange row i and j → ri ↔ rj
2.Multiply row i by s ≠ 0 → new ri → sri
3. Add s times row i to row j → new rj → rj + sri
Column operations
1. Interchange column i and j → ci ↔ c j
2.Multiply column i by s ≠ 0 → new ci → sci
3. Add s times column i to column j → new c j → c j + sci

Application Activity 7.107

 1 2 −3 0   1 2 −3 0 
   
1. a)  0 0 4 2  b)  0 0 4 2 
 3 6 −4 3  0 0 5 3
   
 1 2 −3 0 

c)  0 0 4 2 

0 0 0 2
 

282
  6 9 0 7 −2  6 9 0 7 0
2. a)  0 0 3 2 5 
 
b)  0 0 3 2 5 
 
0 0 0 0 2  0 0 0 0 2
   
6 9 0 7 0
 
c)  0 0 6 4 0 
0 0 0 0 2
 

Lesson 7.3. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to find eigenvalues and
eigenvectors accurately.
Prerequisites
• Operation on matrices.
• Matrix determinant.
• Solving equation of second/third degree.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 7.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

283
 Answers
4 2  1 0
1. det ( A − λ=
I)  −λ 
 3 −1 0 1
4−λ 2
=
3 −1 − λ
= ( 4 − λ )( −1 − λ ) − 6
= λ 2 − 3λ − 10
2. λ − 3λ − 10 =
2
0 ⇔ ( λ + 2 )( λ − 5 ) =⇒
0 λ=−2 or λ =5
 
3. ( A − λ I ) u =
0
For λ = −2
4 2   1 0    u1   0 
  + 2   =  
  3 −1  0 1    u2   0 
 6 2   u1   0 
   =  
 3 1   u2   0 
6u1 + 2u2 = 0
 ⇒ u2 = −3u1
3u1 + u2 = 0
  1
Thus, u k   , k ∈  0
=
 −3 
For λ = 5
  4 2   1 0    u1   0 
  − 5   =  
  3 −1  0 1    u2   0 
 −1 2   u1   0  −u1 + 2u2 =0
    =  2u2
⇒ u1 =
 3 −6 u
 2   0 3u1 − 6u 2 0
=
  2
=
Thus, u k  , k ∈ 0
1 
Synthesis
The eigenvalues of square matrix A, are the roots of
the polynomial det ( A − λ I ) . The homogeneous system
  
( f − λI )u =
0 gives the eigenvector u associated with
eigenvalue λ.

284
Cayley and Hamilton theorem
The Cayley–Hamilton theorem (named after the mathematicians
Arthur Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton) states that every
square matrix over a commutative ring (such as the real or
complex field) satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Note that an eigenvector cannot be 0, but an eigenvalue can
be 0. If 0 is an eigenvalue  A, there must be some non-trivial
 of
(
vector u for which A − 0 u = )0.

Application Activity 7.108

  3
1. a) Eigenvalues: 7 and -4, eigenvectors: u =   and
  2 1 
v= 
 −3 
  3
b) Eigenvalues: 7 and -4, eigenvectors: u =   and
  2 1 
v= 
 −3 
c) No eigenvalues, no eigenvectors
2. a) λ1 = (1, −1, 0 ) , v =
2, u = (1, 0, −1) ; λ2 = (1, 2,1)
6, w =
b) λ=
1 3, u= (1,1, 0 ) , =
v (1, 0,1) ; λ=
2 ,w
= ( 2, −1,1)( )
λ 1,=
c) = u (1, 0, 0 ) =
, v ( 0, 0,1)
3. Characteristic equation of matrix A is
A − λI =
0. (1)
Characteristic equation of matrix At is
At − λ I =
0. (2)
Clearly, both (1) and (2) are the same, as we know that
A = At .
Therefore, A and At have the same eigenvalues.

285
 4. Let us consider the triangular matrix,
 a11 0  0 
 
a a22 0 0 
A =  21
     
 
 an1 an 2  ann 
Characteristic equation is A − λ I =
0.
a11 − λ 0  0
a21 a22 − λ 0 0
⇔ 0
=
   
an1 an 2  ann − λ
⇔ ( a11 − λ )( a22 − λ ) ( ann − λ ) =
0
Therefore, λ = a11 , a22 , ann are the elements of diagonal
entries.
 7 2 −10 
1 
5. −2 2 −1 
9  
 −1 1 4 
5 4 3 2
6. A − 4 A − 7 A + 11A − A − 10 I A + 5 I
= (A 5
− 4 A4 − 5 A3 ) − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I

= A3 ( A2 − 4 A − 5 ) − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I

= 0 − 2 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I
− ( 2 A3 − 8 A2 − 10 A ) + 3 A2 − 11A − 10 I
=

0 3 A2 − 11A − 10 I
=+
= ( 3 A − 12 A − 15I ) + A + 5I
2

= 3 ( A − 4 A − 5I ) + A + 5I = A + 5I
2

5 4 3 2
Therefore, A − 4 A − 7 A + 11A − A − 10 I = A + 5 I .

286
Lesson 7.4. Diagonalisation of a matrix
Learning objectives
Given a matrix, learners should be able to diagonalise that matrix
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Operation on matrices
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 7.4 Learner’s Book page <?>

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
 −4 −6 
1. A= 
 3 5
Eigenvalues:
 −4 −6  1 0
 −λ =0 ⇒ −4 − λ −6 =0
 3 5 0 1 3 5−λ
⇒ ( −4 − λ )( 5 − λ ) + 18 =0
λ 2 − λ − 2 =0 ⇒ λ =−1 or λ =2
Eigenvalues are -1 and 2
Eigenvectors:
For λ = −1
 −4 −6   1 0    x   0 
 +    =  
  3 5   0 1   y   0 

287
  −3 −6   x   0 
⇒   =   −3 x − 6 y = 0
 3 6  y  0 
3 x + 6 y =0
 −3 x − 6 y   0 
⇒ =  ⇒ 3x = −6 y ⇒ x =−2 y
 3x + 6 y   0 
Eigenvector associated to λ = −1 has the form
 −2 y    −2 
  , y ∈  0 . Take u =  
 y   1
For λ = 2
 −4 −6   2 0    x   0 
 −    =  
 3 5   0 2    y   0 
 −6 −6   x   0 
⇒   =   −6 x − 6 y = 0
 3 3  y  0 
3 x + 3 y =0
 −6 x − 6 y   0 
⇒ =  ⇒ 3 x =−3 y ⇒ x =− y
 3x + 3 y   0 
Eigenvector associated to λ = 2 has the form
−y   −1
  , y ∈  0 . Take u =  1 
 y  
 −2 −1 
2. From 1), P =  
1 1
−1 1  1 1   −1 −1
3. P
= =    
−1  −1 −2   1 2 

−1  −1 −1 −4 −6  −2 −1
=
4. D P= AP    
 1 2  3 5  1 1 
 4−3 6 − 5  −2 −1  1 1  −2 −1
= =     
 −4 + 6 −6 + 10  1 1   2 4  1 1 
 −2 + 1 −1 + 1   −1 0 
= =   
 −4 + 4 −2 + 4   0 2 
Matrix D is a diagonal matrix. Also, elements of the
leading diagonal are the eigenvalues obtained in 1).

288
Synthesis
To diagonalise matrix A, we perform the following steps:
1. Find the eigenvalues.
2. If there is a non-real eigenvalue, the matrix cannot be
diagonalised.
3. If all eigenvalues are real, find their associated eigenvectors
(they must be linearly independent).
4. If the number of eigenvectors is not equal to the order of
matrix A, then this matrix cannot be diagonalised.
5. If the number of eigenvectors is equal to the order of
matrix A, form matrix P whose columns are elements of
eigenvectors.
6. Find the inverse of P.
7. Find D, diagonal matrix of A by relation; D = P −1 AP .
Theorem
A n × n matrix is diagonalisable if and only if it has n linearly
independent eigenvectors.

Application Activity 7.109

8 0   4 0 7 0 
1. a)   b)   c)  
 0 −2  0 1  0 −3 
 −5 0 0 
 2 0  
d)   e)  0 −5 0 
0 1  0 0 16 
 
2. a) 2 and −4 b) S = {(1,1, 0 ) , ( 0,1,1)}
c) A is not diagonalisable.

289
Lesson 7.5. Echelon matrix
Learning objectives
Given a matrix and using elementary row/column operations,
learners should be able to transform that matrix into its echelon
form accurately.
Prerequisites
• Elementary row/column operations.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 7.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
8 3
A= 
1 2
Change first element of first row to 1.
1 −11
1= r1 − 7 r
r 2 
1 2 
The first non-zero element in second row is 1 but it is not in a
column to the right of the other in first row. So, this has to be
changed to 0.
 1 −11 
r
2= r2 − r
1 
 0 −13 
Now, second element in second row has to be changed to 1.
14  1 −11
r2= r2 − r1  
11   0 1 


290
Now, the first two conditions are satisfied.
For the third condition:
The first non-zero element in second row is not the only non-
zero entry in its column. So −11 , in first row, has to be changed
to 0.
1 0
1= r1 + 11r
r2 
0 1
Now, all conditions are satisfied.

Synthesis
A matrix is in row echelon form (ref) when it satisfies the
following conditions:
• The first non-zero element in each row, called the leading
entry (or pivot ), is 1.
• Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the
leading entry in the previous row.
• Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows having
a non-zero element.
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) when it satisfies
the following conditions:
• The matrix is in row echelon form (i.e., it satisfies the three
conditions listed above).
• The leading entry in each row is the only non-zero entry
in its column.

Application Activity 7.110

 1 −1 2 0  1 0 6 0
 
1.  0 1 4 −5  and  0 1 4 0 
  0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1   
 
 1 −2 3 9  1 0 0 1 
   
2. 0 1 3 5 and  0 1 0 −1
  0 0 1 2 
0 0 2 4  
 

291
  2 −2 4 −2  1 0 4 0
   
0 3 6 9 0 1 2 0
3.  and 
0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 4 
 1 −3 4 10  1 0
7
0
   
8 23  8
4.  0 1 − − and  0 1 − 0
 7 7   7 
0 0  
 0 1   0 0 0 1

 
   1
1 2 3 −2 3  1 0 1 0
3
   
4 16 
5.  0 1 1 −1 and  0 1 1 0
 3  9
  
0 4   0 0 0 1
4
0 0 1 
 9  9
1 tan θ  1 0
6.   and  
0 1  0 1

Lesson 7.6. Matrix inverse

Learning objectives
Given a square matrix and using elementary row/column
operations, learners should be able to find the inverse of that
matrix correctly.
Prerequisites
• Use of elementary row operations.
• Properties of inverse matrix.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

292
 Activity 7.6
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1 1 1 1 0 0
 
1. M =  0 1 2 0 1 0 
1 2 4 0 0 1
 
We need to transform matrix A such that all elements of
leading diagonal become 1 and other elements become
zero
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
   
3 → r3 − r1  0 1 2
r 0 1 0 r2 0
3 → r3 − r 1 2 0 1 0
0 1 3
 −1 0 1  0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 

 1 0 −1 1 −1 0 
 
r2 0
1 → r1 − r 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 

1 0 0 0 −2 1 
 
r3 0
1 → r1 + r 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 

1 0 0 0 −2 1 
 
2 → r2 − 2r
3 0
r 1 0 2 3 −2 
0 0 1
 −1 −1 1 

 0 −2 1 
2. Matrix obtained in 1) is  2 
3 −2  . Multiplying it by

 −1 −1 1 
 

293
 the given matrix, gives
 0 −2 1   1 1 1   0 + 0 + 1 0 − 2 + 2 0 − 4 + 4 
    
 2 3 −2   0 1 2  =  2 + 0 − 2 2 + 3 − 4 2 + 6 − 8 
 −1 −1 1   1 2 4   −1 + 0 + 1 −1 − 1 + 2 −1 − 2 + 4 
    
1 0 0
 
= 0 1 0
0 0 1
 
Observation: Multiplying matrix obtained in 1) by
matrix A gives identity matrix.
Therefore, the new matrix is the inverse of the matrix
A.

Synthesis
−1
To calculate the inverse of A , denoted as A , follow these
steps:
Construct a matrix of type M = ( A | I ) , that is to say, A is in the
left half of M and the identity matrix I is on the right.
Using elementary row operations, transform the left half, A ,
to the identity matrix located to the right, and the matrix that
results in the right side will be the inverse of matrix.

Application Activity 7.111

 −1 2 −4 
 
1.  1 −1 3  2. No inverse
0 0 1
 
 1 −3 2 
 
3.  −3 3 −1 4. No inverse
 2 −1 0 
 

Lesson 7.7. Rank of matrix

Learning objectives
Given a matrix and by using elementary row/column operations,
learners should be able to find the rank of that matrix accurately.

294
Prerequisites
• Transformation of matrix using elementary row/column
operations.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 7.7

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
 4 −6 0   4 −6 0 
   
1.  −6 0 1  3
r2 → r2 + r1  0 −9 1 
 0 9 −1  
2  0 9 −1 
   
0 1 4  0 1 4 
 4 −6 0   4 −6 0 
r    
3 → r3 + r
2
 0 −9 1   0 −9 1 
1 0 0 0  r
3 ↔ r4  37 
r4 → r4 + r2   0 0 
9  0 0 37   9 
 9  0 0 0 
2. There are three non-zero rows.

Synthesis
To find rank of matrix,
• Transform matrix in its row echelon form using
elementary row operations.
• The number of non-zero rows is the rank of matrix.

295
 Application Activity 7.112

1. Rank 4 2. Rank 3
3. Rank 3 4. Rank 2

Lesson 7.8. Solving system of linear equations

Learning objectives
Given a system of linear equations and by using Gaussian
elimination method, learners should be able to find the solution
of that system correctly.
Prerequisites
• Elementary row operations.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator
Activity 7.8
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x + y + z = 6  1 1 1  x   6 

1. The# system 2 x + y − z =     
1 ⇔  2 1 −1 y  =
1
3 x + 2 y + z =10  3 2 1  z  10 
     
 1 1 1 
 
=
Thus, A  2 1 −1
3 2 1 
 
1 1 1 : 6 
2.  2 1 −1 : 1 


3 2 1 : 10 


296
 1 1 1 : 6 
 
3. From  2 1 −1 : 1  , using elementary row
3 2 1 : 10 

operations; r2 → r2 − 2r1 , r3 → r3 − 3r1 , we get
1 1 1 : 6 
 
 0 −1 −3 : −11
 0 −1 −2 : −8 
 
1 1 1 : 6 
 
Now, r3 → r3 − r1 , yields  0 −1 −3 : −11
0 0 1 : 3 
 
4. We have the system
x + y + z = 6

 − y − 3 z =−11
 z =3

Then,
− y − 9 =−11 ⇒ y =2
x+2+3= 6⇒ x =1 S = {(1, 2,3)}

Synthesis
For the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = c1
a x + a x + ... + a x = c2
 21 1 22 2 2n n


am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = cm
The Gauss elimination method is used to transform a system
of equations into an equivalent system that is in row echelon
form.
To facilitate the calculation, transform the system into a matrix
and place the coefficients of the variables and the independent
terms into the matrix as follows:

297
 ... a1n : c1 
 a11 a12
 
a ... a2 n : c2 
a
( A : C ) =  21 22
 ...   

 
... amn : cm 
 am1 am 2
And then, transform the system in the form where the elements
above and below the leading diagonal of matrix A become
zeros. The system is now reduced to the simplest system.

Application Activity 7.113

1. S = {( −4, −5, 2 )}
2. No solution
3. Infinity number of solution.
4. Infinity number of solution.

Lesson 7.9. Power of matrix

Learning objectives
Given a square matrix and by using diagonalisation method,
learners should be able to find the power of that matrix accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 7.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

298
 Answers
2
1. A
= = PDP −1 PDP=
AA −1
PD 2 P −1
A3 A=
2. = 2
A PD 2 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 3 P −1
A4 A=
3. = 3
A PD 3 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 4 P −1
A5 A=
4. = 4
A PD 4 P −1 PDP
= −1
PD 4 DP
= −1
PD 5 P −1
An= An −1 A= PD n −1 P −1 PDP −=
1
PD n P −1 ⇒ An= PD n P −1

Synthesis
The power of matrix A is given by An = PD n P −1 for an invertible
matrix P whose columns are elements of eigenvectors of
matrix A , and D is diagonal matrix of A.
Where,
 λ1n 0  0 
 
0 λn
 0
Dn =  2 
     
 
n 
 0 0  λk 
λk are eigenvalues

Application Activity 7.114

 −3 4   20 0  3  2800 −3900 
=1. P = , D  = , A  
 4 3  0 −5   −3900 5075 
1 2  3 0  5  −245 488 
2. P =
= , D  = , A  
1 1   0 −1  −244 487 
 −1 1   −1 0  20 1 0
=3. P = , D  = , A  
 1 0  0 1 0 1
1 3 3  2 0 0  32 0 633 
    5  
=4. P =0 1 0  , D = 0 3 0  , A  0 243 0 
0 1 1  0 0 3 0 0 243 
    

299
7.6. Summary of the unit
1. Kernel and range
• The kernel of a linear mapping f : E → F denoted Ker ( f )
is a subset of E whose image f is 0-vector of F . i.e,
{v ∈ E : f ( v ) =
Ker ( f ) = 0} .
A linear transformation f is called singular if there exists a
non-zero vector whose image is zero vector. Thus, it is non-
singular if the only zero vector has zero vector as image, or
equivalently, if its kernel consists only of the zero vector:
Ker ( f ) = {0} .
A linear transformation f : E → F is one-to-one (1-1) if and
only if Ker ( f ) = {0} .
• The nullity of f denoted n ( f ) is the dimension of Ker ( f )
.i.e, n ( f ) = dim Ker ( f ) .
• The image or range of a linear mapping f : E → F is the
set of points in F to which points in E are mapped on. i.e,
Im f= {u ∈ F : f ( v=) u}, v∈E .
A linear transformation f : E → F is onto if the range is
equal to F .
• The rank of f denoted rank ( f ) or r ( f ) is the dimension
of image of f .
i.e, rank ( f ) = dim ( Im f ) .

2. Elementary row/column operations

When these operations are performed on rows, they are called
elementary row operations; and when they are performed on
columns, they are called elementary column operations.

300
Two matrices are said to be row equivalent (or column equivalent)
if one can be changed to the other by a sequence of elementary
row (or column) operations.
Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if B = P −1 AP for some
invertible matrix P .

3. Diagonalisation of matrices
a) Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
The eigenvalues of f are the roots (in K ) of the polynomial;
det ( f − λ I ) . This polynomial is a polynomial associated with
f and is called characteristic polynomial. For any square
matrix A , the polynomial det ( A − λ I ) is its characteristic
 
polynomial. The homogeneous system ( f − λ I ) u = 0 gives

the eigenvector u associated with eigenvalue λ.
b) Diagonalisation
To diagonalise matrix A , we perform the following steps:
1. Find the eigenvalues.
2. If there is a non-real eigenvalue, the matrix cannot be
diagonalised.
3. If all eigenvalues are real, find their associated eigenvectors
(they must be linearly independent).

301
 4. If the number of eigenvectors is not equal to the order of
matrix A , then this matrix cannot be diagonalised.
5. If the number of eigenvectors is equal to the order of
matrix A , form matrix P whose columns are elements of
eigenvectors.
6. Find the inverse of P .
7. Find D , diagonal matrix of A by relation D = P −1 AP .

4. Applications
a) Echelon matrix
A matrix is in row echelon form (ref) when it satisfies the following
conditions:
• The first non-zero element in each row, called the leading
entry, is 1.
• Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the leading
entry in the previous row.
• Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows having a
non-zero element.
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) when it
satisfies the following conditions:
• The matrix is in row echelon form (i.e., it satisfies the three
conditions listed above).
• The leading entry in each row is the only non-zero entry in
its column.
b) Matrix inverse
A is a square matrix of order n. To calculate the inverse of A ,
−1
denoted as A , follow these steps:
• Construct a matrix of type M = ( A | I ) , that is to say, A is in
the left half of M and the identity matrix I is on the right.
• Using the Gaussian elimination method, transform the left
half, A , to the identity matrix located to the right, and the

302
 matrix that results in the right side will be the inverse of
matrix A .
c) Rank of matrix
The rank of matrix is the number of linearly independent rows or
columns. Using this definition, the Gaussian elimination method is
used to find the rank.
A line can be discarded if:
• All the coefficients are zeros.
• There are two equal lines.
• A line is proportional to another.
• A line is a linear combination of others.
In general, eliminate the maximum possible number of lines,
and the rank is the number of non-zero rows.
d) Solving system of linear equations
Consider the following system;
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = c1
a x + a x + ... + a x = c2
 21 1 22 2 2n n


am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = cm
The Gauss elimination method is to transform a system of
equations into an equivalent system that is in triangular form.
To facilitate the calculation, transform the system into a matrix and
place the coefficients of the variables and the independent terms
into the matrix as follows:
 a11 a12 … a1n : c1 
 
a21 a22 … a2 n : cm 
( A : C ) =  
      
 
am1 am 2  amn : cm 

Where

The matrix ( A : C ) is called augmented matrix.

303
Remarks
• If rank ( A ) ≠ rank ( A : C ) , the system is said to be
inconsistent and there is no solution.
• If rank ( A ) rank
= = ( A : C ) r , the system is said to be
consistent and there is solution.
» If r = n , as there are n unknowns, then the system has a
unique solution.
» If r < n , the system has infinite solutions. (It is undetermined
system).
5. Power of matrix
n n −1
The power of matrix A is given by A = PD P for an invertible
matrix P whose columns are elements of eigenvectors of matrix A
and D is diagonal matrix of A.
Where,
 λ1n 0  0 
 
0 λ2n  0
Dn =  
     
 
n 
 0 0  λk 
λk are eigenvalues

7.7. End of Unit Assessment

1. a) λ − 5λ + 1 b) λ − 3λ − 18
2 2

d) λ + λ − 8λ + 62
3 2
c) λ + 9
2

e) λ − 6λ − 35λ − 38
3 2

  4
2. a) Eigenvalues: 2 and − 5 , eigenvectors: u =   and
 1  1 
v= 
 2

4 1 2 0 
=b) P = , D  
1 2  0 −5 

304
   2
3. a) Eigenvalues: 1 and 4 , eigenvectors: u =   and
  1  −1
v= 
 1
 2 1 1 0
=b) P = , D  
 −1 1 0 4
1366 2230   1 2
 , f ( A ) =  −1 0 
6
c) A = 
 1365 2731   
1  2 + 4 −2 + 2 4 
3 3

d)  
3  −1 + 3 4 1 + 2 3 4 
4. a) Eigenvalues: 3 and 5
S
b) = {(1, −1, 0 ) , (1, 0,1) , (1, 2,1)}
 3 0 0
 
c)  0 3 0 
0 0 5
 
 2 1 −2  1 0 0
   
5. A =  2 3 −4  , D =  0 1 0 
 1 1 −1  0 0 2
   
6. To be proved

1 0 −1 −2 
1 0 1
 
7. a)  0 1 2 3 b)  0 1 0 
0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1
   1 0 −1
c)  0 1 0 1 0  d)  
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 
 
8. a) Rank 2 b) Rank 2
c) Rank 3 d) Rank 2

9. a) S= {( −2,5,10 )} b) No solution

305
  −2 −3 5   2 5 −14 
1 1 
10. a)  1 4 −5 
 b) 1 −3 4 
 
11 
5  7 
 −6 −29 40   −1 3

 2 1 0
1 
c)
 2 0 0
2 
 −4 −1 2 
11. Characteristic equation: λ 3 − 5λ 2 + 7λ − 3 =0
From Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have
A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3I = 0.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Now, A − 5 A + 7 A − 3 A + A − 5 A + 8 A − 2 A + I
= A5 ( A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3I ) + A ( A3 − 5 A2 + 7 A − 3 A ) + A2 + A + I
= 0 + 0 + A2 + A + I
 5 4 4  2 1 1 1 0 0 8 5 5
       
=  0 1 0 +  0 1 0 + 0 1 0 = 0 3 0
 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1 5 5 8
       

306
 Unit 8 Conics

8.1. Key unit competence

• Determine the characteristics and the graph of a conic
given by its Cartesian, parametric or polar equation.
• Find the Cartesian, parametric and polar equations of a
conic from its characteristics.

8.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Conic section: Curve obtained by intersecting a double
cone with a plane.
Parabola: Conic section obtained when the plane
is parallel to generator but not along the
generator.
Ellipse: Conic section obtained when the plane
cuts the cone obliquely.
Hyperbola: Conic section obtained when the plane is
parallel to the axis but not along the axis.

8.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, and then assign them to read the
text of the introductory activity from the student’s book and to do
the related questions. As they are working, move around to each
group and ask them probing questions leading them to the right
way. After a while, invite some group to present their findings in a
whole class discussion. Guide students to harmonize their answers
and arouse their curiosity to the content of this unit.

307
8.3. List of lessons
Number of
No Lesson title
periods
1 Generalities on conic sections 3
2 Definition and equation of a parabola 3
3 Tangent line and normal line on a parabola 3
4 Definition and equation of an ellipse 3
5 Tangent line and normal line on an ellipse 3
6 Definition and equation of a hyperbola 3
7 Tangent line and normal line on a hyperbola 3
8 Definition of polar coordinates 3
9 Polar equation of a conic 3
10 Polar equation of a straight line 3
11 Polar equation of a circle 3
12 Applications of conics 2
Total periods 35

8.4. Lesson development

Lesson 8.1. Generalities on conic sections
Learning objectives
Given a double cone and a plane, learners should be able to
define a conic and draw the shape of conic sections accurately.
Prerequisites
• Double cone
• Plane
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

308
 Activity 8.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. The plane is parallel to a generator of the cone but
not along the generator

2. The plane cuts the cone obliquely

3. The plane is parallel to the axis but not along the axis

309
 4. The plane is parallel to the base but does not pass
through the vertex

Synthesis
Conic is the name given to the shapes that we obtain by taking
different plane slices through a double cone. The sections of a
right circular cone by different planes give curves of different
shapes: parabola, ellipse, hyperbola, circle, single point, single
line, pair of lines.
A conic section is the set of all points which move in a plane
such that its distance from a fixed point and a fixed line not
containing the fixed point are in a constant ratio.
y

Conic section

P
M

Focal axis x
Vertex 0
Focus (F)

Directrix

Figure 8.8: Conic section

310
 From figure 8.8, we have
PF = e PM where M is a foot of perpendicularity of
line joining P to directrix, P point lying on conic and F focal
point.
Focal axis is a line passing through the focus and
perpendicular to the directrix.
Vertex is a point where the conic intersects its axis.

Application Activity 8.115

1. Single point: This is formed when the plane passes through

the vertex horizontally, i.e. parallel to the base.
2. Single line: This is formed when the plane passes through
the vertex and along the generator.
3. Pair of lines: This is the section formed when the plane
passes through the vertex. In this case, the section is a pair
of straight lines passing through the vertex.

Lesson 8.2. Definition and equation of a parabola

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define a parabola
and determine its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Distance between two points.
• Distance from appoint to a straight line.
• Curve sketching.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

311
 Activity 8.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Choose some point having coordinates ( x, y ) . The
distance between this point and ( 5,3) is given by

( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3)
2 2
.
The distance between point ( x, y ) and ( 2,1) is

( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2
given by .
Equating these distances, as the point ( x, y ) is to
be equidistant from the two given points, we have

( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3) ( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2 2 2
=
Squaring both sides, we get
( x − 5 ) + ( y − 3) = ( x − 2 ) + ( y − 1)
2 2 2 2

Expanding, we have
x 2 − 10 x + 25 + y 2 − 6 y + 9 = x 2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 2 y + 1
Cancelling and combining like terms, we get
4 y + 5 =−6 x + 34
Or
4y =−6 x + 29
3
This is the equation of a straight line with slope −
2
y
and intercept 29 .
4

312
 2. Choose some point on the curve having
coordinates ( x, y ) .
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to

( x + 3) + ( y − y ) ( x + 3)
2 2 2
the line x = −3 is = .
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to

the point ( 3, 0 ) is ( x − 3) + ( y − 0 ) = ( x − 3)
2 2 2
+ y2 .
Equating the two distances yields

( x + 3)
= ( x − 3) + y 2
2 2

Squaring and expanding both sides, we get

x2 + 6x + 9 = x2 − 6x + 9 + y 2
Cancelling and collecting like terms yields y 2 = 12 x
which is an equation of a curve.
3. Curve
y
6

5
y 2 = 12 x
4

1
x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

Synthesis
A parabola is set of points P ( x, y ) in the plane equidistant
from a fixed point F, called focus and a fixed line d, called
directrix. In the figure below PF = PM , where M ∈ d .

313
 y

Conic section

P
M

Focal axis x
Vertex 0
Focus (F)

Directrix

The equation of a parabola, whose focus at point ( a, 0 ) and

directrix with equation x = − a , is given by y 2 = 4ax .
The standard forms of the equation of parabola with vertices
at the point V ( h, k ) are as follows:
( y − k ) = 4a ( x − h ) , parabola opens to the right.
2
1.
(y −k) = −4a ( x − h ) , parabola opens to the left.
2
2.
( x − h ) = 4a ( y − k ) , parabola opens upward.
2
3.
( x − h) = −4a ( y − k ) , parabola opens downward.
2
4.

Application Activity 8.116

1. Focus is ( −2, 0 ) , directrix is x = 2

2. a) Sketch:

314
b) Sketch:

c) Sketch:

d) Sketch:

315
 3. a) Focus 
25  ; directrix x = − 25 ; length of latus
,0
 4  4
25
rectum 25; equation of latus rectum x = ; ends
4
 25 25 
of latus rectum  25 , − 25  and  , −  .
 4 2   4 2 
b) Focus ( 0, 2 ) ; directrix y = −2 ; length of latus
rectum 8; equation of latus rectum y = 2 ; ends of
latus rectum ( 4, 2 ) and ( −4, 2 ) .
 5 5
c) Focus  0, −  ; directrix y = ; length of latus
 4 4
5
rectum 5; equation of latus rectum y = − ; ends
4
 5 5  5 5
of latus rectum  , −  and  − , − 
2 4  2 4
4. ( y − 2 ) = 12 ( x − 1)
2

2
5. a) x = −8 y y2 4 ( x + 4)
b) =
2 2
c) 4 x + 4 xy + y + 4 x + 32 y + 16 =
0
7  41 
6. a) b)  ,1 ; ( 3,1)
4  16 
7. (1,3)

Lesson 8.3. Tangent line and normal line

on a parabola
Learning objectives
Given equation of parabola, learners should be able to find
equation of tangent line and normal line at a given point and draw
them accurately.
Prerequisites
• Equation of tangent at a point on a curve.
• Equation of normal line at a point on a curve.
• Differentiation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

316
 Activity 8.3
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo )
Differentiating with respect to x yields
dy dy 2a 2a
2y = 4a ⇒ = and m =
dx dx y yo
Then,
2a
T ≡ y−=yo ( x − xo )
yo
⇔ yo y − yo yo = 2a ( x − xo ) ⇔ yo y − 4axo = 2ax − 2axo
⇔ yo y − 4axo = 2ax − 2axo since y0 y=
0
2
y=
0 4ax0
⇔ yo y = 2ax − 2axo + 4ax ⇔ yo y = 2ax + 2axo ⇔ yo y = 2a ( x + xo )
Therefore, T ≡ yo y = 2a ( x + xo )
2. Equation of normal line:
1 dy
N ≡ y − yo =− ( x − xo ) , with m =
m dx x = xo

Then,
yo
N ≡ y − yo =− ( x − xo ) ⇔ 2ay − 2ayo =
− yo x + yo xo
2a
⇒ 2ayo y − 2ayo yo = − yo yo x + yo yo xo
⇒ 2ayo y − 2ay02 =
− y02 x + y02 xo

317
 ⇒ 2ayo y − 8a 2 xo =
−4axo x + 4ax02
−2 xo ( x − xo )
−2 xo x + 2 x 2 o ⇔ yo y − yo yo =
⇔ yo y − 4axo =
−2 xo ( x − xo ) .
Therefore, N ≡ yo y − yo yo =
3. The tangent line of y 2 = 2 x at ( 0, 0 ) :
Since the tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola
y 2 = 4ax , is given by
1 1
T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 ) , here, y 2 = 4   x . So a =
.
2 2
1
0 y 2   ( x + 0 ) or tangent
Then the tangent line is T ≡=
2
line has equation x = 0 .

The line x = 0 touches the parabola y 2 = 2 x once at

( 0, 0 ) , as it is its tangent at ( 0, 0 ) .
Synthesis
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola y 2 = 4ax ,
is given by T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 ) , and the normal line at the
−2 xo ( x − xo ) .
same point is N ≡ yo y − yo yo =

318
 Application Activity 8.117

1. −6
2. Focus is F ( −2, 4 ) , vertex is V ( −2, −3) , equation of axis
is x + 2 =0 , equation of directrix is y + 2 = 0 , equation of
tangent at vertex is y + 3 =0.
3. 2 y = x + 8, y + 2 x + 1 = 0
4. y + tx = 2at + at 3 ;0, ± 2

Lesson 8.4. Definition and equation of an ellipse

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define an ellipse
and determine its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Distance between two points.
• Distance from a point to a straight line.
• Curve sketching.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 8.4

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

319
 Answers
1. Choose some point on the curve having coordinates
( x, y ) .
The distance from the point ( x, y ) on the curve to the

( 3, 0 ) (3 − x ) + (0 − y ) (3 − x )
2 2 2
point is d1 = = + y2 .
25
The distance from the point ( x, y ) to the line x = is
3
2
 25  25
 − x  + ( y − y) = −x.
2
d2 =
 3  3
d 3 3
Since 1 = ⇒ d1 = d 2 , then,
d2 5 5
3  25 
(3 − x )
2 2
+ y=  − x
5 3 
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get
9
9 − 6 x + x 2 + y 2 = 25 − 6 x + x 2
25
Collecting like terms and transposing give
16 2
x + y2 = 16
25 2 2
Dividing each term by 16, we see that x + y =1.
25 16
This equation is of an ellipse.
2. Sketch of the curve:
y
5

4 x2 y2
+ 1
=
25 16
3

1
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

320
 Synthesis
We define an ellipse with eccentricity e (where 0 < e < 1 )
to be the set of points P in the plane whose distance from a
fixed point F is e times their distance from a fixed line.
Y
a
x=
e
b
C
P ( x, y )
y M

0 F ( ae, 0 ) x a X

For any point P ( x, y ) on the ellipse, we have

=PF ePM , M ∈ D , where D is the directrix with equation
a
x= .
e
( ae − x ) + ( 0 − y ) ( ae − x )
2 2 2
PF = d1 = = + y2 .
a
( ae − x ) + ( y − y )
2 2
PM =d 2 = = −x
e .
Since PF = ePM , then,

( ae − x )
2
+ y 2 =a − ex
Squaring both sides and expanding, we get
a 2 e 2 − 2aex + x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − 2aex + e 2 x 2
Collecting terms
(1 − e ) x
2 2
+ y 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 )
Dividing each term by a 2 1 − e 2 , we get ( )
2 2
x y
+ 2 1
=
a (1 − e 2 )
2
a

321
 ( )
b 2 a 2 1 − e 2 , this gives
Writing=
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =1
a b
This is equation ellipse centred at ( 0, 0 ) in standard form.
x2 y 2
For the ellipse + = 1, b 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 ) with e < 1 , we have
a 2 b2
a
two foci at ( ± ae, 0 ) and two directices x = ± .
e
When the centre of ellipse is located at some point other
than ( 0, 0 ) , say the point ( xo , yo ) , the equation of ellipse in
( x − xo ) ( y − yo )
2 2

standard form is + 1.
=
a2 b2

Application Activity 8.118

1. ( 0, 2 ) and ( 0, − 2 )
2 2
2. 3 x + 7 y =115
x2 y 2
3. + 1
=
12 16
4. a) Sketch

322
 b) Curve

c) Curve

5. 16 x 2 + 9 y 2 − 64 x − 54 y + 1 =0

( x − 2) ( y − 3)
2 2

⇒ +=1
9 16
( )
Foci are 2,3 + 7 and 2,3 − 7 ( )
2 3 3
6. a) e = b) e = c) e =
2 3 2
7. 7 or 13
8. 13 : 5

323
Lesson 8.5. Tangent line and normal line on ellipse
Learning objectives
Given equation of ellipse, learners should be able to find tangent
line and normal line at a given point and draw them accurately.
Prerequisites
• Equation of tangent line.
• Equation of normal line.
• Differentiation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 8.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Equation of tangent line T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo ) where
dy
m=
dx x = xo
Differentiating with respect to x gives
2 2 dy dy b2 x
x+ 2 y =0 or = −
a2 b dx dx a2 y
b 2 xo
Then, m = −
a 2 yo
b2 x
And T ≡ y − yo = − 2 o ( x − xo )
a yo
− b 2 xo ( x − xo )
⇔ a 2 yo y − a 2 yo yo =
⇔ a 2 yo y + b 2 xo x = b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo ,

324
 since b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo =
a 2b 2
2 2
a 2b 2
Thus a yo y + b xo x =
Dividing each term by a 2b 2 , we get
yo y xo x xx y y
+ 2 = 1 or o2 + o2 = 1
b 2
a a b
xx y y
Therefore, T ≡ o2 + o2 = 1
a b
y2
2. The tangent line to the curve x +
2
1 at ( 0,3) is given
=
9
( 0) x + 3 y = 1 or T ≡ y =3.
by T ≡
1 9
Curve:
y
3
T ≡y=
3

2
y2
x2 + 1
=
9
1

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-1

-2

-3

Synthesis
x2 y 2
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on ellipse + 1 , is
=
a 2 b2
x0 x y0 y
given by: T ≡ + 2 = 1
a2 b

325
 Application Activity 8.119

3
1. ±
2
2. y= −1.155 x + 4
3. k =−4 at ( −2, −1) ; k = 4 at ( 2,1)

4. At ( 0, 0 ) : T ≡ y =−2 x , at ( 0, 2 ) : T ≡ y = 2 x + 2,

6− 6 6+ 6 6± 6
5. a) <m< b) m =
4 4 4
6− 6 6+ 6
c) m < or m >
4 4

Lesson 8.6. Definition and equation of a

hyperbola
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define hyperbola
and find its equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Distance between two points.
• Distance from a point to a straight line.
• Differentiation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 8.6

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

326
Answers
If the difference of the distances from any point P ( x, y ) on
conic to the two foci is 2a , thus

(c − x) + (0 − y ) ( −c − x ) + ( 0 − y )
2 2 2 2
PF1 − PF2 = 2a ⇔ − = 2a

(c − x) (c + x)
2 2
⇔ + y2 − + y2 =
2a
Transposing one term from the left side to the right side and
squaring, we get

⇔ ( c − x ) + y 2 = 4a 2 + 4a (c + x) + y2 + (c + x) + y2
2 2 2

(c + x)
2
⇔ c 2 − 2cx + x 2 = 4a 2 + 4a + y 2 + c 2 + 2cx + x 2

(c + x)
2
= 4a 2 + 4a
⇔ −2cx + y 2 + 2cx

⇔ −4 ( cx +=
a 2 ) 4a ( c + x ) + y 2 ⇔ − ( cx + =
a2 ) a
2
(c + x)
2
+ y2
Squaring again both sides and expanding, we have
⇔ c 2 x 2 + 2cxa 2 + a=
4
a 2 ( c 2 + 2cx + x 2 + y 2 )
⇔ c 2 x 2 + 2cxa 2 + a 4 =a 2 c 2 + 2cxa 2 + a 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2
⇔ c 2 x 2 − a 2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2c 2 − a 4 ⇔ x 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) − a 2 y 2= a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 )
Since=c a 2 + b 2 thus c 2 − a 2 =
b 2 and
x 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) − a 2 y 2= a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) ⇔ x 2b 2 − a 2 y 2 =
a 2b 2
Dividing both sides by a 2b 2 , we get
x2 y 2
− =1
a 2 b2
This is equation of hyperbola.

Synthesis
We define a hyperbola to be the set of all points P in the plane,
the difference of whose distances from two fixed points, called
foci, is a constant equal to 2a .

327
 y
Directrix Directrix

F1 Center F2 x
Focus 0 Focus Focal axis
Transverse axis

Conjugate axis

In standard form a hyperbola is given by the equation

x2 y2
− 1 ; this hyperbola has two foci ( ± c, 0 ) , c 2 =
= a 2 + b2
a 2 b2 2
a
and two directrices x = ± .
a
c a 2 + b2
Eccentricity of the hyperbola is e= = , e > 1.
a a
If the hyperbola has centre at ( h, k ) , then the equation is
( x − h) (y −k)
2 2

− 1.
=
a2 b2

Application Activity 8.120

1. a) Curve
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

328
Vertices: ( 0, ±2 )
13
Eccentricity is e =
2
(
Foci: 0, 13 and 0, − 13 ) ( )
2 2
Asymptotes: y = x and y = − x .
3 3
b) Curve
12 y
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-2
-3
-4

Vertices: ( 5, 4 ) and ( −1, 4 )

13
Eccentricity is e =
3
(
Foci: 2 + 13, 4 and 2 − 13, 4 ) ( )
2 8 2 16
Asymptotes: = y x + and y =− x+
3 3 3 3
c) Curve
16 y
14
12
10
8
6
4
2 x
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
-22

329
 Vertices: ( −2,3) and ( −2, −9 )
10
Eccentricity is e =
3
( )
Foci: −2, −3 + 2 10 and −2, −3 − 2 10 ( )
Asymptotes: = y 3 x + 3 and y =−3 x − 9
2. Foci are ( 0, −5 ) and ( 0, 5 ) , vertices are ( 0, −4 ) and ( 0, 4 )
4
, asymptotes: y = ± x
3
3. a) Length of transverse axis is 2a = 6 ; conjugate
axis is 2b = 8 .

Eccentricity a 2 + b 2 5 , coordinates of foci

=
a 3
( ± ae, 0 ) =
( ±5, 0 ) , coordinates of vertices
V ( ± a, 0 ) =
( ±3, 0 ) .
b) Length of transverse axis is 2a = 2 3 ; conjugate
axis is 2b = 2 2 .
a 2 + b2 15
Eccentricity = , coordinates of
a 3
foci ( ± ae, 0 ) = ( )
± 5, 0 , coordinates of vertices
V ( ± a, 0 ) = (
± 3, 0 . )
c) Length of transverse axis is 2b = 8 ; conjugate
axis is 2a = 2 .

Eccentricity a 2 + b2 17 , coordinates of foci

=
a 4
( )
( 0, ±be ) = 0, ± 17 , coordinates of vertices
V ( 0, ±b ) = ( 0, ±4 ) .

4.
y 2 x2
− = 1
64 36
2 2
5. x − y − 4 x + 8 y − 21 =
0
( x − 2) ( y − 4)
2 2

⇒ − 1
=
9 9

330
 Vertices: ( −1, 4 ) , ( 5, 4 )
( )(
Foci: 2 − 3 2, 4 , 2 + 3 2, 4 )
Asymptotes: y − 4 =± ( x − 2 )
2
6. a) 7 x + 24 xy − 56 x − 6 y + 68 =
0
b) 9 x 2 − 16 y 2 − 36 x + 96 y − 252 =
0
2 2
7. 21x − 4 y − 84 =
0

Lesson 8.7. Tangent line and normal line on

hyperbola
Learning objectives
Given equation of hyperbola, learners should be able to find
equation of tangent line and normal line at a given point and draw
them accurately.
Prerequisites
• Equation of tangent line.
• Equation of normal line.
• Differentiation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 8.7
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education
Answers
Equation of tangent line T ≡ y − y=
o m ( x − xo ) where
dy
m=
dx x = xo

331
 Differentiating with respect to x gives
2 2 dy dy b 2 x
x− 2 y = 0 or =
a2 b dx dx a 2 y
b 2 xo
Then, m =
a 2 yo
b 2 xo
And T ≡ y=− yo ( x − xo )
a 2 yo
⇔ a 2 yo y − a 2 yo yo = b 2 xo ( x − xo )
2 2
a 2b 2
−b 2 xo xo + a 2 yo yo , as b xo xo − a yo yo =
⇔ a 2 yo y − b 2 xo x =
a 2 yo y − b 2 xo x = − a 2b 2
Dividing each term by − a 2b 2 , we get
y y xx xx y y
− o2 + o2 = 1 or o2 − o2 = 1
b a a b
xo x yo y
Therefore, T ≡ 2 − 2 = 1
a b
Synthesis
x2 y 2
The tangent line at point ( 0 0 ) , on hyperbola 2 − 2 =
x , y 1 , is
a b
xx y y
given by T ≡ 02 − 02 = 1.
a b

Application Activity 8.121

1
1. 4 − x+5
2. y =
4
3. 15 x + 4 y + 9 =0 3   3 
4.  13, −9  ,  − 13, −9 
2   2 

Lesson 8.8. Definition of polar coordinates

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to define polar
coordinates, convert polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates,
and sketch a curve in polar form accurately.

332
Prerequisites
• Polar form of a complex number.
• Converting a complex number from polar form to
algebraic form.
• Curve sketching.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator and instruments of geometry

Activity 8.8

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. a) z = 1+1 = 2 b) z = 1+1 = 2
1 π
2. cos θ = ⇒ θ =± + 2 kπ
2 4
π
1  4 + 2kπ
sin θ = ⇒ θ= 
2  3π + 2kπ
 4
π
As −π < θ ≤ π , we take θ = .
4
Synthesis
To form a polar coordinate system in the plane, we fix a point
0 called the pole (or origin) and construct from 0 an initial ray
called the polar axis. Then each point P in the plane can be
assigned polar coordinates ( r , θ ) as follows:
• r is the directed distance from O to P .

333
 • θ is the directed angle, counterclockwise from polar
axis to the segment OP.
To convert rectangular coordinates ( a, b ) to polar coordinates
is the same as to find the modulus and argument of complex
number z= a + bi .
y

P ( x, y )
y

r sin θ
r

θ x
0
r cos θ x

cos θ , y r sin θ ; ox is a
OP , x r=
From the above figure r ==
polar axis.

Application Activity 8.122

1. a) and e); b and g; c) and h); d) and f)
2. a) ( 2, 2kπ ) and ( −2, ( 2k + 1) π ) , k ∈ 

b) ( 2, ( 2k + 1) π ) and ( −2, 2kπ ) , k ∈ 

 π  π
c)  2, + 2kπ  and  −2, + ( 2k + 1) π  , k ∈ 
 2   2 
 3π   3π 
d)  2, + 2kπ  and  −2, + ( 2k + 1) π  , k ∈ 
 2   2 
3. a) ( 3, 0 ) b) ( −3, 0 ) (
c) −1, 3 )
(
d) 1, 3 ) e) ( 3, 0 ) f) (1, 3 )

g) ( −3, 0 ) (
h) −1, 3 )
1
4. a) x + y = b) x = 3 c) x = y

334
 x2 y 2
d) x − 3 y =
3 e) x 2 + y 2 =
9 f) + 1
=
16 25
g) x + ( y − 2 ) =
2
4 h) ( x − 3) + ( y + 1) =
2 2 2
4
2
i) y = 3 x

Lesson 8.9. Polar equation of a conic

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to find polar equation
of a conic or change from polar equation to Cartesian equation
accurately.
Prerequisites
• Cartesian equation of a conic.
• Conversion formulae from polar form to Cartesian
form and vice versa.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 8.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Polar coordinates
y
x= r cos θ , y =r sin θ , r 2 =x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x
y 2 =+1 2 x ⇔ y 2 =2 x + 1 ⇔ y 2 − 2 x = 1
⇔ r 2 sin 2 θ − 2r cos θ =
1

335
 6
a) r
2. = ⇔ 2r + r cos
= θ 6
2 + cos θ
⇔ 2 x2 + y 2 + x =6
⇔ 2 x 2 + y 2 =6 − x
Squaring both sides gives
4 ( x 2 + y 2 ) =( 6 − x ) ⇔ 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 =36 − 12 x + x 2
2

36 ⇔ 3 ( x 2 + 4 x ) + 4 y 2 =
⇔ 3 ( x2 + 4 x ) + 4 y 2 = 36

⇔ 3( x + 2) + 4 y2 =
2
48 ⇔ 3 ( x + 2 )2 + 4 y 2 =
48

Dividing each term by 48, we get

( x + 2)
2
y2
⇔ + 1
=
16 12
b) This is equation of a horizontal ellipse of centre ( −2, 0 ) ,
major axis 8, minor axis 4 3 , eccentricity

a 2 − b2 16 − 12 1 , vertices ( 2, 0 ) , ( −6, 0 ) ,
=e = =
a 4 2
foci ( 0, 0 ) , ( −4, 0 ) .

Synthesis
Using polar coordinates, there is an alternative way to define a
conic. In polar equation of a conic, the pole is the focus of the
conic. We use the following relations:
y
x= r cos θ , y =r sin θ , r2 = x 2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x
The polar equation of conic with eccentricity e, focus at the
ep
origin, whose directrix x = − p has equation r =
1 + e cos θ
where ( r , θ ) are polar coordinates of any point P lying on the
conic.
The given conic is an ellipse if e < 1 , a circle if e = 0 , a parabola
if e = 1 , a hyperbola if e > 1 .

336
 Application Activity 8.123

1 2
1. a) r = b) r =
1 + cos θ 1 − 2sin θ
2
b) x = 2 − 4 y
2 2
2. a) 3 x + 4 y − 4 x =
2
k
3. r
= ⇔ r + er
= cos θ k
1 + e cos θ
k ⇔ x 2 + y 2 =k − ex
⇔ x 2 + y 2 + ex =
Squaring both sides, we get
x 2 + y 2 = k 2 − 2kex + e2 x 2 ⇔ x 2 − e 2 x 2 + y 2 + 2kex − k 2 =
0
⇔ (1 − e 2 ) x 2 + y 2 + 2kex − k 2 =
0 as required.

Lesson 8.10. Polar equation of a straight line

Learning objectives
Given Cartesian equation of a straight line, learners should be
able to find polar equation of that straight line or change from
polar equation to Cartesian equation accurately.
Prerequisites
• Cartesian equation of a straight line.
• Conversion formulae from polar form to Cartesian
form and vice versa.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

337
 Activity 8.10

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
cos, y r sin θ .
are x r=
Polar coordinates=
Replacing x and y by their values from polar coordinates in
3x − 2 y + 6 =0 , we get
3 ( r cos θ ) − 2 ( r sin θ ) + 6 =0 ⇔ 3r cos θ − 2r sin θ =
−6
⇔ r ( 3cos θ − 2sin θ ) =
−6 ⇔ −r ( 2sin θ − 3cos θ ) = −6
6 1 1 1
⇔ 2sin θ − 3cos θ = ⇔= sin θ − cos θ
r r 3 2
Synthesis
The polar equation of a straight line is
1
= A cos θ + B sin θ , A, B ∈  and A and B are not
r
all zero.
From general equation of a line in Cartesian plane, we get the
polar equation of the given line.
In fact, Ax + By + C =⇔ 0 Ax + By =−C ⇔ Ax + By =−C
⇔ Ar cos θ + Br sin θ = −C
⇔ r ( A cos θ + B sin θ ) =−C
C
⇔ A cos θ + B sin θ =
−
r
0
Therefore, the polar equation of a straight line Ax + By + C =
C
is A cos θ + B sin θ =
− .
r

338
 Application Activity 8.124

4 2
1. r = 2. r =
cos θ + 3 sin θ cos θ − sin θ
3 5
3. r = 4. r =
3 cos θ − 2sin θ cos θ − 2sin θ

Lesson 8.11. Polar form of a circle

Learning objectives
Given a Cartesian equation of a circle, learners should be able to
find polar equation of that circle or change from polar equation to
Cartesian equation correctly.
Prerequisites
• Cartesian equation of a circle.
• Conversion formulae from polar form to Cartesian
form and vice versa.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 8.11
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

339
 Answers
From the figure below,
OC ρ=
= , OP r=
, CP R
y

P ( r ,θ )
R
C ( ρ ,α )

r
ρ
x
0 Polar axis

2 2 2
Cosine law here is: CP = CO + OP − 2OC OP cos (θ − α )
⇒ R 2 = ρ 2 + r 2 − 2 ρ r cos (θ − α )
⇒ r 2 = R 2 − ρ 2 + 2 ρ r cos (θ − α )

Synthesis
The polar equation of a circle with centre ( ρ , α ) and radius R
is
r 2 = R 2 − ρ 2 + 2r ρ cos (θ − α )

Application Activity 8.125

1. r = 6 cos θ 2. r = 4sin θ
3. r = − cos θ 4. r = −2sin θ

340
Lesson 8.12. Applications of conics
Learning objectives
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners should be
able to apply conics in real life problems perfectly.
Prerequisites
• Equations of conics.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book and pen

Activity 8.12

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Research and problem solving
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a

simple surface that is mathematically easy to deal with. Many
astronomical and navigational computations use it as a surface
representing the Earth.

341
 The idea of a planar or flat surface for Earth, however, is still
sufficient for surveys of small areas, as the local topography is
far more significant than the curvature. Plane-table surveys are
made for relatively small areas,
and no account is taken of the curvature of the Earth. A survey
of a city would likely be computed as though the Earth were a
plane surface; the size of the city. For such small areas, exact
positions can be determined relative to each other without
considering the size and shape of the entire Earth.
The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a
sphere. The Earth’s radius is the distance from Earth’s centre to
its surface, about 6,371 kilometres (3,959 mi). While “radius”
normally is a characteristic of perfect spheres, the Earth
deviates from a perfect sphere by only a third of a percent,
sufficiently close to treat it as a sphere in many contexts and
justifying the term “the radius of the Earth”.

Synthesis
The orbits of planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus.
For most planets, these ellipses have very small eccentricity, so
they are nearly circular. However, the Mercury and Pluto, the
innermost and outermost known planets, have visibly elliptical
orbits.

Application Activity 8.126

1. a) 6 cm b) 10 cm

2. a) (i) 7 5 ii) 7 5 − 13 =
133mm
b) (i) 1 ii) AC has equation y =− x + 10
( x − 5) + ( y − 13)
2 2
3. 9
=
4. 5m
5. The minimum altitude is 272 miles above the Earth
The maximum altitude is 648 miles above the Earth.

342
 x2 y2
6. − = 1
900 14400.3636
7. Then the equation for the elliptical ceiling is:
x 2 ( y − 5)
2

+ 1 and the height of the ceiling above

=
625 400
each whispering point is y = 21 .

Summary of the unit

1. Generalities on conic sections
Parabolas, circles, ellipses and hyperbolas are called conics
because they are curves in which planes intersect right circular
cones.

2. Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points in plane that are equidistant from
a fixed line (called directrix) and a fixed point (called focus) not on
the line.
Important result relating to different parabolas
Equation y 2 = 4ax x 2 = 4ay

Focus ( a, 0 ) ( 0, a )
Directrix x = −a y = −a
Principal axis(the line
through the focus
y=0 x=0
perpendicular to the
directrix)
Vertex (point where the
parabola crosses its ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
principal axis)

343
Length of latus rectum
(length of chord through a
4a 4a
focus and perpendicular to
the principal axis)
Equation of latus rectum x=a y=a

Ends of latus rectum ( a, ±2a ) ( ±2a, a )

Replacing x with (x−h) has the effect of shifting the graph of an

equation by h units to the right if h is positive, to the left if h is

negative.
Similarly, replacing y with (y−k) has the effect of shifting the graph
by k units up if k is positive and down if k is negative.

(y −k) = 4 p ( x − h) ( x − h) = 4p( y − k)
2 2
Equation

Focus ( h + p, k ) ( h, k + p )
Directrix x= h − p y= k − p
Principal axis(the line
through the focus
y=k x=h
perpendicular to the
directrix)
Vertex (point where
the parabola crosses ( h, k ) ( h, k )
its principal axis)

Parametric equations of parabola are

 x = at 2
 where t is a parameter.
 y = 2at
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on parabola y = 4ax , is given
2

by

T ≡ y0 y = 2a ( x + x0 )

344
3. Ellipse
Ellipse is a set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points (called foci) is a given positive constant.
Important facts to different ellipses
Equation of x2 y 2 x2 y 2
Standard form + = 1, a > b > 0 + = 1, 0 < a < b
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Coordinates of
( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
centre
Coordinates of
( a, 0 ) and ( −a, 0 ) ( 0,b ) and ( 0, −b )
vertices
Length of major axis 2a 2b
Equation of major y=0 x=0
axis
Length of minor axis 2b 2a
Equation of minor x=0 y=0
axis
Eccentricity (ratio a 2 − b2 b2 − a 2
2
b= a 2 (1 − e 2 ) ⇒ =
e
2
a= b 2 (1 − e 2 ) ⇒ =
e
of semi-focal a b

separation and the

semi-major axis)
Coordinates of foci
( ae, 0 ) and ( −ae, 0 ) ( 0,be ) and ( 0, −be )
(
⇔ ± a 2 − b2 , 0 ) (
⇔ 0, ± b 2, − a 2 )
Equation of a b
directrices
x= ± y= ±
e e
Length of latus 2b 2 2a 2
rectum
a b
Equations of latus x = ± ae y = ±be
rectum

Parametric equations of ellipse with centre ( xo , yo ) are

=x xo + a cos t
 where t is a parameter and t ∈ ( −π , π ] .
=y yo + b sin t
345
 2 2
x y
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on ellipse 2 + 2 =
1 , is given
a b
by
x0 x y0 y
T≡ + 2 = 1
a2 b

4. Hyperbola
Hyperbola is a set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points (foci) is a given positive constant
Important facts to different hyperbolas
Equation of Standard x2 y 2 x2 y 2
− 1
= − −1
=
form a 2 b2 a 2 b2

Coordinates of centre ( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )
Coordinates of
vertices
( a, 0 ) and ( −a, 0 ) ( 0,b ) and ( 0, −b )
Length of transverse
2a 2b
axis
Equation of transverse
y=0 x=0
axis
Equation of conjugate
x=0 y=0
axis

( 0,be ) and
( ae, 0 ) and ( −ae, 0 ) ( 0, −be )
( )
Coordinates of foci
⇔ ± a 2 + b2 , 0
(
⇔ 0, ± a 2 + b 2 )
a b
Equation of directrices x= ± y= ±
e e

2b 2 2a 2
Length of latus rectum
a b
Equations of latus
x = ± ae y = ±be
rectum

346
Eccentricity b 2 a 2 (1 − e 2 )
= a 2 b 2 (1 − e 2 )
=

Parametric equations of hyperbola whose centre ( xo , yo ) are

=x xo + a sec t
 where t is a parameter and
 y
= yo + b tan t
 π π   π 3π 
t ∈ − ,  ∪  , 
 2 2 2 2 
2 2
The tangent line at point ( x0 , y0 ) , on hyperbola x − y =1,
2 2
a b
is given by
x0 x y0 y
T≡ − 2 = 1
a2 b

5. Polar coordinates
To form a polar coordinate system in the plane, we fix a point 0
called the pole (or origin) and construct from 0 an initial ray called
the polar axis. Then, each point P in the plane can be assigned
polar coordinates ( r , θ ) as follows:
• r is the directed distance from 0 to P.
• θ is the directed angle, counterclockwise from polar
axis to the segment OP .

In polar coordinate system, the coordinates ( r , θ ) ,

( r , θ + 2 kπ ) , k ∈  and ( − r , θ + (2k + 1)π ) represent the same
point.
Coordinate conversion
The polar coordinates ( r , θ ) of a point are related to the
rectangular coordinates ( x, y ) as follows:
y
r cos θ , y =
x= r sin θ , r2 =
x2 + y 2 , tan θ = , x≠0
x

347
Polar equation of a conic
A conic curve with eccentricity e , focus at the origin, whose
ep
directrix x = − p has equation r = where ( r , θ )
1 + e cos θ
are polar coordinates of any point P lying on the conic.
It is an ellipse if e < 1 , a parabola if e = 1 , a hyperbola if e > 1 .

6. Applications
Eccentricities of orbits of the planets
The orbits of planets are ellipses with the sun at one focus. For
most planets, these ellipses have very small eccentricity, so they
are nearly circular. However, the Mercury and Pluto, the innermost
and outermost known planets, have visibly elliptical orbits.

End of Unit Assessment

1. a) Parabola, focus ( 0, −2 ) , principal axis is x = 0 .

b) Ellipse, foci ( ±1, 0 ) , semi-major axis 2 , semi-minor

axis 1.
 1 
c) Parabola, focus  − , 0  , principal axis is y = 0 .
 12 
d) Hyperbola, foci ( 0, ±4 ) , transverse axis x = 0 ,
conjugate axis y = 0 , asymptotes y = ± x .
 15 
e) Parabola, focus  ,1 , principal axis is y = 1 .
4 
( )
f) Hyperbola, foci ± 10, 0 , transverse axis is y = 0 ,
conjugate axis x = 0 , asymptotes y = ±2 x .

348
  109 91  
2. a) Intersection:  , − 
 10 20  

 10   10  
b) Intersection: 
 ,5  ,  − ,5  
 2   2  

349
 c) Intersection: {( −2,1) , ( −2, −1) , ( 2,1) , ( 2, −1)}

d) Intersection: {( 2, 3 ) , ( 2, − 3 ) , ( −2, 3 ) , ( −2, − 3 )}

( x − 4) ( y − 3)
2 2
3. + = 1
32 36
4. 8 xy − 4 x − 4 y + 1 =0

350
5. a) The line y = kx intersects the given conic once, when there
is a unique solution.
2
As AC − B =0, the given conic is a parabola.
Solving the equations of line and conic taken together, we
get equation ( 2 − k ) x + 6 x + 1 =
22
0.
If k = 2 , we get a linear equation: 6 x + 1 =0.
1 1
⇒ x =− and y =−
6 3
 1 1
That is, the line touches the conic at  − , −  .
 6 3
If k ≠ 2 , we have quadratic equation which can be solved
using discriminant;

∆ = b 2 − 4ac ⇒ ∆ = 9 − ( 2 − k ) = ( 5 − k )(1 + k ) .
2

We have a unique solution if ∆ =0, i.e. k = 5 or k = −1 .

Therefore, the line y = kx intersects the given conic once if
k = 2 or k = 5 or k = −1 .
b) The line y = kx cuts the given conics in two points if ∆ > 0,
−1 < k < 5 and k ≠ 2 .
c) The line y = kx does not intersect the given conics if ∆ < 0 .
Thus, k < −1 or k > 5 .
6. a)

351
 b)

c)

d)

352
 e)

f)

7. a) ( y + 2 ) =4 ( x + 3) , V ( −3, −2 ) , F ( −1, −3) , D ≡ x =−3

2

b) ( x − 1) =8 ( y + 7 ) , V (1, −7 ) , F (1, −5 ) , D ≡ y =
2
−9

( x + 2 ) + ( y + 1)=
2 2

c)
6 9
( )
1, F −2, ± 3 − 1 ,V ( −2, ±3 − 1) , C ( −2, −1)

( x − 2 ) + ( y − 3)
2 2

d)=
3 2
(
1, F ( 3,3) and F (1,3) ,V ± 3 + 2,3 , C ( 2,3) )
( x − 2) ( y − 2)
2 2

e) − = 1, F ( 5,2 ) and F ( −1,2 ) ,V ( 4,2 ) and V ( 0,2 ) , C ( 2,2 ) ,

4 5

353
 5
A ≡ ( y − 2) =
± ( x − 2)
2

( )
f) ( y + 1) − ( x + 1)= 1, F −1, 2 − 1 and F −1, − 2 − 1 ,
2 2
( )
V ( −1, 0 ) and V ( −1, −2 )
C ( −1, −1) , A ≡ ( y + 1) =± ( x + 1)
 7 7 3
(
8. a) 3 3,3 ) b)  − ,
 2 2 
 (
c) 4 2, 4 2 )
 7 3 7
d) ( 5, 0 ) e)  − ,  f) ( 0, 0 )
 2 2 

 11π   3π 
9. (i) a) ( 5, π ) b)  4,  c)  2, 
 6   2 

 5π   2π   π
d)  8 2,  e)  6,  f)  2, 
 4   3   4
 5π   π
(ii) a) ( −5, 0 ) b)  −4,  c)  −2, 
 6   2

 π  5π   5π 
d)  −8 2,  e)  −6,  f)  − 2, 
 4  3   4 
2 2
10. a) x + y =5; circle b) y = 4; straight line
2
c) y = 1 + 2 x; parabola d) x2 − 3 y 2 − 8 y =
4;
hyperbola
e) 3 y − 4 x =
5; straight line
2 2
f) 3 x + 4 y − 12 x =
36; ellipse
2 2
g) x + y + 4 x =
0; circle

354
11. a) Proof
b)
Planets Perihelion Aphelion
(astronomical (astronomical
units) units)
Mercury 0.3075 0.4667
Venus 0.7184 0.7282
Earth 0.9833 1.0167
Mars 1.3817 1.6663
Jupiter 4.9512 5.4548
Saturn 9.0210 10.0570
Uranus 18.2977 20.0623
Neptune 29.8135 30.3065
c)
Planets Polar equation for the ellipse with
eccentricity e and semi-major axis a :
a (1 − e 2 )
r=
1 + e cos θ
Mercury 0.3707
r=
1 + 0.2056 cos θ
Venus 0.7233
r=
1 + 0.0068cos θ
Earth 0.9997
r=
1 + 0.0167 cos θ
Mars 1.5107
r=
1 + 0.0934 cos θ
Jupiter 5.1908
r=
1 + 0.0484 cos θ

355
 Saturn 9.5109
r=
1 + 0.0543cos θ
Uranus 19.1394
r=
1 + 0.0460 cos θ
Neptune 30.0580
r=
1 + 0.082 cos θ

x2 y 2
12. 7.25 m 13. + 1
=
25 9
x2 y 2
14. + =1 15. 10 15 inches
16 7
x2 y2
16. −
1.1025 7.8975

356
 Unit 9 Random Variables

9.1. Key unit competence

Calculate and interpret the parameters of a random variable
(discrete or continuous) including binomial and the Poisson
distributions.

9.2. Vocabulary or key words concepts

Random variable: A variable which can assume numerical
values each of which can correspond to one and
only one of the events.
Discrete random variable: Random variable which takes
only finite values between its limits.
Binomial distribution: Probability distribution for which
probabilities are of successive terms of the
binomial expansion ( q + p ) .
n

Poisson distribution: Discrete distribution used as a model

for the number of events in a specific time
period.
Continuous random variable: Random variable for which
the possible values are all real values in some
interval.

9.3. Guidance on the introductory activity

Organize groups of students, and then assign them to do the
introductory activity from the student’s book. As they are working,
move around to each group and ask them probing questions
leading them to the right way. After a while, invite some group to
present their findings in a whole class discussion. Guide students
to harmonize their answers and arouse their curiosity to the
content of this unit.
This problem is solved using a special distribution called Poisson
distribution that will be studied in this unit.

357
9.4. List of lessons
Number of
No Lesson title
periods
1 Probability density function of a discrete 3
random variable
2 Expected value, variance and standard 3
deviation of a discrete random variable
3 Cumulative distribution function of a discrete 3
random variable
4 Binomial distribution 4
5 Expected value, variance and standard 4
deviation of a binomial distribution
6 Poisson distribution 4
7 Probability density function of a continuous 4
random variable
8 Cumulative distribution function of a 4
continuous random variable
9 Expected value, variance and standard 4
deviation of a continuous random variable
Total periods 33

9.5. Lesson development

Lesson 9.1. Probability density function of a

discrete random variable
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a discrete
random variable and to find its probability distribution correctly.
Prerequisites
Finding probability of an event.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

358
 Activity 9.1

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
All balls are 6 with 4 red balls and 2 black balls
2 2 2 1
Probability of 0 red balls: P ( BBB ) = × × =
6 6 6 27
Probability of 1 red ball:
4 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2
P ( RBB ) + P ( BRB ) + P ( BBR ) = × × + × × + × × =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9
Probability of 2 red balls:
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4
P ( RRB ) + P ( RBR ) + P ( BRR ) = × × + × × + × × =
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 9
4 4 4 8
Probability of 3 red balls: P ( RRR ) = × × =
6 6 6 27
x 0 1 2 3
1 2 4 8
P
27 9 9 27
x takes on whole numbers only. The sum of obtained
probabilities is 1. This is the probability of the sample space.

Synthesis
A variable X which can assume numerical values each of which
can correspond to one and only one of the events is called a
random variable (or stochastic variable). A random variable
X is said to be a discrete random variable, if it takes only finite
values between its limits.

359
 It is convenient to introduce the probability function
P(=X x= i) pi , also called the probability distribution
satisfying
1. P(=
X xi ) ≥ 0
2. ∑ P(=
X
i
i)
x= 1 , where the sum is taken over all
values of xi .
The probability density function (p.d.f), F ( x ) , is a function
that allocates probabilities to all distinct values that X can
take on.

Application Activity 9.127

3
1. X is a random variable if ∑ P(=
i =1
X i)
x= 1.
3
1 2 3
∑ P( X =
i =1
x )=
P ( X =+
2 ) P ( X =+
i 3) P ( X ==
4) + + =
6 6 6
1

Therefore, X is a random variable.

1 4
2. a) p = b) P ( X ≥ 2 ) =
10 5
1
3. a =
2

Lesson 9.2. Cumulative distribution of discrete

random variable
Learning objectives
Given a discrete random variable, learners should be able to find
its cumulative distribution precisely.
Prerequisites
• Probability density function of a discrete random
variable.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

360
 Activity 9.2

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
Cumulative probabilities are found by adding the probability up
to each column of the table. In the table, we find the cumulative
probability for one head by adding the probabilities for zero
and one. The cumulative probability for two heads is found by
adding the probabilities for zero, one, and two. We continue
with this procedure until we reach the maximum number
of heads, in this case four, which should have a cumulative
probability of 1.00 because 100% of trials must have four or
fewer heads.
Then,
Heads 0 1 2 3 4
Probability 1 4 6 4 1
16 16 16 16 16
Cumulative 1 5 11 15 16
Probability
=1
16 16 16 16 16

Synthesis
To find a cumulative probability we add the probabilities for
all values qualifying as “less than or equal” to the specified
value. Then,
The cumulative distribution function of a random variable X is
( x) P ( X ≤ x) .
the function F=

361
 Application Activity 9.128

1. Cumulative distribution function

0, x<0
1
 , 0 ≤ x <1
4
F ( x) = 
3 , 1≤ x < 2
4
1, x≥2

2. Cumulative distribution
x 2 3 4 5 … 12
F ( x) 1 3 6 10 … 1
36 36 36 36
3. Probability distribution
x 1 2 3 4 5

P ( X = x) 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5

Lesson 9.3. Expected value, variance and standard

deviation of a discrete random
variable
Learning objectives
Given a discrete random variable, learners should be able to
calculate the expected value, variance and standard deviation
correctly.
Prerequisites
• Probability distribution of a discrete random variable.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

362
 Activity 9.3

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
x P ( X = x) xP ( X = x ) x2 P ( X = x )
1 0.2 0.2 0.2
2 0.5 1 2.0
3 0.3 0.9 2.7
Sum 1.0 2.1 4.9

Synthesis
The expected value of random variable X, which is the mean
of the probability distribution of X, is denoted and defined by
n
= (X )
µ E= ∑ x=
P( X
i =1
i xi ) .

The variance of random variable X is denoted and defined by

( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X ) or
2
σ 2 Var
= =
( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X )
2
var
=
The standard deviation of random variable X, is
=σ SD
= (X ) Var ( X ) .

363
 Application Activity 9.129

1. a) 1.9 b) 2.4 c) 0.4 d) 9.23

2 26 152 2 38
2. a) b) c) d)
3 9 81 9
3. Expected value: 3.5, variance: 2.9, standard
deviation: 1.7

Lesson 9.4. Binomial distribution

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a binomial
distribution and find its probability distribution accurately.
Prerequisites
• Powers.
• Combination of n objects taken from n objects.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 9.4
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1. Probability of the sequence SSSSFFFFFF is
P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( S ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) P ( F ) = ppppqqqqqq
= p4q6

364
2. From 1),
P ( S ) P ( S ) .... × P ( F ) P ( F ) ... =
pp.... × qq...
      
r times n − r times r times n − r times

r n−r
=pq
3. Different combinations that produce 4 heads are given by
10
C4 p 4 q 6 .
4. Different combinations that produce r heads in n trials are
n r n−r
given by Cr p q .

Synthesis
The probability of obtaining r successes in n independent
trials is b ( r : n, p ) = Cr p q
n r n−r
for 0 ≤ r ≤ n where p is the
probability of a success in each trial. This probability
distribution is called the binomial distribution since the values
of the probabilities are successive terms of the binomial
expansion of ( q + p ) ; that is why b ( r : n, p ) = nCr p r q n − r .
n

Each trial has two possible outcomes: success ( p ) and failure

(q) .
The outcome of the n trials are mutually independent and
there will be r successes and n − r failures.

Application Activity 9.130

15
1. 2. 0.92 3. 0.65536
64
4. 0.19 5. 0.51
6. a) 0.39 b) 0.35 c) 0.93
41
7. a) 0.26 b) c) 0.77
1679616
8183 16807
8. a) b)
8192 32768

365
Lesson 9.5. Expected value, variance and standard
deviation of a binomial distribution
Learning objectives
Given a binomial random variable, learners should be able to find
expected value, variance and standard deviation correctly.
Prerequisites
• Binomial distribution
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 9.5
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life
skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
n
1. E ( X ) = ∑ x P ( X = x ) = 0 × (1 − p ) + 1× p =
i =1
i i p

For n trials, E ( X ) = np
2. E ( X 2 ) = 02 × (1 − p ) + 12 p = p and for n trials
E ( X 2 ) = np

( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X )
2
Var
=

= np − [ np ]
2

= np − n 2 p 2
= np (1 − p )
= npq

366
 Synthesis
Basing on the results from activity 9.5, the expected value (or
mean) of a binomial distribution of a discrete random variable
X is denoted and defined by = µ E= ( X ) np where n is the
number of trials and p is the probability of success.
The variance of a binomial distribution of a discrete random
variable X is denoted and defined= by σ
2
Var
= ( X ) npq where
n is the number of trials, p is the probability of success and q
is the probability of failure.
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution of a
discrete random variable X is denoted and defined by
=σ Var ( X )
= npq .

Application Activity 9.131

1. np > npq, as q < 1

2. Mean is 30, standard deviation is 5
3. a) E ( X ) = 2.5 b) var ( X ) = 1.875
4. a) 0.117 b) 0.974
5. approximately 1 6. 11 7. ≈ 17

Lesson 9.6. Poisson distribution

Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a poison
distribution and solve problems using poison distribution
correctly.
Prerequisites
• Use of exponential and factorial notation.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

367
 Activity 9.6
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
θ
1. Dividing both sides of (1) by e
θ0 θ1 θ2 θ3 θn
1
= + + + + ... +
+ ...
0!eθ 1!eθ 2!eθ 3!eθ n !eθ
θ 0 e −θ θ 1e −θ θ 2 e −θ θ 3e −θ θ n e −θ
= + + + + ... + + ..
0! 1! 2! 3! n!
2. If we take λ = θ , we have
λ0 λ1 λ2 λ3 λn
1
= + + + + ... + + ..
0!eλ 1!eλ 2!eλ 3!eλ n !e λ
3. Using the general term, λ , and putting n = x , we
n

n !e λ
λ x
e−λ λ x
have P ( X= x=
) or P ( X
= x=)
x !e λ x!
Synthesis
The probability density function of Poisson distribution is
denoted X  P ( λ ) and defined by
e−λ λ x
P ( X= x=
) , =
x 0,1, 2,...
x!
Where λ is a parameter which indicates the average number
(the expected value) of events in the given time interval and
e ≈ 2.718...
For Poisson distribution with parameter λ , E ( x ) = λ and
Var ( x ) = λ .

368
Application Activity 9.132

1. Wrong statement, because σ = λ

2. 0.827008 3. 0.052129
4. 0.160623 5. 0.128387
6. 0.00000546

e −20 ( 20 )
x
14
7. ∑
x =0 x!
8. Considering the given table:
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
f 103 143 98 42 8 4 2 400

x⋅ f 0 143 126 126 32 20 12 529

529
Mean
= = 1.32
400
Number Probability Theoretical
of cells 0.2674 × (1.32 ) frequency
x

P ( x) =
x!
0 0.2674 × (1.32 )
0 0.2674 × 400  107
= 0.2674
0!
1 0.2674 × (1.32 )
1 0.353 × 400  141
= 0.353
1!
2 0.2674 × (1.32 )
2 0.233 × 400  93
= 0.233
2!
3 0.2674 × (1.32 )
3 0.1025 × 400  41
= 0.1025
3!
4 0.2674 × (1.32 )
4 0.0338 × 400  14
= 0.0338
4!

369
 5 0.2674 × (1.32 )
5 0.00893 × 400  4
= 0.00893
5!
6 0.2674 × (1.32 )
6 0.00196 × 400  1
= 0.00196
6!
The expected (theoretical) frequencies are
107,141,93, 41,14, 4,1 .

Lesson 9.7. Probability density function of a

continuous random variable
Learning objectives
Through examples, learners should be able to identify a continuous
random variable, and to find its probability distribution accurately.
Prerequisites
• Integration.
• Curve sketching.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen, calculator, instruments of geometry.

Activity 9.7

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

370
Answers
1. The area under the curve of f ( x ) is given by;
0 1
∫ k ( x + 1)
2
dx + ∫ kxdx . Then
−1 0

1 ⇒ k ∫−1 ( x + 2 x + 1)dx + k ∫0 dx =
0 1 0 1
k ( x + 1) dx + ∫ kdx =
2
∫
2
1
−1 0
0
 x3 
⇒ k  + x 2 + x  + k [ x ]0 =
1
1
3  −1
1  4 3
⇒ k  − 1 + 1 + k =1 ⇒ =k 1 or =
k
3  3 4
3
 4 ( x + 1)
2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2. Graph of f ( x ) = 
3 0 < x ≤1
 4
3
f ( x=
) ( x + 1)
2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 0
4
x -1 -0.3 -0.7 0

f ( x) = y 0 0.37 0.07 0.43

3
f (=
x) 0 < x ≤1
4
x 0 1

f ( x) = y 0.43 0.43
y

3
1 f ( x) =
4
3
f ( x) = ( xy )
2

x
-1 0 1

-1

371
 Synthesis
A random variable X is said to be continuous if its possible
values are all real values in some interval.
A function f ( x ) defined on an interval [ a, b ] is a probability
density function for a continuous random variable X distributed
on [ a, b ] if, whenever x1 and x2 satisfy a ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ b , we have
x2

p ( x1 ≤ X ≤ x2 ) =
∫ f ( x ) dx
x1

If X is a continuous random variable, then the probability that

the values of X will fall between the values a and b is given
by the area of the region lying below the graph of f ( x ) and
above the x − axis between a and b and this area is equal to 1.
+∞
Normally, ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1 .
−∞

Application Activity 9.133

3  1 7
1. a) c = b) P  X ≥  =
2  2  16
2. 0.693
1
3. a) k =
4
1
b) i) p ( x < 1) = ii) p ( x= 1=
) 0
4
iii) p ( x > 2.5 ) =
0.3125
p (1 ≤ x ≤ 2 )
iv) p ( 0 < x < 2 ) / x ≥ 1 =
(
p 1≤ x ≤ 3 )
2
1
∫ 4 dx 1
= 2
= 1
3
1 1 3
∫1 4 dx + ∫2 4 ( 2 x − 3) dx

372
Lesson 9.8. Cumulative distribution of continuous
random variable
Learning objectives
Given a continuous random variable, learners should be able to
find its cumulative distribution accurately.
Prerequisites
• Finite integrals
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

Activity 9.8
In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-
cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers

1. For x < 1 , f ( x ) = 0 and then =

x
F ( x) ∫=
0 dx 0
1

2. For 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 , 1 x and then

4 x
x1 1 2  1 2 1 x2 −1
F ( x )= ∫ x dx= x
 8  = x − =
1 4 8 8 8
1

3. For x > 3 , f ( x ) = 0 and then

x x2 −1 32 − 1
F ( x ) =F ( 3) + ∫ 0 dx = ( 3) = 1
and F=
1 8 8
4. Hence,
0, x <1
 2
 x −1
F ( x) 
= ,1 ≤ x ≤ 3
 8
1, x>3

373
 Synthesis
The cumulative distribution function of a continuous
x
random variable X is defined as: F ( x ) = ∫ f ( t ) dt .
−∞

Where F ( x ) = 0, for x → −∞ and F ( x ) = 1, for x → +∞ .

Application Activity 9.134

0, x ≤ −1
1 0, x<0
 ( x + 1)2 , −1 < x ≤ 0  2
2 x
1. F ( x ) =  2. ( x )  , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
F=
1 − (1 − x ) ,
2
16
0 < x <1 1, x>4
 2

1, x ≥1
0, x<0
 2
x , 0≤ x<2
6
3. F ( x ) =  2
 − x + 2 x − 2, 2 ≤ x < 3
 3

1, x≥3

Lesson 9.9. Variance and standard deviation of a

continuous random variable
Learning objectives
Given a continuous random variable, learners should be able to
find expected value, variance and standard deviation correctly.
Prerequisites
• Probability density function of a continuous random
variable.
Teaching Aids
Exercise book, pen and calculator

374
 Activity 9.9

In this lesson, the following generic competence and cross-

cutting issues are to be addressed:
• Critical thinking
• Communication
• Self confidence
• Cooperation, interpersonal management and life skills
• Peace and values education
• Inclusive education

Answers
1 1
1.
0
( x ) dx 6∫ x 2 (1 − x ) dx
A = ∫ xf =
0
1
1 1 
= 6 ∫ ( x − x=
)
1
dx 6  x 3 − x 4 
2 3
0
3 4 0
1 1 
= 6  −  = 0.5
3 4
1 1
2. B = ∫ x 2 f (=
x ) dx 6 ∫ x 3 (1 − x ) dx
0 0
1
= 6 ∫ ( x 3 − x= ) dx 6  1 x 4 − 1 x5 
1
4

4 5 0
0

1 1
= 6  −  = 0.3
4 5
3. B − A2 = 0.3 − 0.25 = 0.05

Synthesis
The mean, µ , (or expected value, E ( X ) ), of X is denoted
and defined by;
b
= (X )
µ E= ∫ xf ( x ) dx
a

Also, expectation of function g of X is

b
E ( g ( x ) ) = ∫ g ( x ) f ( x ) dx
a

375
 The variance Var ( x ) or σ 2 is denoted and defined by

( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( x ) .
2
σ 2 Var
= =
The standard deviation is
σ SD
= = Var ( X ) .
Properties of E ( X ) and Var ( X )
∀a, b ∈ 

1. E (a) = a

2. E ( aX ) = aE ( X )
3. E ( aX +=
b ) aE ( X ) + b
4. E ( X + Y=
) E ( X ) + E (Y )
5. E ( aX 2 + b ) ≠ aE ( X 2 ) + b
6. var ( a ) = 0
7. var ( aX + b ) =
a 2 var ( X )

8. var ( aX + b ) =
a 2 var ( X )

Application Activity 9.135

1. a) k = 1.44
b) mean is 0.443, variance is 0.0827
3 3
2. a) c = =b) E ( X ) 0,=var ( X )
2 5
3. a) a = 0.01
b) E ( x ) = 10 , Var ( x ) = 16.6667
( 9 x ) 9=
E= E ( x ) 90 Var ( 9 x ) 9=
= 2
Var ( x ) 1350

376
9.6. Summary of the unit

1. Discrete and finite random variables

1. Probability density function
A random variable X is said to be a discrete random variable,
if it takes only finite values between its limits; for example,
the number of learners appearing in a festival consisting of
400 learners is a discrete random variable which can assume
values other than 0, 1, 2, …,400.
The probability density function (p.d.f), F ( x ) , is a function
that allocates probabilities to all distinct values that X can
take on.
If the initial probability is known, you can find successive
probabilities using the following recurrence relation
 n − x  p 
P ( X = x + 1) =    P ( X =x) .
 x +1   q 
2. Expectation, variance and standard deviation
The expected value of random variable X , which is the
mean of the probability distribution of X , is denoted and
defined by
n
= (X )
µ E= ∑ x=
P( X
i =1
i xi ) .
Also, the expectation of any function g ( X ) of the random
variable X is
n
= ( g ( X ))
µ E= ∑ g=
( x) P ( X xi ) .
i =1
The variance of random variable X is denoted and defined
by
n

∑ [ xi − µ ] P ( X =
Var ( X ) = xi ) .
2
σ2 =
i =1
This can be simplified to
σ 2 Var
= = ( X ) E ( X 2 ) − µ2

377
 The standard deviation of random variable X , denoted
by SD ( X ) , is the square root of the variance. That is

=σ SD
= (X ) Var ( X ) .
Properties for mean and variance
∀a, b ∈ 

1. E (a) = a 2. E ( aX ) = aE ( X )

3. E ( aX +=
b ) aE ( X ) + b 4. E ( X + Y=
) E ( X ) + E (Y )
5. E ( aX 2 + b ) ≠ aE ( X 2 ) + b 6. var ( a ) = 0

7. var ( aX ) = a var ( X ) var ( aX + b ) =

a 2 var ( X )
2
8.

3. Binomial distribution (Law of Bernoulli)

For binomial probability distribution, we are interested in the
probabilities of obtaining r successes in n trials, in other word r
successes and n-r failures in n attempts.
Binomial distribution is denoted
b ( r : n, p )
= n
Cr P r q n − r , r 0,1, 2, , n
=
The constant n, p, q are called parameters of the binomial
distribution.
The following assumptions are made:
ᅧ There is a fixed number (n) of trials.
ᅧ The probability of success is the same for each trial.
ᅧ Each trial is independent of all other trials.
1
Note that p + q =
For N set of n trial, the successes 0, 1, 2, .....r, ....., n are given
by N ( p + q ) , which is called binomial distribution.
n

The expected value (or mean) of a binomial distribution of

a discrete random variable X is denoted and defined by
=µ E= ( X ) np where n is the number of trials and p is the
probability of success.

378
 The variance of a binomial distribution of a discrete random
variable X is denoted and defined = by σ 2 Var
= ( X ) npq
where n is the number of trials, p is the probability of
success and q is the probability of failure.
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution of a
discrete random variable X is denoted and defined by
=σ Var ( X )
= npq .

4. Uncountable infinite discrete case: Poisson distribution

The Poisson distribution is a discrete distribution often used as a
model for the number of events (such as the number of customers
in waiting lines, number of defects in a given surface area, airplane
arrivals, or the number of accidents at an intersection) in a specific
time period.
Poisson distribution is a limiting form of the binomial distribution
( p + q)
n
under the following conditions:
(i) n → ∞, i.e., the number of trials is indefinitely large.
(ii) p → 0 , i.e., the constant probability of success for each trial is
indefinitely small.
(iii) np is a finite quantity, say λ .

Typical events which could have a Poisson distribution:

(i) Number of customers arriving at a supermarket checkout
per minute.
(ii) Number of suicides or deaths by heart attack in a minute.
(iii) Number of accidents that take place on a busy road in time
t.
(iv) Number of printing mistakes at each unit of the book.
(v) Number of cars passing a certain street in time t.
(vi) Number of α − particles emitted per second by a
radioactive sources.
(vii) Number of faulty blades in a packet of 1000.
(viii) Number of person born blind per year in a certain village.

379
(ix) Number of telephone calls received at a particular switch
board in a minute.
(x) Number of times a teacher is late for class in a given week.
The probability density function of Poisson distribution is defined
by
e−λ λ x
P ( X= x=
) , =
x 0,1, 2,...
x!
where λ is a parameter which indicates the average number (the
expected value) of events in the given time interval. We write
X  Po ( λ )
• If the initial probability is known, you can find successive
probabilities using the following recurrence relation;
λ
P ( X = x + 1) = P ( X =x) .
x +1
• For a Poisson distribution of a discrete random variable X
, the mean µ (or expected value) and the variance σ 2 are
µ σ=
the same and equal to λ . Thus, =
2
λ

5. Continuous random variables

a) Probability density function
A function defined on an interval [ a, b ] is a probability density
function for a continuous random variable X distributed on
[ a, b ] if, whenever x1 and x2 satisfy a ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ b , we have
x2

p ( x1 ≤ X ≤ x2 ) =
∫ f ( x ) dx .
x1

Properties of p.d.f f ( x )
a) f ( x ) > 0 for all x

b) ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1
all x

The cumulative distribution function of a continuous random

x
variable X is defined as: F ( x ) = ∫−∞ f ( t ) dt

where F ( x ) = 0, for x → −∞ and x → +∞ for x → +∞ .

380
 b) Expected value, variance and standard deviation
The mean µ ( or expected value E ( X ) ) of X is denoted and
defined by
b
= (X )
µ E= ∫ xf ( x ) dx
a

Also, expectation of function g of X is

b
E ( g ( x ) ) = ∫ g ( x ) f ( x ) dx
a

The variance Var ( x ) or σ is denoted and defined by

2

( X ) E ( X 2 ) −  E ( x )  .
2
σ 2 Var
= =
The standard deviation is
σ SD
= = Var ( X ) .

Properties of E ( X ) and Var ( X )

∀a, b ∈ 
1. E ( a ) = a 2. E ( aX ) = aE ( X )

3. E ( aX +=
b ) aE ( X ) + b 4. E ( X + Y=
) E ( X ) + E (Y )
(
2 2
)
5. E aX + b ≠ aE X + b ( ) 6. var ( a ) = 0

7. var ( aX ) = a var ( X ) var ( aX + b ) =

a 2 var ( X )
2
8.

9.7. End of Unit Assessment

29
1.
32
2. a) 0.0145 b) 0.1887
c) 0.0000000000000000000001
3. 0.0863
4. Probability that it will work (0 defective components) is 0.896 .
Probability that it will not work perfectly is 0.104
5. 0.00038

381
 6. a) { HHH , HHT , HTH , HTT , THH , THT , TTH , TTT }
b) p ( HHH ) = 0.166375 ,
( HHT ) p=
p= ( HTH ) p=
(THH ) 0.136125 ,
( HTT ) p=
p= (THT ) p=
(TTH ) 0.111375 ,
p (TTT ) = 0.091125
c) f ( 0 ) 0.911125,
= = f (1) 0.334125,
= f ( 2 ) 0.408375,
f ( 3) = 0.166375
d) 0.908875 e) 1.650000
176
7. ×100  17 8. 0.99863
1024
na
9. 0.0376 10.
a+b
11. a) 0.5905 =
b) E ( X ) 7,=
Var ( x ) 6.3

12. a) 0.9997 b) 0.005

3
13. 14. a) 4.8, 0.98 b) 0.655
4
15. a) 0.0498 × 1000 b) 0.3526 ×1000

e −100 (100 )
x
16. 2.3026 17.
x!
18. 0.51
19. a) 0.147 b) 0.0408 c) 0.762

20. a) 0.122 b) 0.138 c) 0.224 d) 0.0273

21.
x 0 1 2 3 4 Total
f 122 60 15 2 1 200
x⋅ f 0 60 30 6 4 100
100
Mean
= = 0.5
200

382
 ( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x

The number of x deaths is given by 200 × for 0,

x!
1, 2, 3, 4.
Death/Frequencies 0 1 2 3 4
Probabilities

e −0.5 × ( 0.5 ) 0.27 0.35 0.10

x
0.23 0
P ( x) =
x!
Expected
(Theoretical)
frequency 121 61 15 3 0
( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x

200 ×
x!
The expected frequencies are 121, 61,15,3 and 0 .

22. 0.9998 23. 0.5620

24.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total

f 143 90 42 12 9 3 1 300
x⋅ f 0 90 84 36 36 15 6 267

267
Mean
= = 0.89
300
The number of x mistakes per day is given by
(e) ( 0.89 )
−0.89 x

300 × for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6.

x!
Mistakes per day 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Probabilities

e −0.5 × ( 0.5 ) 0.41 0.37 0.05 0.01

x
0.16 0 0
P ( x) =
x!

383
 Expected
(Theoretical)
frequency 123 111 48 15 3 0 0
( e ) ( 0.5)
−0.5 x

200 ×
x!
The expected frequencies are 123,111, 48,15,3 and 0 .
2
25. a) 0.25 b)
3
1
26. a) k = b) 0.75
2
27. a) 0.125 b) 0.727
3 3
28. a) k = b) E ( x ) = 1
16 4
11
c) P (1 ≤ x ≤ 3) =
16
2 4
29. a) (i) k = (ii) E ( x ) = 1
5 15
(iii) σ = 0.75 b) p ( x < µ − σ ) =
0.207

2 1 2
30. (i) a) k = =
b) ( x ) 2,=
µ E= σ2 =,σ
9 2 2
4 2
c) ≈ 0.63
9
3 2 3 3 5
(ii) a) k = 3 =
b) ( x)
µ E= ,σ
= = ,σ
4 80 20
207 5
c) ≈ 0.668
400
1 2 1 5
iii) a) k = 6 =
b) ( x)
µ E= ,σ
= = ,σ
2 20 20
7 5
c) ≈ 0.626
25
31. a) a = 12 , b = 1 b) 0.0523

384
Answers for Summative Evaluation One
x−2
1.  1  43− 2 x ⇔ ( 2−3 ) ( 22 )
x−2 3− 2 x
= =
8
⇔ 2−3 x + 6 =
26− 4 x ⇒ −3 x + 6 = 6 − 4 x
or x = 0
S = {0}
2. A quadratic function has a double root if and only if ∆ =0 .
For our case, ∆ = b 2 − 4ac = 9 − 4m .
9
∆ = 0 ⇔ 9 − 4m = 0 or m = .
4
0 admits a double root when m = 9 .
Therefore, x 2 + 3 x + m =
9
4
9 2 2
For m = , x + 3 x + m =0 ⇒ x + 3 x + =0
4 4
3
The root is x = − .
2  
3. If the angle between u = ( k ,3) and v = ( 4, 0 ) is 45o , thus
4k
cos 45o =
2
k + 9 16
Or
4k k
cos 45o = ⇔ cos 45o =
4 k2 + 9 k2 + 9
2
Since cos 45 =
o
, then,
2
2 k
= ⇔ 2= k 2 k2 + 9
2 2
k +9
Squaring both sides yields
2
4k= k 2 + 18 ⇔ k 2 =
9 ⇒k =±3
The value of k is 3 since cos 45o > 0 .
4. 2 cos 2 x − cos x − 1 = 0 ⇔ 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos x + cos x − 1 = 0
⇔ 2 cos x ( cos x − 1) + cos x − 1 =0

⇔ ( cos x − 1)( 2 cos x + 1) =

0 cos x − 1
⇒ cos x − 1 =0 or 2 cos x + 1

385
 1
1 or cos x = −
⇔ cos x =
2
2π
⇒x= 2kπ or x = ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
3
2π 2π 4π
⇒x= 2kπ or=x + 2kπ or x = − + 2 kπ ≡ + 2 kπ
3 3 3
 2π 4π 
Hence, = S  2 kπ , + 2 kπ , + 2 kπ , k ∈   .
 3 3 
1 − cos x 1 − cos 0 1 − 1 0 I .F .
5. lim = = =
x →0 sin x sin 0 0 0
Remove this indeterminate form by Hospital’s rule
(1 − cos x ) = lim sin x
'
1 − cos x
lim = lim =0
( sin x )
' x → 0 cos x
x →0 sin x x →0

1 − cos x
Then, lim =0
x →0sin x
6. From sequence {un } where u=
n +1 3 ( un + 2 ) and u0 = 0 ,
we list;
uo = 0
u1= 3 ( u0 + 2 )= 6
u2 = 3 ( u1 + 2 ) = 3 ( 6 + 2 ) = 24
u3= 3 ( u2 + 2 )= 3 ( 24 + 2 )= 78
u4= 3 ( u3 + 2 )= 3 ( 78 + 2 )= 240 .
Therefore, the first five terms of the given sequence are
0, 6, 24, 78 and 240 .
The sequence {un } is arithmetic if un +1 − un = d , d ∈  and is
u +1
geometric if n= r, r ∈ 
un
Since u= n +1 3 ( un + 2 ) , thus un +1 − un = 3 ( un + 2 ) − un = 2un + 6 and
this is not a constant.
So, {un } is not an arithmetic sequence.
un +1 3 ( un + 2 ) 6
= = 3+ and this is not a constant.
un un un
Thus, {un } is not a geometric sequence.

386
 Therefore, {un } is neither arithmetic nor geometric sequence.

7. Let f ( x=
) x2 + 2 x2 −1 − x2 − 2 x2 −1

a) Existence condition: x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 and x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 ≥ 0

x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ∈ ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ )

x2 − 2 x2 −1 ≥ 0 ⇔ x2 ≥ 2 x2 −1

⇔ x4 ≥ 4 x2 − 4 ⇔ x4 − 4 x2 + 4 ≥ 0 ⇔ ( x − 2) ≥ 0
2 2

⇔ ∀x ∈ , ( x 2 − 2 ) ≥ 0
2

Hence,
Domf = ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ )
b) f ( x=
) x2 + 2 x2 −1 − x2 − 2 x2 −1

( ) (
f 2 ( x ) =x 2 + 2 x 2 − 1 − 2 x 2 + 2 x 2 − 1 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 + x 2 − 2 x 2 − 1 )
f 2 ( x ) = 2 x2 − 2 x4 − 4 x2 + 4

(x − 2)
2
f 2 ( x) =2 x2 − 2 2

f 2 ( x ) =2 x 2 − 2 x 2 − 2
2 x 2 − 2 ( x 2 − 2 ) , x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
f ( x) = 
2

2 x + 2 ( x − 2 ) , x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 

2 2

    
4, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
f ( x) = 
2

4 x − 4, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 

2

2, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
⇒ f ( x) =

2 x − 1, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 
2

From Domf = ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ ) , we get that
2, x ∈  −∞, − 2  ∪  2, +∞ 
    
⇒ f ( x) =

2 x 2 − 1, x ∈  − 2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 


387
8. Let P (T ) = p , then P ( H ) = 3 p .
But P (T ) + P ( H ) =
1.
1
Therefore, 4 p = 1 or p = .
4
1 3
Thus, P (T ) = and P ( H ) = .
4 4
9. Tangent line:
T ≡ y − y=
o y0' ( x − xo )

Here, xo = 2 and yo = 4 ;
f ' (=
x ) 3x 2 − 4 x
y0' = f ' ( 2 ) = 3 ( 4 ) − 4 ( 2 ) = 12 − 8 = 4
Then, T ≡ y − 4= 4 ( x − 2 ) ⇔ y = 4 x − 8 + 4 ⇔ y = 4 x − 4
Normal line:
1
N ≡ y − yo = − ' ( x − xo ) ;
y0
1 1
Thus, N ≡ y − 4 =− ( x − 2 ) ⇔ y = 4 x + + 4
4 2
9
⇔ y = 4x +
4
10. a) Equation of sphere S whose centre ( xo , yo , zo ) and
radius r has equation ( x − xo ) + ( y − yo ) + ( z − zo ) =
2 2 2
r2
For our case,
S ≡ ( x − 6 ) + ( y − 5) + ( z + 2 ) =
2 2 2
70
2 2 2
Or S ≡ x + y + z − 12 x − 10 y + 4 z = 70 − 36 − 25 − 4
2 2 2
Or S ≡ x + y + z − 12 x − 10 y + 4 z =
5
b) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4 x − 8 y + 6 z + 7 =⇔
0 x2 + 4x + y 2 − 8 y + z 2 + 6z =
−7

⇔ ( x + 2 ) + ( y − 4 ) + ( z + 3) =
2 2 2
−6 + 4 + 16 + 9

⇔ ( x + 2 ) + ( y − 4 ) + ( z + 3) =
2 2 2
22

Centre is C ( −2, 4, −3) , radius r = 22 .

1
   x −1 y −1 z +1
c) Let us find AB =  −4  , the line AB ≡ = =
 5 1 −4 5
 
388
 −4 x + 4 = y + 1 y = −4 x + 3
⇒ AB ≡  ⇔ AB ≡ 
 5x − 5 = z + 1 = z 5x − 6
Substituting y, z with their values in S gives
x 2 + ( −4 x + 3) + ( 5 x − 6 ) + 4 x − 8 ( −4 x + 3) + 6 ( 5 x − 6 ) + 7 =
2 2
0
⇔ x 2 + 16 x 2 − 24 x + 9 + 25 x 2 − 60 x + 36 + 4 x + 32 x − 24 + 30 x − 36 + 7 =
0
⇔ 42 x 2 − 18 x − 8 =0 ⇔ 21x − 9 x − 4 =0
∆= 81 + 336= 417
9 ± 417
x1,2 =
42
x1 = 5.7 and x2 = −14.7
For x = 5.7 , we have y = −19.8 and z = 22.5 .
Intersection point is then, ( 5.7, −19.8, 22.5 )
For x = −14.7 , we have y = 61.8 and z = 79.5
Intersection point is then, ( −14.7, 61.8, 79.5 )
11. Let q ( t ) = qo e − tk
Here qo = 50 and q ( 5 ) = 20 .
q ( 5 ) = 20 ⇒ 20 = 50e −5 k

2 2 1 2
⇔ e −5 k ⇔ −5k =ln ⇔ k =
= − ln ⇔ k =
0.18326.
5 5 5 5
90% of the sugar being dissolved, it means that 10% of the
sugar left i.e. 5kg.
Thus,
1
q (t ) =
5 ⇒ 50e −0.18326t = 5 ⇔ e −0.18326t =
10
1
⇔ −0.18326t =ln ⇔ 0.18326t = − ln10 ⇔ t = 12.5647
10
12. In fact, sin y cos ( x − y ) + cos =
y sin ( x − y ) sin y ( cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) + cos y ( sin x co
n y cos ( x − y ) + cos =
y sin ( x − y ) sin y ( cos x cos y + sin x sin y ) + cos y ( sin x cos y − sin y cos x )
= sin y cos x cos y + sin x sin 2 y + sin x cos 2 y − cos y sin y cos x
= sin x sin 2 y + sin
= x cos 2 y sin x ( sin 2 y + cos 2 y )
= sin x as required.

389
 (1 + x )
3
5
0 −1
13. lim , I .F . =
x →0 x 0
Remove this I .F . by Hospital’s rule.

( )
'
(1 + x )
3
5
(1 + x )
3
−1
5
−1 1 −
4

lim (1 + x ) − 1 5 3 (1 + x )
3 2
lim = lim =
x →0 x x →0 x' x →0 5  
4
1 −
(1 + 0 ) − 1 5 3 (1 + 0 ) = +∞
3 2
=
5  
56 + 37 + 54 + 52 + x + 48
14. If the mean is 50, thus, = 50
6
⇔ 247 + x =300 ⇔ x= 300 − 247 ⇒ x =
53
2
15. Intersection points for y 2 = 2 px and x = 2 py :
x2
y 2= 2 px ⇒ y= 2 px and x 2= 2 py ⇒ y=
2p
x2 x4
Then, 2 px = ⇔ 2 px = 2
2p 4p
3
⇔ 8p x = 4 3 4
x ⇔ 8p x − x =
3 3
0 ⇔ x 8p − x =0 ( )
3 3
⇒x=0 or 8 p − x = 0
⇒x=0 or x = 2 p
2
To be able to sketch the curve, let p = 2 . Then we have y = 4 x
2
and x = 4 y

2p
 x2 
=A ∫0  2 px −  dx
2p 

390
 2p 2p
1
=A 2p ∫ xdx − ∫ x dx
2

0
2p 0
2p 2p
 2 23  1  x3 
=A 2p  x  −
 3 0 2 p  3  0
2 8 p3
A
= 2p ⋅2p⋅ 2p −
3 6p
8 p 2 4 p3 4 p3 4 p2
A
= − = =
3 3p 3p 3
Therefore, the area enclosed by the curves
2 4 p2
y 2 = 2 px and x = 2 py is sq. unit
3
Cov ( x, y )
16. a) r =
σ xσ y
1 n
Cov ( x, y ) = ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
2 2

n i =1
1 n
Var ( x ) ∑ ( xi − x )
2
=σx =
n i =1

1 n
Var ( y ) ∑ ( yi − y )
2
=σy =
n i =1
Mean:
7 + 8 + 9 + 11 + 15
=x = 10
5
33 + 25 + 17 + 9 + 6
=y = 18
5
xi yi xi − x yi − y ( xi − x )
2
( yi − y )
2
( xi − x )( yi − y )
7 33 −3 −12 9 225 −45
8 25 −2 −9 4 49 −14
9 17 −1 −1 1 1 1
11 9 1 7 1 81 −9
15 6 5 15 25 144 −60

SUM 40 500 −127

391
 1 n
Cov ( x, y ) = ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
2 2

n i =1
1 n 40
∑ ( xi − x ) =
2
σx = = 8 =2 2
n i =1 5

1 n 500
∑ ( yi − y ) =
2
σy= = 100 = 10
n i =1 5
1 n −127
Cov ( x, =
y) ∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y=
)
2 2

n i =1 5
Cov ( x, y ) −127
r= = = −0.89
σ xσ y (
5 2 2 10)
Cov ( x, y )
b) Ly=
≡ y− y (x − x)
x σ x2
−127
Ly − 18
≡ y= ( x − 10 )
x 40
⇔ y − 18 =−3.2 ( x − 10 ) ⇔ y =−3.2 x + 50
c) Scatter diagram
y
40

35

30

25

−3.2 x + 50
y=
20

15

10

x
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

3 x=+ 2 y − 5z 2  3 2 −5  x   2 
     
17. a)  x + 2 y 3 ⇔  1 2 0  y  =
= 3
 −3  2 −1 1  z   −3 
2 x − y + z =   
∆y ∆y ∆z
If ∆ ≠ 0, then= x = ,y = ,z
∆ ∆ ∆
392
 3 2 −5
2 −5 3 −5
∆= 1 2 0 =− +2 = −2 + 5 + 6 + 20 = 29
−1 1 2 1
2 −1 1
2 2 −5
2 −5 2 −5
∆ x = 3 2 0 =−3 +2 =−6 + 15 + 4 − 30 =−17
−1 1 −3 1
−3 −1 1
17
⇒ x =−
29
3 2 −5
2 −5 3 −5
∆ y =1 3 0 =− +3 =−2 + 15 + 9 + 30 =52
−3 1 2 1
2 −3 1
52
⇒y=
29
3 2 2
2 2 3 2 3 2
∆ z =1 2 3 =− +2 −3 =6 − 2 − 18 − 8 + 9 + 12 =−1
−1 −3 2 −3 2 −1
2 −1 −3
2 3 2 3 2 1
+2 −3 =6 − 2 − 18 − 8 + 9 + 12 =−1 ⇒ z =−
−3 2 −3 2 −1 29

 17 52 1 
 − , , −  
S=
 29 29 29  
b) The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are
       
a = 6i + 3 j − 2k and b =3i − 2 j + 6k is given by
 
A= a × b
  
i j j
   3 −2  6 −2  6 3
a × b 6 3 −2 = i
Or= −j +k
−2 6 3 6 3 −2
3 −2 6
     
= i (18 − 4 ) − j ( 36 + 6 ) + k ( −12 − 9 ) =14i − 42 j − 21k

(14 ) + ( −42 ) + ( −21)

2 2 2
=A = 196 + 1768 + 441
= 2401 49
=

393
 Therefore, the area of the given parallelogram is 49 sq. unit
cx ( 6 − x )2 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
18. We are given F ( x ) = 
0, elsewhere
a) Since x is a random variable, thus, ∫ f ( x ) dx = 1
All
6 6

∫ cx ( 6 − x ) ∫ cx ( 36 − 12 x + x ) dx
2
⇒
= 1 dx =
⇔1 2

0 0

4 6
 x 
⇔ 1 c 18 x 2 − 4 x3 + =
= ⇔ 1 c 18 ( 36 ) − 4 ( 216 ) + 324 
 4 0
⇔ 108c = 1
1
⇒c=
108
b) i) The mean is E ( x ) = ∫ xf ( x ) dx
All
6
1
⇒ E (=
x) x 2 ( 6 − x ) dx
2
∫
108 0
6
1
⇔E
= ( x) ∫
108 0
( 36 x 2 − 12 x 3 + x 4 ) dx
6
1  3 x5 
( x)
⇔ E= 12 x − 3 x 4
+
108  5  0
1
( x)
⇔ E= ( 2592 − 3888 + 1555.2 =) 2.4
108
1
( x)
⇔ E= ( 259.2
= ) 2.4
108
E ( x ) = 2.4

( )
2
ii) The variance Var= ( x ) E x 2 −  E ( x )
6
or E x 2 = ∫ x 2 f ( x ) dx ⇒ E x 2= 1 x 3 ( 6 − x )2 dx
( ) ( )
All 108 ∫0
6
1
( x ) 108
⇔ E= 2
∫0 ( 36 x − 12 x + x ) dx
3 4 5

6
1  4 x5 x 6 
⇔ E ( x=
) 108
2
 9 x − 12 +
 5 6  0

394
 6
1  ( 6) ( 6) 
5 6

⇔ E ( x=) 108 9 ( 6 ) − 12 5 + 6 =
2 4
 7.2
  0

Then, Var ( x ) =
7.2 − ( 2.4 ) =
2
1.44
( x)
iii) Standard deviation of x is σ = Var= 1.44 1.2
=
π
2

19. a) From I n = ∫ e sin xdx , let u = sin x and dv = e − nx dx .

− nx

0
1
Hence, du = − sin xdx and v = − e − nx .
π
n
π
 1 − nx  2 1 − nx
2

n ∫0
Therefore, I n = −
 n e sin x  + e cos xdx
0

1 − nπ 1
⇔ In = − e 2 + Jn
n n
nπ
−
⇔ nI n − J n =
−e 2
(1)
π
2
From J n = ∫ e − nx cos xdx , let t = cos x and dz = e dx .
− nx

0
− nx 1
Then, dt = cos xdx and z = − e .
n π
π
 1 − nx 1 − nx 2
 2
Therefore, J n = − n e cos x  − n ∫ e sin xdx
1 1 0 0
⇔ Jn = − In
n n
1
⇔ nJ n + I n =
(2)
Equation (1) and (2) give the simultaneous equations
nπ
 −
nI n − J n =−e 2

1
nJ n + I n = (3)
And (3) indicates two relations between I n and J n .
b) Multiply first equation of (3) by n to eliminate J n
nπ
 2 −
n I n − nJ n =− ne 2 −
nπ
 ⇒ n 2 I n + I n =1 − ne 2
1
nJ n + I n =

395
 nπ
−
1 − ne 2
Which gives I n = (4)
n2 + 1
nπ
−
From (1), J=
n nI n + e 2

nπ nπ nπ
− − −
n − n2e 2
+ n2e 2
+e 2
Then J n =
nπ
n2 + 1
−
n+e 2
Or J n = 2 (5)
n +1
y ( 0 ) y=
6 x with =
20. To solve y "− y '− 2 y = ' ( 0) 1
Homogeneous equation :
y "− y '− 2 y =
0
Characteristic equation
λ 2 − λ − 2 = 0 ⇔ ( λ + 1)( λ − 2 ) = 0
⇔ λ = −1 or λ = 2 .
General solution for solution for homogeneous equation is
y ∗ c1e − x + c2 e 2 x .
=
The complementary (particular) solution is given by
y Ax + B .
=
Or y ' = A et y '' = 0 .
The equation y "− y '− 2 y =
6 x becomes
− A − 2 Ax − 2 B =6x
Identifying the coefficients, we get
 A  3
− A − 2 B =0 B = − B =
 ⇔ 2 ⇔ 2
−2 A = 6  A = −3  A = −3
 
3
Thus, complementary solution is y =−3 x +
2
The general solution of the given equation is
3
y= c1e − x + c2 e 2 x − 3 x +
2
y ( 0 ) y=
From the initial conditions = ' ( 0 ) 1 , we get the values
of c1 and c2 as follows:
−c1e − x + 2c2 e 2 x − 3
y' =

396
  5
 3  c1 = −
 c + c + = 1  3
y ( 0 )= y ' ( 0 )= 1 ⇒  1 2 2 ⇒
−c1 + 2c2 − 3 = 7
1 c2 =
 6
5 7 3
− e− x + e2 x − 3x +
Therefore, the required solution is y =
3 6 2

Answers for Summative Evaluation Two

 2 2 37
 x + y = 4
1. 
 xy = 3
 2
3
From 2nd equation, we get x = ; putting this equality in 1st
2y
equation, we get
2
 3  2 37 9 37
  +y = ⇔ 2 + y2 =
 2y  4 4y 4
4 2
⇔ 9 + 4 y4 = 37 y 2 ⇒ 4 y − 37 y + 9 =0
∆ = ( −37 ) − 16 ( 9 ) = 1369 − 144 = 1225
2

37 + 35 2 37 − 35 1
=y2 = 9= or y =
8 8 4
1 1
−3, y2 =
Solving for y , we get: y1 = 3, y3 =
− , y4 =
2 2
3
Substituting y with its values in x = , we get:
2y
1 1
− , x2 =
x1 = , x3 =
−3, x4 =
3
2 2
And then, the solution set is
 1  1  1   1 
S =  −3, −  ,  3,  ,  − , −3  ,  ,3  
 2  2  2   2 
 eln x  e  eln x e 
2. ln  3  + ln   = ln  3 × 
 e   x  e x
eln x
= ln= 2
ln x ln e − ln xe 2
xe
= ln x − ( ln x + ln e2 ) = ln x − ln x + 2ln e = 2

397
 π
3. arctan x + arctan 3 =
4
π π π  π  π
⇒ arctan x + = ⇒ arctan x =− ⇒ x =tan  −  ⇒ x =− tan
3 4 12  12  12

ln (1 + x 2 )
)  
2

( )
ln (1 + x 2 )  '× e x − e x '× ln (1 + x 2 )
2

4. f ( x=
) x2
⇒ f ' ( x= 2
e ex
2x
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
× e x − 2 xe x ln 1 + x 2 2 x 1 − 1 + x 2 ln 1 + x 2 
=
2
⇒ f '( x) 1+ x =  
2 2
( )
2
2
e x  1+ x e x

 
x −1 0
5. lim = ( I .C )
x →1 3
x −1 0

lim 3
x −1
= lim
( x −1 )( x +1 )( 3
x2 + 3 x + 1 )
x →1 x − 1 x →1 ( 3
x − 1)( x + 1) ( 3
x2 + 3 x + 1)

( x − 1) ( 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1)
3 2
x + 3 x +1 3
= lim = lim =
x →1
(
( x − 1) x + 1 x →1
) x +1 2

6. iz − 2 = 4i − z → (1)
Let z = a + bi → (2)
Using (2) in (1) we get:
i (a + bi ) − 2 = 4i − (a + bi ) ⇒ ai + bi 2 − 2 = 4i − a − bi
−b − 2 = −a a − b = 2 a = 3
⇒ (−b − 2) + ai = −a + (4 − b) i ⇒  ⇒ ⇒
a = 4 − b a + b = 4 b = 1
z = 3 + 1i
sin 2 x + sin 2 x sin x + 2sin x cos x
7. =
1 + cos x + cos 2 x 1 + cos x + cos 2 x − sin 2 x
sin x + 2sin x cos x sin x (1 + 2 cos x ) sin x
= = = = tan x
cos x + 2 cos 2 x cos x (1 + 2 cos x ) cos x
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n n (n + 1) n +1 1
8. lim 2
= lim 2
= lim =
n→+∞ n n →+∞ 2n n →+∞ 2n 2
9. y =ln ( 4 x − 11) , x0 =3
y0 y '0 ( x − x0 )
T ≡ y−=

398
  y 0 = y (x0 ) = y (3)
where: 
or  y ' 0 = y ' (x0 ) = y ' (3)
4
y ln ( 4 x − 11) ⇒ y='
=
4 x − 11
y ( 3) 0,=
= y ' ( 3) 4
Then, T ≡ y = 4 ( x − 3) ⇒ T ≡ y = 4 x − 12
x + 1 , f is defined if: x + 1 > 0
10. f ( x ) = ln
x −1 x −1

Domf = ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[

x2  1
11. F ( x ) = + x − x ln x ⇒ F ' ( x ) = x + 1 −  ln x + x ⋅  = x − ln x
2  x
x x −1 2 x −1 1
12. a) e e = e ⇒ e = e ⇒ 2 x − 1 = 1 ⇒ 2 x = 2 ⇒ x =1
S = {1}
2 x−2
b) e + e x−2 =
6e −2
⇒ e 2 x e −2 + e x e −=
2
6e −2 ⇒ e −2 ( e 2 x + e x =
) 6e−2 ⇒ e2 x + e x − 6= 0
=
Let t ex , (t > 0)
⇒ t 2 + t − 6 =0 =( t − 2 )( t + 3) ⇒ t =2 or t =−3
t = −3 is to be rejected since t > 0
For t = 2 ⇒ e = 2 ⇒ ln e = ln 2 ⇒ x = ln 2
x x

S = {ln 2}
e x − e−x
13. f (x ) =
e x + e −x
Let: f ( x ) = u ( x ) be the inverse of f ( x )
−1

399
 f (u ) = x
eu − e − u e 2u − 1 xe 2u + x
⇒ u −u = x ⇒ =
e +e eu eu
⇒ eu − e − u= x ( eu + e − u ) ⇒ e 2u −=
1 xe 2u + x
1 x ⇒ e 2u (1 − x ) =x + 1
⇒ e − u = xeu + u
u

e e
x +1 x +1 1  x +1 
⇒ e 2=
u
⇒ 2=
u ln u
⇒=  ln 
1− x 1− x 2  1− x 
e x − e−x
The inverse function of f ( x ) = is
e x + e−x
1 x +1
f −1 ( x ) = ln
2 1− x
14. 5log 2 y − 3log 2 ( x +=
4 ) 2 log 2 y + 3log 2 x
⇒ 5log 2 y − 2 log
= 2 y 3log 2 ( x + 4 ) + 3log 2 x
log 2 ( x + 4 ) + log 2 x3
3
⇒ log 2 y 5 − log 2 y=
2

y5
⇒ log 2 2 = log 2 x3 ( x + 4 )
3

y
3
⇒ y 3=  x ( x + 4 )  ⇒ y= x ( x + 4 )
15. Point P is 90 m away from a vertical flagpole, which is 11 m
high

= 11
From the above figure, tan P
90
= tan −1  11  ≈ 6.90
P  
 90 
0
Thus, the angle of elevation is about 6.9

400
16. Solving equations
a) z − (8i − 1)z − 8i = 0 (1)
4 2

2
Let z = y , equation (1) can be written as
y 2 − ( 8i − 1) y − 8i =
0
2
∆ =  − ( 8i − 1)  − 4 ( −8i )
= −63 + 16i
Finding square roots of ∆
Let ( a + bi ) =
2
−63 + 16i
 2 2 a 2 − b 2 =
a − b = −63 −63
 
⇔ 2ab = 16 ⇔ 2ab = 16
 2  2 2
65
a + b = ( −63) + (16 )
2 2 2
a + b =

a 2 − b 2 =−63
⇔ 2 2
a + b = 65
2a 2 =2 ⇒ a 2 =⇒
1 a=±1
−a 2 + b 2 =63
⇔ 2 2
a + b = 65
2b 2 = 128 ⇒ b 2 =64 ⇒ b =±8
Square roots of ∆ are ± (1 + 8i )
8i − 1 + 1 + 8i
=y1 = 8i ⇒ z 2 = 8i ⇒ z =± ( 2 + 2i )
2
8i − 1 − 1 − 8i 2
y2 = = −1 ⇒ z =−1 ⇒ z =±i
2
1 + log 2 (−x + 2 y ) = log 2 {2 x − 3 y }



b) 
 81
35 x+ y = − x−7 y


 3
log 2 2 + log 2 (−x + 2 y ) = log 2 (2 x − 3 y )

⇒
 5 x+ y
 = 34 ×3x+7 y
3


log 2 2 (−x + 2 y ) = log 2 (2 x − 3 y )
⇒
 5 x+ y
 = 34+ x+7 y
3


401
 2 ( − x + 2 y ) = 2 x − 3 y −4 x + 7 y = 0
⇒ ⇒
5 x + y = 4 + x + 7 y 4 x − 6 y =4
y = 4

x = 7
S = {( 7, 4 )}
x2 −1
17. Given f ( x ) =
x2 − 4
a) Domain of definition
Domf = {x ∈  : x 2
− 4 ≠ 0} =  \ {−2, 2}
b) Limits at boundaries
 1  1
2 x 2 1 − 2  1− 2
x −1  x  lim x 1
lim
= lim = =
x →±∞ x 2 − 4 x →±∞  4  x →±∞ 4
x 2 1 − 2  1− 2
 x  x

x2 −1 x2 −1
lim− 2
= +∞, lim+ 2
= −∞
x →−2 x − 4 x →−2 x − 4

x2 −1 x2 −1
lim− 2 = −∞, lim+ 2 = +∞
x→2 x − 4 x→2 x − 4

c) Asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes: x = −2 and x = 2
Horizontal asymptote: y = 1
d) Variation table
2 x ( x 2 − 4 ) − 2 x ( x 2 − 1)
f '( x) =
(x − 4)
2 2

2 x3 − 8 x − 2 x3 + 2 x −6 x
= =
( x2 − 4) (x − 4)
2 2 2

f '( x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0
Variation table

402
 e) x intercepts: f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1
2

y intercept: f ( 0 ) =
1
4
f) Curve
Additional points
x -5 -4.2 -3.6 -3.4 -3.2 -3 -2.8 -2.6 -2.4 -2.2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 0.6
y 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.7 4.6 -2.9 -1.1 -0.5 -0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2
x 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 4.2 5
y 0.1 0.0 -0.2 -0.5 -1.1 -2.9 4.6 2.7 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1
y
7

x2 −1
f ( x) =
3

2 x2 − 4
1
x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

18. a) 4men and 5 women

(i) Number of possible committee with no restrictions
9
is C3 = 84
(ii) Number of possible committee with 1 man and 2
4 5
40
women is C1 × C2 =

403
 (iii) Number of possible committee with 2 men and 1
woman if a certain man must be in the committee is
3
C1 × 5C1 =
15
9
b) (i) There are C3 = 84 of selecting 3 books from 9
8 1
28 of selecting 1 dictionary
books. There are C2 × C1 =
and other 2 books.
28 1
So, required probability is = .
84 3
5 3
30 of selecting 2 novels and 1
(iv) There are C2 × C1 =
poem book.
30 5
So, required probability is = .
84 14
x2 + x + 2
19. a) Given f ( x) =
x +1
c x2 + x + 2
ax + b + =
x +1 x +1
ax ( x + 1) + b ( x + 1) + c x 2 + x + 2
⇔ =
x +1 x +1
ax 2 + ax + bx + b + c x 2 + x + 2
⇔ =
x +1 x +1
ax + ( a + b ) x + b + c x 2 + x + 2
2

⇔ =
x +1 x +1
⇒ ax + ( a + b ) x + b + c = x + x + 2
2 2

= a 1= a 1
 
⇒ a + b = 1 ⇒ b = 0
= c 2
b + c 2 = 
Then,
 2  1 x2
∫ f ( x ) dx =
∫  x + 1  ∫
x + dx = x dx + 2 ∫ x + 1 2 + 2ln x + 1 + c
dx =

2 y dy y 2 dy  y 2  x dy y x
b) = 2 −1 ⇒ =  2 − 1 ⇒ = −
x dx x dx  x  2y dx 2 x 2 y
y x
f ( x, y=
) −
2x 2 y

404
 ty tx t0 y t0x
f ( tx, ty
= ) − ⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =−
2tx 2ty 2x 2 y
 y x 
⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =t0  −  ⇒ f ( tx, ty ) =
t 0 f ( x, y )
 2x 2 y 
Then, f ( x, y ) is homogeneous function of degree 0
y
To solve the given equation, put = z ⇒ y = zx
x
dy dz
= z+x
dx dx
Then,
dz zx x dz z 2 x − x
z+x = − ⇔ z+x =
dx 2 x 2 zx dx 2 xz
dz z 2 − 1 dz z 2 − 1
⇔ z+x = ⇔x = −z
dx 2z dx 2z
dz z 2 − 1 − 2 z 2 dz − z 2 − 1
⇔x = ⇔x =
dx 2z dx 2z
2z 1 2z 1
⇔ 2 dz = dx ⇔ − ∫ 2 dz =∫ dx
−z −1 x z +1 x
+ 1 ln x + ln k ⇔ ln z 2 + 1 =− ln kx
⇔ − ln z 2 =
2
 y y
ln ( kx ) =
−1
⇔ ln z 2 + 1 = ⇔   + 1 k −1=
x −1 , since z
x x
y2 −1 −1 y 2 + x2
⇔= 2
+ 1 cx = , c k ⇔ cx −1
=
x x 2

⇒ y 2 + x2 =
cx
20. a) Let X represent the random variable “the number
of calls between 09:00 hrs and 10:00 hrs on
weekday”. Then X  Po ( X ) and
λx
P ( X= x=
) e− λ ,=
x 0,1, 2,3, .
x!
The probability that the office receives 6 calls between
09:00 hrs and 10:00 hrs on this Wednesday is
56
P ( X= 6=
) e−5 = 0.146
6!

405
 b) The average number of calls between 09:15 hrs and
09:30 hrs on weekday is 1.25 . Let Y represent the
random variable “the number of calls in the given 15
minutes”
Then, the probability that the office will receive
exactly 3 calls between 09:15 hrs and 09:30 hrs is
(1.25)=
3

P (Y= 3=
) e −1.25
0.0933
3!
c) The required probability is
C2 ( 0.09326 ) ( 0.90674 ) = 0.0648
5 2 3

Answers for Summative Evaluation Three

1. 3 − 5x − x2 ≥ 0
( −5) − 4 ( −1)( 3) = 37
2
∆=
−5 + 37 −5 − 37
=x1 = , x2
2 2
Sign table
x −∞ −5 − 37 −5 + 37 +∞
2 2
_ _
3 − 5x − x 2 0 + 0

 −5 − 37 −5 + 37 
S= , 
 2 2 
2. Equation of a circle passing through the points ( 0,1) , ( 4,3)
and (1, −1)
2 2
General equation of a circle is x + y + ax + by + c =0
Using the tree points, we have
1 + b + c = 0 b + c =−1 ⇒ b =−1 − c

16 + 9 + 4a + 3b + c =0 ⇔ 4a + 3b + c =−25
1 + 1 + a − b + c =0 a − b + c =−2
 

406
 b =−1 − c b =−1 − c

⇔ 4a + 3 ( −1 − c ) + c =−25 ⇔ 
4a − 3 − 3c + c =−25
 a + 1 + c + c =−2
a − ( −1 − c ) + c =−2 
4a − 2c = −22
⇔
a + 2c =
−3
5a =−25 ⇒ a =−5
a + 2c = −3
⇒ −5 + 2c = −3
⇒ 2c = 2 ⇒ c = 1
b =−1 − c =−1 − 1 =−2
2 2
Then, the equation is x + y − 5 x − 2 y + 1 =0
x2 − x + 1
3. = k ⇔ x 2 − x + 1 = kx − k
x −1
⇔ x 2 + ( −1 − k ) x + 1 + k =0
This equation has repeated roots if the discriminant is zero;
∆ =0
∆ = ( −1 − k ) − 4 (1 + k ) = 1 + 2k + k 2 − 4 − 4k = k 2 − 2k − 3
2

k 2 − 2k − 3 =0
∆ = ( −2 ) − 4 ( −3) = 4 + 12 = 16
2

2+4 2−4
k1
= = 3 or k1 = = −1
2 2
Thus, the given equation has repeated roots if k ∈ {−1,3}
4. Consider the following augmented matrix
1 1 −1 : − 1
  r2= r2 − 3r1
 3 −2 1 : 0 
r3= r3 − 2r1
2 3 −3 : − 3 

1 1 −1 : − 1
 
 0 −5 4 : 3  r3 5r3 + r2
=
0 1 −1 : − 1 


407
  1 1 −1 : − 1
 
 0 −5 4 : 3 
 0 0 −1 : − 2 
 
The simplified system is
 x + y − z =−1

 − 5 y + 4z = 3
 − z =−2 ⇒ z =2

−5 y + 4 z =3 ⇒ −5 y + 8 =3 ⇒ y =1
x + y − z =−1 ⇒ x + 1 − 2 =−1 ⇒ x =0
Hence, S = {( 0,1, 2 )}
x2 + 2 ∞
5. lim = I .C
x →−∞ 3x − 6 ∞
2 2
2 −x 1+ − 1+ 2
x +2 2
x = lim x = −1
lim = lim
x →−∞ 3 x − 6 x →−∞  6 x →−∞ 6 3
x3−  3−
 x x
6. U n =−72 6n, S n = 378
U1 = 72 − 6 = 66
n n
Sn = (U1 + U n ) = ( 66 + 72 − 6n ) = 69n − 3n2
2 2
2
But S n = 378 , then 69n − 3n = 378
⇒ 3n 2 − 69n + 378 = 0 ⇒ n 2 − 23n + 126 =
0
⇒ ( n − 14 )( n − 9 ) =
0
Then, n = 9 or n = 14
7. ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) + ( y + 3)( y − 4 ) + ( z + 1)( z − 1) =
0
⇔ x 2 − 2 x − x + 2 + y 2 − 4 y + 3 y − 12 + z 2 − z + z − 1 =0
2 2 2
⇔ x − 3 x + 2 + y − y − 12 + z − 1 =0
9 9 1 1
⇔ x 2 − 3 x + − + 2 + y 2 − y + − − 12 + z 2 − 0 z − 1 = 0
4 4 4 4
 9 9  1 1
⇔  x 2 − 3 x +  − + 2 +  y 2 − y +  − − 12 + ( z 2 − 0 z ) − 1 =0
 4 4  4 4

408
 2 2
 3  −9 + 8  1  −1 − 48
+ ( z − 0) −1 =
2
⇔x−  + + y−  + 0
 2 4  2 4
2 2
 3  1 −9 + 8 −1 − 48 4
⇔  x −  +  y −  + ( z − 0) +
2
+ − =0
 2  2 4 4 4
2 2
 3  1 54
⇔  x −  +  y −  + ( z − 0) =
2

 2  2 4
3 1  54 3 6
Centre is  , , 0  and radius is =
2 2  4 2
8. This argument is not valid. The conclusion is false because
not only human beings are mortal. It is a converse error.

9. f ( x ) = sin 2 x tan x
sin 2 x sin x sin 2 x
=f ' ( x ) 2sin x cos x tan x + = 2sin x cos x +
1 + x2 cos x 1 + x 2
2  2 + 2x +1 
2
sin 2 x
= 2sin x + 2
= sin x  2 
1 + x2  1+ x 
 2x + 3 
2
= sin 2 x  2 
 1+ x 
10. a) Equation of the line joining the points A ( 3, 4,1) and
B ( 5,1, 6 )

Direction vector is AB= ( 2, −3,5)
Parametric equations
 x= 3 + 2r

 y= 4 − 3r where r is a parameter
 z = 1 + 5r

Or symmetric equations

409
 x − 3 4 − y z −1
= =
2 3 5
1
b) If z =0, 1 + 5r =0 ⇒ r =−
5
  1  13
 x =3 + 2  − 5  =5
  
  1  23
and  y =4 − 3  −  =
  5 5
z = 0


 13 23 
Then, the point is  , , 0 
5 5 
11. Given the function f ( x ) = cos 3 x
=f ( x ) cos
= x f ( 0) 1
f '( x) =
−3sin 3 x f ' ( 0) =
0
f '' ( x ) =
−9 cos 3 x f '' ( 0 ) =
−9
=f ''' ( x ) 27
= sin 3 x f ''' ( 0 ) 0
f ( ) ( x ) 81cos f ( ) ( 0 ) 81
4 4
= = 3x
f(
5)
( x) =−243sin 3 x f ( ) ( 0) =
4
0
f ( 6) ( x ) =
−729 cos 3 x f ( 5) ( 0 ) =
−729

0 −9 2 0 3 81 4 0 5 −729 6
cos x =
1+ x+ x + x + x + x + x + ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
9 x 2 27 x 4 81x 6
1−
= + − + ...
2 8 80
x2 + 1
12.
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3x = x ( x 2 + 4 x + 3) = x ( x + 1)( x + 3)
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
=
x3 + 4 x 2 + 3 x x ( x + 1)( x + 3)

410
 x2 + 1 A B C
=+ +
x ( x + 1)( x + 3) x x + 1 x + 3
A ( x + 1)( x + 3) + Bx ( x + 3) + Cx ( x + 1)
=
x ( x + 1)( x + 3)
x 2 + 1= A ( x + 1)( x + 3) + Bx ( x + 3) + Cx ( x + 1)
1
Let x = 0 , ⇒ 1= 3 A ⇒ A=
3
Let x = −1 , ⇒ 2 = −2 B ⇒ B =−1
5
Let x = −3 , ⇒ 10 = 6C ⇒ C =
3
2
x +1 1 1 5
Then, 3 2
= − +
x + 4 x + 3x 3x x + 1 3x + 9
x2 + 1 1 1 5
Hence; ∫ 3 2
dx =∫ dx − ∫ dx + ∫ dx
x + 4 x + 3x 3x x +1 3x + 9
1 1 1 5 1
= ∫ dx − ∫ dx + ∫ dx
3 x x +1 3 x+3
1 5
= ln x − ln x − 1 + ln x + 3 + c
3 3
2 − 2i
13. z =
1+ i
⇒z=
( 2 − 2i )(1 − i ) 2 − 2i − 2i − 2
⇒z= ⇒ z =−2i
(1 + i )(1 − i ) 2
π
z = 2, arg ( z ) = −
2
 π
=
Then, z 2 cis  − 
 2
ln16 x ln16
e +3 dx
14. Given that I = ∫ x dx and J = ∫ x
0
e +4 0
e +4
ln16 ln16 ln16
 ex + 3 1   ex + 4 
∫ dx= [ x] =
ln16
I +=
J ∫
0
 x + x
e +4 e +4
 dx
= ∫
0
 x
e +4
 dx
=
0
0
ln16

ln16 ln16
 ex + 3 3   ex 
− 3J
I= ∫
0
 x − x =
e +4 e +4
 dx ∫
0
 x  dx
e +4
= ln ( e x + 4 )  = ln ( eln16 + 4 ) − ln ( e0 + 4 )
ln16

411
 = ln (16 + 4 ) − ln 4= ln 20 − ln 4
20
= ln= ln 4
4
15. U
= {( a, b, c, d )=: b + c + d 0} and
W= {( a, b, c, d ) : a + b= 0, c= 2d }
We need to solve
b + c + d =0

a + b =0 ⇒ a =−b
c = 2 d

b+c+d = 0
⇒ b + 2d + d =0
⇒ b =−3d
a =−b ⇒ a =3d
Then U ∩ W= {( 3d , −3d , 2d , d ) : d ∈ } and dim (U ∩ W ) =
1
16. The quarterly, monthly,….rates of interest are found by
dividing the nominal annual rate by 4,12,…..
Interest Number of Value of investment after one year in
rate compounding Frw

a) Annually 1 100, 000 × (1 + 0.08 ) =

108, 000
4
 0.08 
b) Quarterly 4 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.02
= 4
108, 240
 4 
12
 0.08 
c) Monthly 12 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0067
= 12
108,300
 12 
52

52
 0.08  52
d) Weekly 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0015
= 108,320
 52 
365

365
 0.08  365
e) Daily 100,000 × 1 + =  100,000 ×1.0002
= 108,330
 365 
17. Advertisement sports ( xi ) and volume of sales in hundreds
( yi )

412
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
1 41 1 1681 41
2 50 4 2500 100
3 54 9 2916 162
4 54 16 2916 216
5 57 25 3249 285
6 63 36 3969 378
6 6 6 6 6

∑ xi = 21
i =1
∑ yi = 319
i =1
∑ xi2 = 91
i =1
∑ yi2 = 17231
i =1
∑x y
i =1
i i = 1182

21 7 319
x
a) Mean: = = ,=
y
6 2 6
2
91  7  35
σ = −  =
2
x
6  2  12
35 105
Standard deviation for xi is=
σx =
2
12 6
17231  319  1625
σ = 2
y −  =
6  6  36
1625 5 65
Standard deviation for yi=
is σ x = .
36 6
cov ( x, y )
b) Correlation coefficient is given by r =
σ xσ y
6

∑x y i i
( x, y )
cov= i =1
−x y
6
1182  21  319  7092 − 6699 393 131
cov ( x, y ) = −   = = =
6  6  6  36 36 12
Then,
131
131 36 393
r = 12 =× = ≈ 0.95
105 5 65 12 5 6825 5 6825
×
6 6
c) Regression line for y on x
131
cov ( x, y )
= y− y ( x − x ) ⇔ y − 319 
= 12  x − 
21 
35 
2
σx 6 6
12
413
 319 131  21  131 131 21 319
⇔ y− =  x −  ⇔= y x− × +
6 35  6  35 35 6 6
131 601
⇔= y x+
35 15
131 601
d) If x= 7, y= ×7 + ≈ 66
35 15
18. Given the vertices of the triangle: A (1, 2,3) , B ( −2,1, −4 ) and
C ( 3, 4, −2 )
 
a) (i) AB = ( −3, −1, −7 ) ⇒ AB = 9 + 1 + 49 = 59
 
AC = ( 2, 2, −5 ) ⇒ AC = 4 + 4 + 25 = 33
 
BC= ( 5,3, 2 ) ⇒ BC= 25 + 9 + 4= 38

The perimeter is 59 + 33 + 38 units of length

1 1 2 7 
b) Centre of gravity ( A + B + C=) ( 2,7, −=
3)  , , −1
3 3 3 3 
 
 −6 − 2 + 35 
( −1
c)  AB, AC = cos 
 59 × 33 
) 

−1  −32  0 −1  27 
= cos
=  132.5 = cos 
0
  = 52.3
 2242   1947 
Thus, θ1 = 52.30
   −15 − 3 − 14 
( )
 AB, BC = cos −1 
 59 × 38 


−1  −32  0
= cos
=   132.5
 2242 
 −32 
= cos −1   = 132.5
0

 2242 
Therefore, θ 2 = 47.5
   10 + 6 − 10  −1  10 
= ( )
 AC , BC cos −1= 
 33 × 38 
 cos
=   80.2
 1254 
0

Therefore, θ3 = 80.2
0

(or θ3 =1800 − 52.30 − 47.50 =80.20 ).

1  
d) The area of triangle ABC is given by AB × AC
2
414
   
i j k
1   1
AB × AC = −3 −1 −7
2 2
2 2 −5
1   
= ( 5 + 14 ) i − (15 + 14 ) j + ( −6 + 2 ) k
2
1    361 + 841 + 16 1218
= 19i − 29 j − 4k = = sq. units
2 2 2
1
19. f ( x) = x + x +1−
x+2
a) Domain of definition
Existence condition: x + 2 ≠ 0 ⇔ x ≠ −2
=  \ {−2} or Domf =
Then, Domf ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, +∞[
b) f ( x ) without the symbol of absolute value
 1
 x + x + 1 − x + 2 , x ≥ 0
f ( x) = 
 x − x + 1 − 1 , x < 0 or x ≠ −2
 x+2
 1
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ≥ 0
⇔ f ( x) =
1 − 1 , x < 0 or x ≠ −2
 x + 2
 1
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
Or f ( x ) = 
1 − 1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 x + 2
c) Limits on boundaries of domain of definition and
asymptotes
1
lim f ( x ) =
lim 1 − =
∞
x →−2 x →−2 x+2
Thus, V . A. ≡ x =−2
Table of sign for determining sided limits:

415
 From table of sign, we deduce that
lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim+ f ( x ) = −∞
x →−2− x →−2

1
lim f ( x ) = lim 1 − =0
x →−∞ x →−∞ x+2
Hence, for x → −∞ , there is H . A. ≡ y =
1
 1 
lim f ( x ) = lim  2 x + 1 −  = +∞
x →+∞ x →+∞
 x+2
Thus, for x → +∞ , there is no horizontal asymptote.
Let us check if there is an oblique asymptote
1
For x → +∞ , f ( x )= 2 x + 1 − ;
x+2
1
As lim =0, = y 2 x + 1 is oblique asymptote.
x →+∞ x + 2
 1  1  1 
lim+ f ( x) = lim 2 x + 1− 
 = = lim− f ( x) = lim 1− 
x→0 x→0  x + 2  2 x→0 x→0  x + 2 
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 0
d) Interval of increasing
 1
 1
2 + , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
2 x + 1 − x + 2 , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[  ( x + 2)
2

=f ( x)  = ⇒ f ' ( x) 
1  1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
1 − , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 x + 2  ( x + 2 )2

As f ( x ) > 0, ∀∈ Domf , f is increasing on its domain of
'

definition.
e) Concavity
 1
 2 + , x ∈ [ 0, +∞[
( )
2
 x + 2
f ' ( x) = 
 1 , x ∈ ]−∞, −2[ ∪ ]−2, 0[
 ( x + 2 )2

x+2 1
⇒ f " ( x ) =− =− , ∀x ∈ Domf
( x + 2) ( x + 2)
4 3

416
f) Table of variation

g) Curve sketching
Additional points:
For x < −2
x -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2.2
y 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 2 3 6
For x > −2
x -1.8 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y -4 -1 0 -0.7 0.5 1.6 2.7 3.7 4.8 5.8 6.8

Curve
y
9
8
7
6
5
VA ≡ x =−2

4
1
f ( x) = x + x +1− 3
x+2
2
1
HA ≡ y =
1
x
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
+1
2x

-7
y=

-8
≡
OA

-9

20. a) Let P ( x, y ) be any point on the parabola using focus-

directrix ( F − M ) property of the parabola: FP = PM .

417
 x − 2y + 3
( x + 1) + ( y + 2 )
2 2
Therefore, =
12 + ( −2 )
2

( x − 2 y + 3)
2

⇔ ( x + 1) + ( y + 2 )
2 2
=
5
x 2 + 4 y 2 + 9 − 4 xy + 6 x − 12 y
⇔ x2 + 2 x + 1 + y 2 + 4 y + 4 =
5
2 2 2 2
⇔ 5 x + 10 x + 5 y + 20 y + 25 = x + 4 y + 9 − 4 xy + 6 x − 12 y
⇔ 4 x 2 + y 2 + 4 xy + 4 x + 32 y + 16 =
0 which is the required
equation of the parabola.
b) Let P ( x, y ) be any point of focus and the given point
( 0, 4 ) be dented by A .
2
Then, PA= × distance of P from the line y = 9 .
3
2 y −9 4
⇔ x2 + ( y − 4) = × ⇔ x2 + ( y − 4) = × ( y − 9)
2 2 2

3 02 + 12 9
4 2
⇔ x 2 + y 2 − 8 y + 16=
9
( y − 18 y + 81)
⇔ 9 x 2 + 9 y 2 − 72 y + 144 = 4 y 2 − 72 y + 324
⇔ 9 x 2 + 5 y 2 − 180 = 0 which is the required equation of locus.
2 2 x2 y 2
c) The equation of hyperbola is x − 4 y =4 ⇔ − =1
4 1
Here,= a 2 4,= b 2 1 then,=a 2,= b 1.
Therefore, axes are 4 and 2.
5
b 2 a 2 ( e 2 − 1) or
= = 1 4 ( e 2 − 1) which gives e =
2
5
Thus, Eccentricity =
2
Since, coordinates of foci are given by ( ± ae, 0 ) , then they are
 5 
 ±2 ×

, 0  or ± 5, 0
2  ( )
2b 2 2 ×1
Length of latus rectum is = = 1
a 2
Alternative method:
x2 y 2
From − =, a 2,=
1= b 1;
4 1

418
 2
For hyperbola c= a 2 + b2
Here, c 2 = 4 + 1 = 5 or c = 5
ᅧ Axes are 2a = 4 and 2b = 2
ᅧ Coordinates of foci F ( ±c, 0 ) =± 5, 0 ( )
c 5
ᅧ Eccentricity e= =
a 2
2b 2 2 ×1
ᅧ Length of latus rectum is equal to = = 1
a 2

Answers for Summative Evaluation Four

20
 1
( x + x −1 )
20
1. x+  =
 x

= 20Cr x r ( x −1 )
20 − r
= 20Cr x r x −20+ r = 20Cr x 2 r − 20
0 or r = 10
For the independent term, 2r − 20 =
20 20!
C10
Then, the independent term is= = 184756
10!10!
If 6 x + 7 x + ax + b is divisible by x − 2 , the remainder is
3 2
2.
6 ( 2 ) + 7 ( 2 ) + 2a + b =
3 2
72
48 + 28 + 2a + b = 72
⇒ 2a + b =−4
Also, 6 x 3 + 7 x 2 + ax + b is exactly divisible by x + 1 then
6 ( −1) + 7 ( −1) − a + b =
3 2
0
−6 + 7 − a + b =0
⇒ −a + b = −1
2a + b =−4 2a + b =−4
 ⇒ 
−a + b =−1 a − b =1
3a =−3 ⇒ a =−1
a = −1
−a + b =−1 ⇒ 1 + b =−1 ⇒ b =−2 
b = −2
3. sin x + 3 cos x =
1
π
Let 3 tan α ⇒ α=
=
3

419
 sin α
sin x + tan α cos x =
1 ⇒ sin x + cos x =
1
cos α
⇒ sin x cos α + sin α cos x = cos α
 π π
⇒ sin ( x + α )= cos α ⇒ sin  x + = cos
 3 3
 π 1
⇒ sin  x +  =
 3 2
π  π
 + 2 kπ − 6 + 2kπ
π 6
x+
=  , k ∈ x=
3  5π  π + 2 kπ
+ 2 kπ
 6  2
 π π 
S =− + 2kπ , + 2kπ  , k ∈ 
 6 2 
4. A matrix has no inverse if its determinant is zero
11 − x 2 8
2 2 − x −10 =
0
8 −10 5 − x
⇒ (11 − x )( 2 − x )( 5 − x ) − 160 − 160 − 64 ( 2 − x ) − 100 (11 − x ) − 4 ( 5 − x ) =
0

⇒ 110 − 65 x + 5 x 2 − 22 x + 13x 2 − x3 − 320 − 128 + 64 x − 1100 + 100 x − 20 + 4 x =

0
⇒ − x3 + 18 x 2 + 81x − 1458 =0
⇒ x3 − 18 x 2 − 81x + 1458 =
0
9 is one of the roots
1 -18 -81 1458

9 9 -81 -1458
1 -9 -162 0
x3 − 18 x 2 − 81x + 1458 = ( x − 9 ) ( x 2 − 9 x − 162 )
x 2 − 9 x − 162 = 0 ⇒ ( x + 9 )( x − 18 ) = 0 ⇒ x = −9 or x = 18
Thus, the given matrix is singular if x ∈ {−9,9,18}
log ( x + y ) = 1
5. 
log 2 x + 2 log 4 y =
4
log ( x + y ) =1 ⇔ log ( x + y ) =log10 ⇒ x + y =10

420
 log 2 x + 2 log 4 y =
4 log 2 y
⇔ log 2 x + 2
= 4
log 2 y 2
⇔ log 2 x + 2 4
=
log 2 4 ⇔ log 2 x + log 2 y = 4 log 2 2
log 2 24
⇔ log 2 xy =
⇒ xy = 16
Now,
 x + y = 10 ⇒ x = 10 − y

 xy = 16
(10 − y ) y =16 ⇒ 10 y − y 2 − 16 =0 ⇒ y 2 − 10 y + 16 =0
( y − 2 )( y − 8) =
0
y − 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 2 ⇒ x = 10 − y = 10 − 2 = 8
y −8 = 0 ⇒ y = 8
⇒ x = 10 − 8 = 2

6. x2 − x − 3 =0
We know that for the equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c =0,
b c
if α and β are the roots, then, α + β =− and αβ =
a a
1 and αβ = −3
Here, α + β =
(α + β ) =α 3 + 3α 2 β + 3αβ 2 + β 3
3

⇔ (α + β ) − 3α 2 β − 3αβ 2 =
3
α3 + β3
⇔ α 3 + β 3 = (α + β ) − 3αβ (α + β )
3

⇔ α 3 + β 3 = (1) − 3 ( −3)(1)= 10
3

Then, α + β =
3 3
10

7. x2 + 4 y 2 − 4x + 8 y + 4 =0
⇔ x 2 − 4 x + 4 y 2 + 8 y + 4 =0 ⇔ x 2 − 4 x + 4 + 4 ( y 2 + 2 y ) =0

⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) − 1 =0 ⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) − 4 =0
2 2 2 2
 
( x − 2 ) + ( y + 1) =1
2 2

⇔ ( x − 2 ) + 4 ( y + 1) =4 ⇔
2 2

4 1
The centre is ( 2, −1)
a 2 4,=
= b2 1

421
 a 2 − b2 4 −1 3
=
The eccentricity is e = =
a2 4 2
Foci are ( 2e + 2, −1) and ( −2e + 2, −1)
Or ( ) (
3 + 2, −1 and − 3 + 2, −1 )
8. Tangent and normal line to the curve 3 x 2 − xy − 2 y 2 + 12 =
0
at point ( 2,3)

( 3x 2
− xy − 2 y 2 + 12 ) ' = 6 x − ( y + xy ') − 4 yy '
6 x − y − xy '− 4 yy ' = 0 ⇒ xy '+ 4 yy ' = 6 x − y
6x − y
⇒ y '( x + 4 y ) = 6x − y ⇒ y ' =
x + 4y
6 ( 2) − 3 9
y(/2,3)
= =
2 + 4 ( 3) 14
9 14
3
T ≡ y −= ( x − 2) N ≡ y − 3 =−( x − 2)
14 9
9 9 14 28
≡ y= x− +3 ≡y=− x+ +3
14 7 9 9
9 12 14 55
≡ y= x+ ≡y=− x+
14 7 9 9
1 1 1
9. ∫0 ( 2 x + k )2 dx = 3
1
1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
∫0 ( 2 x + k )2 dx =
−  
2  2x + k 0
=
−  − =
2 2+k k 
− +
4 + 2k 2k
1 1 1
⇒− + =
4 + 2k 2k 3
−2k + 4 + 2k 1 4 1
⇒ = ⇒ =
2k ( 4 + 2k ) 3 2k ( 4 + 2k ) 3

⇒ 4k 2 + 8k =12 ⇒ 4k 2 + 8k − 12 =0 ⇒ k 2 + 2k − 3 =0
⇒ ( k + 3)( k − 1) =0 ⇒ k =−3 or k =1
10. z6 = 1
2 kπ kπ
=zk cis
= cis= , k 0,1, 2,3, 4,5
6 3

422
 z0 cis
= = 0 1
π 1 3 2π 1 3
z1= cis = +i z =cis =− + i
2
2
3 2 3 2 2
3π 4π 1 3
z3 = cis = −1 z4 =cis =− − i
3 3 2 2
5π 1 3
z2= cis = −i
3 2 2
 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 
S= 1, + i ,− +i , −1, − − i , −i 
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
11. u1 and d be the first term and the common difference
respectively
u1 + ( u1 + d ) + ( u1 + 2d ) + ( u1 + 3d ) + ( u1 + 4d ) + ( u1 + 5d ) =
72
⇒ 6u1 + 15d =
72
But u2 = 7u5 or
u1 + d = 7 ( u1 + 4d ) ⇒ u1 + d − 7u1 − 28d = 0 ⇒ −6u1 − 27 d = 0
6u1 + 15d = 72

−6u1 − 27 d =0
− 12d = 72 ⇒ d =−6
6u1 + 15d = 72 ⇒ 6u1 − 90 = 72 ⇒ u1 = 27
lim cos x ln ( tan x )
cos x π

( tan x ) ln ( tan x ) cos x ln ( tan x )

cos x x→
12. lim
=
π
lim
=
π
e lim
=
π
e e 2

x→ x→ x→
2 2 2

lim cos x ln ( tan x ) = 0 × ∞ IC

π
x→
2
( tan x ) '
ln ( tan x )
lim cos
= = lim tan x
x ln ( tan x ) lim L'H o pital's rule
x→
π
x→
π 1 x→
π sin x
2 2 2
cos x cos 2 x
cos 2 x
= lim
x→
π cos 2 x tan x sin x
2

1 1
= lim = = 0
x → tan x sin x
π π π
2 tan sin
2 2

423
 Then, limπ ( tan x ) = e= 1
0 cos x

x→
2

=
13. x 6.2,
= σ x 3.03315,
= y 2.04,
= σ y 0.461519 and
rxy = 0.957241
cov ( x, y )
The regression line of y on x =
is y − y (x − x)
σ x2
cov ( x, y )
But rxy = ⇔ cov ( x, y ) = rxyσ xσ y
σ xσ y
rxyσ xσ y
y− y
Then,= (x − x) or
σ x2
rxyσ y rxyσ y
y=
−y (x − x) ⇔
= y (x − x)+ y
σx σx
0.957241× 0.461519
=⇒y ( x − 6.2 ) + 2.04
3.03315
⇒
= y 0.145 x + 1.141
(S )
14. Let S be the sample space, then n =
52
C2 1326
=
Let E be the event of getting two Kings.
n (=
E) 4
C2 6
=
6 1
(E)
Then, P= =
1326 221
15. Let θ be the angle between vectors (2, 5) and (−1, 3)

=cos θ
(=2,5 ) ⋅ ( −1,3)
=
−2 + 15 13 290
( 2,5) ( −1,3) 4 + 25 1 + 9 290
 13 290 
= θ cos −1  =  40.24
= deg 0.70 rad
 290 
16. y = x − 5 x + 4 and y =
2
−2 x 2 + 5 x + 1
Intersection:
x 2 − 5 x + 4 =−2 x 2 + 5 x + 1 ⇒ 3x 2 − 10 x + 3 =0
1
⇒ ( x − 3)( 3x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 3 or x =
3
1
The curves intersect = at x 3= and x
3

424
 The area of the region enclosed between the two curves is:

∫ ( −2 x + 5 x + 1 − x 2 + 5 x − 4 ) dx = ∫ ( −3x + 10 x − 3) dx
3 3
2 2
1/3 1/3
3
= − x3 + 5 x 2 − 3x 
1/3

3 2
1 1 1
=−33 + 5 ( 3) − 3 ( 3) +   − 5   + 3  
2

3 3 3

1 5
=−27 =45 − 9 + − + 1
27 9
256
= sq. units
27
17. a) i) P ( A ∪ C =) P ( A) + P ( C ) − P ( A ∩ C )
But P ( A ∩ C ) =
0 since A and C are mutually exclusive
events
2 1 13
P ( A ∪ C ) = P ( A) + P ( C ) = + =
3 5 15
Since A and B are independent events,
P ( A ∩ B)
P (=
A ∩ B ) P ( A ) P ( B ) ⇒=
P ( B)
P ( A)
P ( A ∪ B=
) P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )
P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A ∪ B=
) P ( A) + − P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A)
4 2 P ( A ∪ B)
=+ − P ( A ∪ B)
5 3 2
3

425
 4 2 3
⇒ −= P ( A ∪ B) − P ( A ∪ B)
5 3 2
2 P ( A ∪ B)
⇒ =
15 2
4
⇒ P ( A ∪ B) =
15
4
P ( A ∩ B ) 15 2
P ( B=) = =
P ( A) 2 5
3
ii) B and C are independent events if
P(B ∩C) =
P ( B ) P (C )
2 1 2
P ( B ) P (C ) = × =
5 5 25
P ( B ∩ C= ) P ( B ) + P (C ) − P ( B ∪ C )
2 1 13 2
=
+ − =
5 5 25 25
P(B ∩C) =
P ( B ) P (C )
Thus, B and C are independent events.
b) Let X i , i = 1, 2,3 be the event “patient have the virus”
and let D be the vent “selected patient recovers”.
We need P ( X 3 | D )
1 1
P ( D | X3 ) P ( X3 ) ×
8 8 1
P ( X3 | D) =
= =
3
1 1 3 3 1 1 26
∑i =1
P ( D | Xi ) × + × + ×
2 2 8 8 8 8
18. a) Given the points A ( 2, −3, −1) , B ( 3, −4, 2 ) and
C ( 4, −5, 2 )
 
(i) AB = (1, −1,3) , AC = ( 2, −2,3)

426
 
i 1 2
  
AB × AC = j −1 −2

k 3 3
 −1 −2  1 2  1 2
= i −j +k
3 3 3 3 −1 −2
  
= i ( −3 + 6 ) − j ( 3 − 6 ) + k ( −2 + 2 )
 
= 3i + 3 j
1  
(ii) The area of triangle ABC is given by AB × AC
2
1   1   1 3 2
AB × AC= 3i + 3 j= 9 +=
9 sq. units
2 2 2 2
b) We have points A ( 2,1,1) , B ( 0,5,3)

(i) Direction vector is AB = ( −2, 4, 2 )

Parametric equations:

 x= 2 − 2r
 r is a parameter
 y = 1 + 4r ,
 z = 1 + 2r

(ii) Given C ( 5, −4, 2 )
   
Vectors CD is perpendicular to vector AB if CD ⋅ AB =0
Let D ( x, y, z ) be the point on line AB then

CD =( x − 5, y + 4, z − 2 ) and
 
CD ⋅ AB = −2 ( x − 5 ) + 4 ( y + 4 ) + 2 ( z − 2 )
=−2 x + 10 + 4 y + 16 + 2 z − 4
=−2 x + 4 y + 2 z + 22
But
 x= 2 − 2r

 y = 1 + 4r
 z = 1 + 2r


427
 Then
−2 ( 2 − 2r ) + 4 (1 + 4r ) + 2 (1 + 2r ) + 22 =
0
x = 4
⇒ −4 + 4r + 4 + 16r + 2 + 4r + 22 =0 
 y = −3
⇒ 24r + 24 = 0  z = −1

⇒ r =−1
And point D has coordinates ( 4, −3, −1)

(iii) If the plane π contains the line AB, the vector CD is
perpendicular to the plane π since this vector is also
perpendicular to the line AB. So this is a contradiction, no
plane can contain the line AB and be parallel to CD.
2π 2π 2π
=
19. U cis
= cos + i sin
5 5 5
1 1 2π 2π
=
a) = cos − i sin
U cos 2π + i sin
2π 5 5
5 5
1 1 1 2π 2π 2π 2π 
 U +=  cos + i sin + cos − i sin 
2 U 2 5 5 5 5 
1 2π  2π
= = 2 cos  cos as required
2 5  5
5
5 2π 2π 
b) U
=  cos + i sin 
 5 5 
5 × 2π 5 × 2π
=cos + i sin =cos 2π + i sin 2π =1
5 5
2π
c) Since U = cis
5
0 × 2π 1× 2π 2 × 2π 4π
=U 0 cis =, U 1 cis = 1,= U 2 cis = cis ,
5 5 5 5
3 × 2π 6π 4 × 2π 8π
= U 3 cis= cis= , U 4 cis= cis
5 5 5 5
These are five fifth roots of unit. Then, their sum must be
zero. Hence, U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 = 0
8π 6π 4π 2π
d) U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 = cis + cis + cis + cis +1
5 5 5 5

428
 8p 6p 4p
U 4 + U 3 + U 2 + U + 1 = cos + cos + cos
5 5 5
2p  8p 6p 4p 2p 
+ cos + 1 + i sin + sin + sin + sin 
5  5 5 5 5
Take the real party
8π 6π 4π 2π
cos + cos + cos + cos +1 = 0
5 5 5 5
We know that= cos α cos ( 2π − α ) , then
8π  8π  2π
cos = cos  2π − =  cos
5  5  5
6π  6π  4π
cos = cos  2π − =  cos
5  5  5
4π 2π
Also, cos
= 2α 2 cos 2 α − 1 ⇒ cos
= 2 cos 2 −1
5 5
2π 2π 2π 2π
cos + 2 cos 2 − 1 + 2 cos 2 − 1 + cos + 1 =0
5 5 5 5
2π 2π
⇒ 4 cos 2 + 2 cos − 1 =0
5 5
1 2π
But x =U + = 2 cos
U 5
2π 2π 2
Then, 4 cos 2 + 2 cos − 1 = x 2 + x − 1 or x + x − 1 =0
5 5
2
e) x + x − 1 =0
∆ = 1+ 4 = 5
−1 + 5 −1 − 5
=x1 = , x2
2 2
−1 − 5 is to be rejected.
x2 =
2
−1 + 5 2π −1 + 5 2π −1 + 5
For x1 = , 2 cos = ⇒ cos =
2 5 2 5 4
20. a) Taking 5 men together, 4 women together, 3 children
together we have 3! ways.
But 5 men can be permuted among them in 5! ways,

429
 4 women can be permuted among them in 4! ways and 3
children can be permuted among them in 3! ways
The total ways is 3!5!4!3! = 103680 ways
 x C y = xC y +1
b)  x
 4 ( C y ) = 5 ( C y −1 )
x

x x x! x!
Cy = C y +1 ⇔ =
y !( x − y ) ! ( y + 1) !( x − y − 1) !
⇒ ( y + 1) !( x − y − 1)=! y !( x − y ) !
⇒ ( y + 1) y !( x − y − 1)=! y !( x − y )( x − y − 1) !
⇒ y +1 = x − y
⇒ − x + 2 y = −1
x! x!
4 ( x Cy ) =
5 ( xC y −1 ) ⇔ 4 5
=
y !( x − y ) ! ( y − 1)!( x − y + 1)!
⇒ 4 ( y − 1) !( x − y + 1=
)! 5 y !( x − y )!
⇒ 4 ( y − 1) !( x − y + 1)( x − y ) ! = 5 y ( y − 1) !( x − y ) !
⇒ 4 ( x − y + 1) =5y
⇒ 4x − 4 y + 4 =5y
⇒ 4x − 9 y = −4
− x + 2 y =−1 −4 x + 8 y =−4
 ⇔
4 x − 9 y =−4 4 x − 9 y =−4
− y =−8 ⇒ y =8
− x + 2 y =−1
⇒ − x + 16 = −1
⇒x= 17
Thus, S = {(17,8 )}

c) Cm + 2 ( n − 2Cm −1 ) + n − 2Cm − 2 =
n−2 n
Cm
( n − 2 )! + 2 ( n − 2 )!
+
( n − 2 )!
m !( n − m − 2 ) ! ( m − 1) !( n − m − 1) ! ( m − 2 ) !( n − m ) !
n! n! n!
2
n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)
= + +
m !( n − m ) ! m ! ( n − m ) ! m !( n − m ) !
( n − m )( n − m − 1) m n − m m ( m − 1)
430
 n !( n − m )( n − m − 1) 2n ! m ( n − m ) n !m ( m − 1)
= + +
m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1) m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1) m !( n − m ) !n ( n − 1)

n!  ( n − m )( n − m − 1) + 2m ( n − m ) + m ( m − 1) 
=  
m !( n − m ) !  n ( n − 1) 
n!  n 2 − nm − n − mn + m 2 + m + 2mn − 2m 2 + m 2 − m 
=  
m !( n − m ) !  n ( n − 1) 
n!  n2 − n  n!
=  2  =
m !( n − m ) !  n − n  m !( n − m ) !
= nCm as required

431
References

[1] A. J. Sadler, D. W. S. Thorning: Understanding Pure

Mathematics, Oxford University Press 1987.
[2] Arthur Adam Freddy Goossens: Francis Lousberg.
Mathématisons 65. DeBoeck,3e edition 1991.
[3] David Rayner, Higher GCSE Mathematics, Oxford University
Press 2000
[4] Frank Ebos, Dennis Hamaguchi, Barbana Morrison & John
Klassen, Mathematics Principles & Process, Nelson Canada
A Division of International Thomson Limited 1990
[5] George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir & Joel R. Hass, Thomas’
Calculus Twelfth Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. 2010
[6] Geoff Mannall & Michael Kenwood, Pure Mathematics 2,
Heinemann Educational Publishers 1995
[7] H.K. DASS...Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi, S.
CHAND&COMPANY LTD, thirteenth revised edition 2007.
[8] Hubert Carnec, Genevieve Haye, Monique Nouet,
ReneSeroux, Jacqueline Venard. Mathématiques TS
Enseignement obligatoire.Bordas Paris 1994.
[9] Jean Paul Beltramonde, VincentBrun, ClaudeFelloneau,
LydiaMisset, Claude Talamoni. Declic 1re S Mathématiques.
Hachette-education, Paris 2005.
[10] JF Talber & HH Heing, Additional Mathematics 6th Edition
Pure & Applied, Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 1995
[11] J.K. Backhouse, SPTHouldsworth B.E.D. Copper and P.J.F.
Horril. Pure Mathematics 2.Longman, third edition 1985,
fifteenth impression 1998.
[12] M.Nelkon, P. Parker. Advanced Level Pysics, Seventh Edition.
Heinemann 1995
[13] Mukasonga Solange. Mathématiques 12, Analyse
Numérique. KIE, Kigali2006.
[14] Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique. Advanced
Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s Book
4, Fountain Publishers Ltd, 2016.
[15] Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique. Subsidiary
Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s Book
4, Fountain Publishers Ltd, 2016.
[16] Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique. Advanced
Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s book
Senior Five, Fountain Publishers Ltd, 2017.

432
[17] Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique. Subsidiary
Mathematics for Rwanda Secondary Schools Learner’s book
Senior Five, Fountain Publishers Ltd, 2017.
[18] N. PISKOUNOV, Calcul Différential et Integral tom II 9ème
édition.Editions MIR. Moscou, 1980.
[19] Paule Faure- Benjamin Bouchon,Mathématiques Terminales
F. Editions Nathan, Paris 1992.
[20] Peter Smythe: Mathematics HL & SL with HL options, Revised
Edition, Mathematics Publishing Pty. Limited, 2005.
[21] Rwanda Education Board (2015), Teacher training manual,
Ministry of Education: Rwanda.
[22] Rwanda Education Board (2015), Subsidiary Mathematics
Syllabus S4-S6, Ministry of Education: Rwanda.
[23] Robert A. Adms & Christopher Essex, Calculus A complete
course Seventh Edition, Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto,
Ontario 2010
[24] Seymour Lipschutz. Schaum’s outline of Theory and
Problems of linear algebra.McGraw-Hill 1968.
[25] Shampiyona Aimable : Mathématiques 6.Kigali, Juin 2005.
[26] Tom Duncan, Advanced Physics, Fourth edition. John
Murray (Publishers) Ltd, London 1998
[27] Yves Noirot, Jean–Paul Parisot, Nathalie Brouillet. Cours de
Physique Mathématiques pour la Physique. Paris, DUNOD,
1997.

433